exam 3 american government

Net Neutrality has been an important issue in the past decade. What is net neutrality? What is the debate around it? How did the Obama and Trump Administrations each approach the issue?

- The idea that ISPs must treat all web traffic equally, and therefore may not be allowed to charge different rates of discriminate against different websites in any way. -ISPs oppose because thei want to charge high-traffic website higher rates than low-traffic sites. High-traffic sites' business models rely on connecting with consumers via internet and would be forced to pay higher rates. Consumers support because they expect for higher rates paid to by them in the form of higher prices. It is feared that limits will make it hard for innovative startups to break into the market. -Obama: made an attempt to fortify rules in 2015 -Trump: FCC reversed and ended it.

The Sixth Amendment provides six separate rights, all of which pertain to defendants in criminal trials. -If someone goes a full year after being charged with a crime before having a trial, would this necessarily result in charges being dropped on account of the person being deprived of their right to a speedy trial? -According to the Supreme Court, what exactly is required by the 6th Amendment command that criminal trials must be by an "impartial jury"? -What did the Supreme Court declare about the 6th Amendment right to an attorney in Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)? What specific impact (discussed by the textbook) did this decision have on the criminal justice system?

1) Sixth Amendment includes the right to a speedy trial. The determination of whether a defendant's right to a speedy trial has been violated involves considering factors such as length of delay, reasons for delay, the defendant's assertion of their right, and the prejudice to the defendant. If a delay is deemed unreasonable and prejudicial to the defendant, it may violate the right to a speedy trial, leading to the dismissal of charges. 2) Sixth Amendment guarantees the right to an "impartial jury." This means the jury must be fair and unbiased. Potential jurors must be examined to ensure that they can decide the case based on the evidence presented and without preconceived notions or biases. Voir dire, allows attorneys to question potential jurors to identify any biases that could affect impartiality. 3) In Gideon v. Wainwright (1963), the Supreme Court declared that the Sixth Amendment's right to counsel applies to state criminal proceedings and requires that states provide an attorney for indigent defendants who cannot afford one. The specific impact of this decision on the criminal justice system was significant. Before Gideon, the right to counsel had been recognized in federal cases, but states were not uniformly required to provide counsel in criminal cases. Gideon's impact established a constitutional right to counsel for all criminal defendants facing felony charges, regardless of their ability to pay. This led to expanding the public defender system and increased the role of defense attorneys in ensuring a fair legal process. It significantly strengthened the rights of individuals accused of crimes and contributed to the principle that legal representation is a