Exam 2
Telegraphic speech
two-word utterances (2 y +)
Developmental
attachment patterns parenting goals (fit in with the group vs being an individual) parenting practices
Theory of mind
Knowledge about people in terms of their inner, mental lives (ex. desires, emotions, beliefs, thoughts)
Egocentrism
- "to center on oneself"; difficulty in perceiving world from another person's pov - ex. three mountains task -spacial perspective taking - young children wrongly assume other person has same view as their own
What do Baldwin's studies reveal about the connection between the development of joint attention skills and language learning in young children?
- 18 m understand that the word a speaker utters refers to what the speaker is LOOKING AT vs what OCCUPIES THE INFANT'S OWN ATTENTION - 18m will not learn new words if they can't determine the speaker's attentional focus - strong evidence for the role of joint attention is language learning
How do transgender children compare to cisgender children in gender identity?
- 5 to 12 yr old transgender children identify with expressed gender on explicit and implicit measures - Responses the same as cisgender children with the same gender identity
Describe the developmental transition from holophrases to the ability to speak in multiple word utterances using grammar rules.
- Holophrases (start around 12 m) -single word "sentences" often accompanied by gestures - two word utterances (2 years +) - often in form of "replacement sequences" where child builds on earlier utterances to form one complete sentence: - ex. wings. dragon wings. dragon wings fly - acquisition of more complex grammar rules (3- to 4+ y) - ex. articles, prepositions, past tense, possessive
Relational aggression
- Intentionally try to harm others' friendships or deliberately exclude another child from the group - Girls more likely to use
Cognitive formation of gender identity in boys and girls
- Knowledge and concepts about sex roles influence learning - Gender schemas: dev. and changed through observation, imitation, and reinforcement - Better remember schema-consistent patterns (boy is a firefighter vs. boy is a nurse)
Measurement issuses
- Operational definitions •Even for basic constructs can be difficult to define—does it mean the same thing across cultures? (e.g., shame, aggression) - Translation of measures •Literal (word for word) (bad) •Back-translation (2x translation—e.g., English to Chinese and Chinese back to English) •Adapted (mostly word for word with some changes made to be more culturally appropriate) (consistent) •By committee (include local experts, helps with quality of translation) (fixed problem strategies)
How do beliefs in "optimal development" depend on the culture and living conditions of a particular group of people (e.g., poverty stricken areas of Brazil versus U.S.)?
- Poorer cultures will have to worry more about food, basic nutrition (goals will be less focused on sports or school) while the US focuses more on school - different societies will have different goals; drives parenting behavior - survival vs. survival plus (higher levels of cognitive development)
Physical aggression
- Tends to decrease with age as children learn other ways to resolve conflicts (including teasing and verbal aggression) - Boys more likely to use
Self-control
- ability to inhibit one's impulses - becomes more effortful starting around age 2 - dev. strategies: - resist temptation (forbidden toy method) - Delay gratification
Language explosion
- approx. 18 m - vocab more than doubles within a few months - from 1.5 y to 10, children add an average of 10 words per day!
Preoperational Thought
- approx. 2-6 - increase in representational or symbolic activity -dev in language, pretense, problem-solving - BUT... typically described in relation to what young children can't understand- not capable of true mental operations
Mutual-exclusivity principle
- assume an object can only have one name- when you hear a new label assume it is for the object you don't know
Cattegorizing (taxonomic) principle
- assume object labels extend to entire class - depends on child's knowledge about categories a contrastive terms
Statistical Learning
- attending to the statistical regularities of speech sounds, music sounds, etc. - tracking of sound sequence help infants locate word boundaries in streams of speech and learn the structure of language - syllable combinations that are part of the same word occur more frequently than syllable combinations that occur between words
Real world implications
- become better problem solvers as well as more capable liars and deceivers - become more aware of social conventions ex. masking disappointment - correlated with higher competence and positive peer relationships
Realism
- belief that mental representations (ex. thoughts, dreams) can be tangible
Overextension Def, ex.
- child uses single label to refer to many other entities that share a common form, texture, or function ex. - daddy= all men - kitty= all four legged animals - ball= anything round - Kick= sudden sharp contact between limb and object to propel an object, to wave a limb
Underextension def, ex
- child uses verbal label in a narrower way than adults ex. - bottle= only child's own bottle - dog= only family's dog
findings of false belief tasks
- children 3 years and younger consistently failed false belief tasks - sees world as a singular reality-believe that the mind represents the world exactly as it is - starting around age 4, children consistently pass false belief tasks - understanding that a person's mind can misrepresent reality
Markman studies
- children don't consider endless possibilities - three cognitive principles help narrow the guesses children make: - whole object principle - categorizing principle - mutual-exclusivity principle
Recent advances in our understanding of children's thought
- cognition btwn 2 and 6: - more sophisticated than Piaget believed - more continuous, rather than stage-like - more domain-specific, rather than domain general
Precausal reasoning
- confuse cause and effect; or reasoning from one particular to another ("it isnt afternoon because i haven't had my nap" "im a grownup because i touched a knife")
Dev of language sounds
- crying and "vegetative sounds" - cooing (starts around 1-2 m) - simple articulation (starts around 3 m) - Babbling (starts around 6 m) -dadada, bababa - differences for deaf vs hearing children - Expressive jargon (starts around 9-12 m) - babbling with intonation and prosody of language - First words (starts around 12 m)
Self-concept
- emergence of autobiographical memory - Dev. of a sense of "self" through time - parent child conversations bout the past can influence how and what children remember - gender differences in emphasis on emotion (particularly sadness) in parent child reminiscing with girls vs boys
Infant-directed speech
- exaggerated intonations, short simple sentences, pitch peak at end of utterance, repetition to capture and maintain infant attention - not just present in US cultures - parents often combine gestures with language that helps infants learn new words
centration
- focus attention on only one aspect at a time; cant coordinate two perspectives - ex. conservation task - young children don't understand that quantitative properties of objects are NOT altered by change in appearance
Nativist theory
- humans are biologically prepared to learn language and do so with innate language-specific learning mechanisms - human born with "primitive knowledge" about the structure, or syntax of language (universal grammar) - environment "triggers" the innate mechanisms and provides the input
Early foundation of psychological understanding
- imitation - attention to eye gaze and intention - social referencing - pointing/gesturing - joint attention - desires and emotions - pretense
how do young children describe themselves
- in preschool years often focus on how they look, what they can do, what they like?dislike- rarely use generalized trait terms - tend to be unrealistically positive in their self-evaluations (social comparison more common in middle childhood)
Interactionist theory
- innate abilities + environmental influences - interact! - focus on: - Connection between language and cognitive dev - language as a social process- learning shaped and influenced by parents, other adults, siblings, etc.
Dual representation At what age are young children capable of using a scale model to retrieve an object from a larger room?
- knowledge that a picture or scale model can be BOTH an object itself and a SYMBOL or representation of something else Findings: - 2.5 yr old typically fail to use the scale model as a symbol of the larger room- cannot successfully retrieve the toy - 3 yr old typically succeed on this task, revealing knowledge that something can be both an object itself and a SYMBOL of something else (achieve knowledge of dual representation) - But,if tricked into thinking that the model and the actual room are one and the same then children younger than 3 can pass (ex. shrinking room study)
Social learning formation of gender identity in boys and girls
- learning of sex roles through observation and imitation - parents model/reinforce sex-appropriate behavior - treat boys and girls differently, even before birth sometimes - name, nursery colors, clothing, and toys
Learning Theory Critisisms
- learning theory alone could not explain language acquisition
Role of the environment
- necessary to be included in normal activities AND have direct exposure to language (hear it or see it) - Deaf children raised by hearing parents (no ASL) spontaneously dev. "home signs" but fail to dev complex grammar - Deaf children raised with ASL learn language as quickly as hearing children
individual differences
- parent-child interactions - siblings - peers - culture - perceptual deficits -blindness - deafness - biology
Evidence to support NATURE view and NURTURE view on the dev, of sex-typed behavior in children
- parental expectations about boy vs girls affect their caretaking (even prenatally) - cross-culture comparisons have found wide variation on what is considered "masculine" and "feminine" (also changes historically) - Maternal education and employment linked to more "sex-egalitarian" views in both boys and girls - Parents and schools that attempt to promote "sex egalitarianism" have had mixed results with preschoolers
How is this different for deaf
- parents sign more slowly, us more repetitions and greater exaggeration of movements with their deaf children vs deaf adult friends
Why is a good thing that they do? What is meant by "maintenance-loss?"
- perceptual ablility is present before onset of experience (ie young infants can discriminate speech sounds in lang. they have never heard) - experience is necessary to maintain capability
Skeletal principles
- provide domain-specific support for dev. - get cognitive process started and provide some initial direction, but subsequent experience is needed to realize the potential
How has research on AUTISM revealed that psychological understanding may be domain specific?
- severe problems in social relationships - severe deficits in understanding cognitive mental states (especially false belief) and emotions when compared to normal children and children with other forms of mental retardation of the same MA - early mark of AUTISM: limited eye contact, lack of (or minimal) social referencing, gesturing/ joint attention; language delays
Situational compliance vs committed compliance
- shift from external control to internalization of standards - often include the use of "private speech" to self-instruct
Fast Mapping
- the way in which children quickly learn an unfamiliar word with very little input
Domain specificity
- there are no central, stage-like cognitive changes that apply to all domains - each cognitive domain: - applies to different objects - follows different principles - organizes experience/events in different ways
Whole-object principle
- when hear an new word assume the word refers to the whole object not just one part
Critical periods in language acquisition? What is some research evidence from first language learning and second language learning?
-Research on learning a second language -cannot acquire the same level of complex grammar, correct accent, or discriminate all phonemes if learn 2nd language after vs. before puerty - Research on language learning and the brain - language organized differently in the brain for people learning 2nd language "early" vs "late" - suggest different cognitive processes for late language learning
Biological accounts
-cognitive dev related to brain maturation - in early childhood - brain increases in weight and myelination - by age 6 brain = 90% of adult weight - immaturity of different parts of brain account for cognitive deficiencies in early childhood - low level of myelination in hippocampus related to problems in working memory - low level of myelination in frontal cortex related to difficulties in perspective taking and inhibitory control
What are the AAP recommendations regarding how long to breastfeed an infant?
AAP recommends exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months; and breastfeeding for at least one year
At what age do children start to label themselves as boy versus girl? How does this relate to their behavior at this age?
Age 3: correctly label people as boy/girl based on hair, clothes, not biology - segregate self into same sex playgroups
What is the conditioned head turn technique? How is it done?
Basic procedure: - infant sits on adults lap (adult has headphones on) -infant listens to speech sounds over loudspeaker -infant conditioned to turn his/her head toward sound source when he/she detects a change in the sound - rewarded by interesting display
What issues are particular to international adoption? What can parents to do help their internationally adopted children develop a healthy sense of ethnic identity?
Children become aware of adoptive status around 4 years of age •As they grow older, transracial adoptees may experience feelings of loss of birth culture ▫Greater risk for depression & lower self-worth in late childhood; uncertainty about ethnic identity •Protection ▫When adoptive parents value cultural identity of child and provide educational and socialization experiences for them to learn about their culture & ethnic identity ▫Adoption agencies should help support this process
Industricalized
Ex. Japanese, American
When a child understands "false belief" what important information do they know about the relation between the mind and the world?
False belief- knowledge that a person can "misrepresent" reality, or believe something that is not true - two central measures -change of location task - unexpected contents task Once they pass the test they - understand that a person's mind can misrepresent reality - become better problem solvers as well as more capable liars and deceivers - become more aware of social conventions ex. masking disappointment -Correlated with higher social competence and positive peer relationships
Biological cross study
Health and morbidity rates definitions of mental illness
Genie
Isolated from age 2 to 13 - never developed normal language - syntax especially poor - questions about mental abilities prior to abuse Issues of ethnics in research - was genie's well-being sacrificed for scientific inquiry - focused on building language instead of social relationships or attachment to others
Why are cross cultural studies important
It has a strong influence on our behavior and our development
Identify variables that moderate the effect of daycare on development. What are the two most important of these variables?
Moderator Variables= variables that influence the likelihood of positive or negative outcomes In the case of daycare: -Quality & stability of daycare (related to SES) Important - Age of child - Hours of alternative care - Parental/family stress (related to SES) - Parental job satisfaction (related to SES) -Quality of parent-child interactions when together (parental sensitivity) important
What are moral rules versus social conventions versus personal rules? Can preschoolers differentiate between them? Do the boundaries vary by culture?
Moral rules- related to justice and welfare Social conventions- rules important for coordinating social groups Personal rules- areas of personal jurisdiction and control - Preschoolers can differentiate - There are cultural variations in the scope of moral vs. conventional rules
Scale errors At what ages do children make scale errors? What are they doing that is strange? What are some explanations for this behavior?
Occur between 18 and 30 m Child fails to take account information about size when deciding how to use an object -ex. try to sit on a miniature chair linked to immaturity in the interaction of two brain systems 1. visual recognition of objects (including categorization and planning of action) 2. perception of object sixe
Be familiar with Janet Werker's research on infants' ability to detect phonemic contrasts in native versus non-native languages. At what age do these perceptual abilities disappear?
Perceptual abilities start to decline around 8 to 10 m of age, and typically "disappear" around 1 year of age
Morpheme
Smallest unit of meaning in language
How do the findings about the effects of early deprivation inform parents about what factors to consider when adopting a child?
Try to adopt the child as young as possible • Better if child had foster parent(s) vs. institutionalized care - Greater likelihood they formed an attachment • Try to get as many facts about medical history (including prenatal care and family history) and early development of child • Expect quick recovery, but may be long-lasting residual affects
Culture
a variable, open and dynamic system of ideas, values, actions and practices
Phoneme
any of the perceptually distinct units of sound in a specified language that distinguish one word from another
Psychodynamic formation of gender identity in boys and girls
boys- identify through differentiation - Distance self from mother, tries to identify with father - Oedipal complex: wants to kill father to have attention of mother - Differentiation leads to rejection of intimacy Girls- identify with affiliation - repress love for father, identify with mother - "Angry" at mom for missing penis; wants to marry father - Affiliation leads to intimacy
Risk factor
characteristic of child or environment that increases the probability of a negative outcome
Protective factor
characteristic of child or environment that increases the probability of resilience or success despite negative situations
Mental modules (modularity theory)
cognitive process consist of separate biological subsystems, hardwired at birth and that do not need special tutoring in order to dev - prodigies: island of brilliance in an overall normal level of dev (born with brilliance)
Motivation/Emotion cross study
concepts of self- self depreciation (E) vs self enhancement (W); interdependence (E) vs. independence (W)
Interpersonal Relationship cross study
degree of anticipatory management/avoidance of conflict
animism
endowing inanimate objects with life or psychological states/traits
Conservation task
ex. conservation of liquid - preoperational child will say "A" and "B" have the same amount, but that "C" has more Conservation number: 1. child sees one to one correspondence: agrees both have same amount 2. child watches exp. spread out row a 3. do the two rows have the same number of coins or does one row have more?
Collectivist culture
focus on group seeks ordinariness hierarchical pessimistic, modesty success= effort-based ex.East asia
Individualist culture
focus on individual seeks uniqueness egalitarian optimistic, self-enhancement success= ability based Ex. West, African Americans
Cultural context perspective
influenced cog dev by: - arranging the occurrence or nonoccurrence of particular activities - determine the frequency of particular activities - how they relate different activities - by regulating the child's role in the activity - guided participation= the way in which adults guide child's experience and mastery of a situation - all of these practices could lead to unevenness in children's knowledge across different domains
Transactional models of dev. Why are they useful for evaluating the influence of risk factors and protective factors on child development?
interactions between characteristics of child and characteristics of the environment interact over time to determine the developmental outcome - They're useful because effects don't happen in isolation; there must be variables interacting to produce an effect
Cognitive cross study
planning behaviors mathematical reasoning
information processing
use analogy of computer to explain cognitive dev - see dev as more continuous than piaget - w age there are increases in: -attentional control - short-term working memory - long-term memory - speed of processing information - knowledge base - strategy use
What are some reasons for why early experience does NOT necessarily determine later development?
• Can be DISCONTINUITY in :- Environment - Child's developing capacities - Way the child experiences & understands the environment at different ages - What is ADAPTIVE for environment • E.g., early behavior problems following divorce may help child get attention; but not adaptive in long-term
Why is it not a good idea for some mothers to breastfeed?
• Can be difficult for baby + mom to coordinate nursing—especially in early weeks (it's not an automatic response & babies are not born knowing how to nurse) • Inadequate milk supply in mother • If mother is drug-addicted or HIV+- (in countries at increased risk for other infectious diseases,benefits of breastfeeding outweigh increased risk of HIV) • If mother requires certain medications (e.g., chemotherapy agents)
How are sleeping arrangements influenced by parental values and beliefs (e.g., desire to promote interdependence versus independence)?
• Co-sleeping more common in cultures that promote INTERDEPENDENCE vs. INDEPENDENCE • United States and "Feberization" (letting baby cry it out to learn how to self-soothe)
What factors influence the dev effects of deprivation?
• Depends on: - The nature of the depriving conditions • physical, social, cognitive - Intensity/severity of the conditions - Length of time in the deprived condition - Quality of child's environment post-deprivation - Time in development
"work-life" balance
• Gaining momentum in past 5-7 years - Trying to arrange workplace to allow for more flexibility in parenting for both mothers and fathers • Placing responsibility on corporations to do their part to allow parents to be productive workers and successful parents at the same time - Allowing job sharing, part time, flexible hours, work at home, longer maternity and paternity leaves, daycares on work sites • Some states moving to universal preschool and/or public full-day kindergarten
How is the outcome dependent upon the age of adoption?
• IQ dependent on age of adoption: • Best if adopted < 2 years of age • Slightly below average 2<Adopted<6 years • Severe problems if adopted > 6 years for girls, less severe for boys (boys' institution more stimulating)
Biological Theory on the CAUSES of aggression and what can be done to CONTROL aggression.
•Correlation between aggression and level of testosterone •Testosterone may indirectly increase aggression by leading to higher activity level •Difficulty in attention processes linked to aggression •MZ twins have higher concordance rates for aggression than DZ twins
What are some of the benefits for co-sleeping for the infant?
• May provide SIDS protection- (U.S. has highest rate) • Ease of breastfeeding • In early infancy babies sleep "better" • Mother & infant physiologically entwined in sleep (e.g., breathing)
Advantages of Breastfeeding for the mother
• Reduces chances of hemorrhage right after birth • Quicker initialweight loss from pregnancy - (burns an extra 500-1000 calories per day) • Lower incidence of breast cancer • Cheaper • Convenient • Promotes bonding (not just through skin-skin contact but hormonally as well—release of oxytocin & prolactin) • Can help prevent pregnancy (only when mother is exclusively breastfeeding--at least every 2 hours, and multiple times in the night)
Dennis main findings in regarding the effects of low quality orphanages on the dev of IQ
• Research on the Crèche (orphanages) in Lebanon- Children entered orphanages as a result of death and/or war • Low stimulation, poor care, left alone in cribs most of the day • Even by age 3-4 children in orphanages still not walking or talking
Be familiar with historical trends in breastfeeding
• Wet nurses common throughout history until 19thcentury • 1940s only about 20-30% babies breastfed (mass introduction of formulas as "better, more modern nutrition") • 1980s UNICEF and World Health Organization campaign for breastfeeding• Due in part to dramatic rise in infant mortality rates in third world countries from increasing use of baby formula (very dangerous to use in unsanitary water conditions) • Currently, in western cultures, about 60-75% of women try breastfeeding after birth, but only about 15-20% continue for more than 6 months (CDC)
Historical Trends in the role of mothers
•18th-19thcenturies - Mothers important for religious training of children to break evil wills, instill morals - increasingly the case as fathers started working more outside of home (women gained more domestic control) • 1920s - Rise of behaviorism and beginnings of "scientific parenting" - Mom should not be over-involved with baby, coddling is psychologically harmful • 1930s - Wartime; Freudian emphasis - Maternal coddling produces "sissies" - Indulgent mothers endanger national security • 1940's-50's: FREUD, mom is root of mental/social/physical problems for kids, more employment for women • 1960's: ^ focus on marriage, women = take care of kids, satisfy husbands • 1970's: feminist movement, women need own identity, if they are fulfilled in work will be better mothers and wives, quality time with kids • 1980's: majority of women worked, more physical affection towards kids, supermom = working moms happier/less stressed • 1990's: Bowlby- insecure attachment, working women with childcare = neglect, brain development, soccer mom = mom only lives for kids, sacrifices everything for them • 2000's: sacrificial motherhood, educated mothers should have many kids, if mother works = sacrificing child's potential, increased child care of fathers - BUT still not equal (fathers take on more work responsibilities?)
What were the main findings from Lagattuta (2005) regarding young children's understanding of emotions in situations where desires conflict with prohibitive rules? At what age do children understand that abiding by rules (willpower) can make a person feel good and that breaking rules (transgression) can make a person feel bad? How do their explanations for emotions in rule situations change with age?
•7s and adults predicted that characters would feel positive emotions following willpower decisions and negative emotions after transgression decisions significantly more often than 4s and 5s (Ms = 75% versus 30% trials) •Fits with findings from others (e.g., Arsenio) on the "happy victimizer phenomenon" •Age-related changes in emotion predictions accompanied by significant increase in attention to rules & future consequencesas causes of emotions (4s and 5s, in contrast, overwhelmingly explain emotions in relation to desire fulfillment alone)
Daycare in relation to cognitive development and language
•> 50% of all infants and toddlers in the United States spend some time each week in "alternative care" (includes care by family members other than the mother and nonfamily members); by age 4, rises to 90% •Although some findings have been mixed, results generally reveal no negative outcomes for cognitive, social, or emotional development •Many studies show advances for language & cognitive development, and better social skills in young children who attend daycare
Be able to describe the development of prosocial behavior in early childhood. How can the environment encourage prosocial behavior?
•Aggression decreases if parents, schools, and peers learn to selectively reinforce prosocial behavior in children AND IN CASES OF AGGRESSION give all attention to VICTIM
Evolutionary theories on the CAUSES of aggression and what can be done to CONTROL aggression
•Aggression important in animal evolution—often necessary for survival and reproduction •Evolutionary grounding to the statement that "boys will be boys" (Buss)
Cultural theory theories on the CAUSES of aggression and what can be done to CONTROL aggression
•Aggression in children connected to degree to which societies encourage and value aggression •For example, boys are more aggressive in societies where males enter military during preadolescent years
Environmental theory theories on the CAUSES of aggression and what can be done to CONTROL aggression
•Aggression is often rewarded (aggressor often gets what he/she wants; or more attention)
What are the benefits in breastfeeding for the infant?
•Best nutritionally (it is species-specific)- Higher in fat, lower in protein, iron more easily absorbed, more easily digested compared to cow's milk •Human milk protects against illness - Provides antibodies from the mother (builds immune system) - Fewer gastrointestinal infections - Fewer respiratory infections - Fewer allergies - Lower incidence of obesity (even in adulthood) - Lower incidence of SIDS (lower by 2 to 5 times the rate) •Baby self-regulates the production and consumption •Some evidence IQ differences favor breastfed babies •6-14 times more likely to survive in poverty-striken regions
What are some changes in children's ability to UNDERSTAND and REGULATE their emotions between the ages of 2 and 6?
•Between 2 & 6 years children become better able to regulate negative emotion by: •Avoidance of negative events: avert eyes, cover ears •Use mental strategies such as distraction (thinking most about something else) re‐interpretation of event (to make it more positive) •Regulate the "appearance" of their emotions by masking them (e.g., hiding disappointment)
Data collection issues
•Funding •Experimenter/Observer bias •Minimize by trying to recruit and train local people to administer tests
MidWife
•Has Master's Degree in Midwifery (M.S.) •Recognition of normalcy of birth, prevention of problems, individualized care •Low use of birth interventions (but will use if necessary and if desired by patient, including epidurals) •Hospital or home births •Will refer at-risk pregnancies to OBs •Assumptions: •birth is healthy and normal •woman in control •pain has a purpose•mother "gives birth to the baby" •multiple birthing positions to ease pain and delivery
Obstetrician
•Has medical degree (MD) •Specializes in treatment of complications, risk management •Heavy use of birth interventions (drugs, monitors, induction of labor, C-sections, episiotomies, forceps) •Hospital births only
Ache
•Hunter-gatherer group of South American rain forest •Sex is not exclusive despite marriage (serial monogamy, polygyny, polyandry) •Men who have had sex with the mother during the previous year are often "secondary fathers" •Women give birth publicly •Mothers spend the first year sleeping sitting up with infant on lap (to protect) •Mothers carry their infants all day in a sling; infants nurse whenever they want (nearly 100% of day and night is spent in contact with the mother); continue to nurse for 2 years (until next sibling) •Physical exploration highly discouraged •Not until age 3 are children allowed to go more than a few meters away from mother •Not until age 5 are they expected to walk instead of being carried •Significantly behind in motor skills (e.g., walk 9 months later)
!Kung San
•Hunter-gatherer nomadic group •Live in Kalahari Desert in Botswana, Angola, and Namibia (South Africa) •Women give birth ALONE (considered a sign of strength) •Mother and infant (under 7 months) rarely separated; infant worn nearly full-time in vertical position in kaross(> twice normal contact of infants in industrialized societies) •Parents practice physical skills with infants because it is important for their survival (more advanced motor skills compared to Europeans) •Weaning from breast not until age 4 (typically during next pregnancy—they give birth about every 4-5 years) •Communal living
Medicalization of the birth process
•Increasing use of medical interventions (e.g., drugs, monitors, forceps, episiotomies) •Assumptions•birth is a medical procedure•pain is unacceptable •doctor in control •doctor "delivers the baby" •Woman typically lying down on back, hooked to monitors, feet in stirrups, OB masked
Traditional society
•May give hint to parenting and child development from our evolutionary past •Humans have been on earth for about 4 million years •Industrial revolution only a few hundred years ago •Agriculture/farming started approximately 10,000 years ago •For most of human existence, humans have been hunter-gatherer societies ex. !Kung San, Ache, Gusii
Small presents a great deal of research on the variability of child-rearing practices and goals across cultures. What implications does this have for finding a "perfect" way of raising a child? What lessons can you take away from this book as a current or future parent?
•Multiple sources of information about "best" way to parent •Social, cultural, and scientific context •Parenting "rules" often evolve and change with changes in culture and society
Are there negative outcomes for children even if they come from relatively high quality orphanages?
•No• Research by Tizard & Hodges • Even orphanages where children are wel l-fed, receive medical treatment, have access to toys/books, and well-trained staff have problems - Issue is high staff turnover and scheduling that prevents children from developing strong attachment • Better outcomes if children adopted < age 2
Developmental Niche
•Physical and social setting of development •Includes: •Family, culture, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, "rules," customs and beliefs
High quality daycare
•Physical setting spacious, clean, and safe •Developmentally appropriate toys and equipment •Caregiver / child ratio low •Caregivers educated in child development •Caregiver interactions ▫Sensitive, responsive, facilitate child's learning, positive regard, responds to distress, empathic •Continuity & sensitivity of caregiver •Note: 50% of daycare centers randomly studied by the NICHD were considered "poor" •High quality daycare very expensive
What are some environmental influences on the development of self-control?
•Providing reasons or justifications for rules related to greater internalization of standards by children—will follow rules even without authority figure present •Punishment/power assertion without reasoning correlated with breaking rules in the absence of an adult (learn to avoid getting caught) •Observing consequences to other person "breaking the rules" can either encourage or discourage self‐control
Gusii
•Raise cattle and grow crops •Increasing industrialization (Western influence) in recent years •Women expected to give birth every two years (early weaning prior to 2 years) •Children important to economic survival of family •High infant mortality rate: only 50% survive •Intense and highly responsive childcare; but not emotional (no kissing, talking, fondling, praising)—rather a focus on health and survival •Strong use of corporal discipline •Gusii baby always carried throughout the day by mother, older sibling, or "child nurse"—never left alone
How do children learn aggressive behavior through observational learning?
•Research by Albert Bandura et al. (1960s) •Groups of children watched either: •(1) A live adult model, (2) filmed version of adult model, or (3) model dressed as "cartoon cat" attacking an inflatable "Bobo doll" •Control group watched non‐violent film •Results •Children imitated the FILMED, LIVE, and CARTOON acts of aggression •Aggressive acts in experimental groups significantly higherthan children in control group (control group still did do some acts of violence) •Later studies showed that imitation of aggression is dependent upon the CONSEQUENCES to the model •More likely to imitate aggression if they saw act rewarded OR go unpunished
Stranger Situation
•Some studies report a slightly elevated risk for "avoidant attachment" in infants who attend daycare; others report no differences •Big criticism: is the strange situation really so strange for an infant who is used to frequent separations from the mother? (i.e., could be healthy autonomy and greater understanding that mom will always return)
daycare in relation to attachment
•Some studies report a slightly elevated risk for "avoidant attachment" in infants who attend daycare; others report no differences •Big criticism: is the strange situation really so strange for an infant who is used to frequent separations from the mother? (i.e., could be healthy autonomy and greater understanding that mom will always return)
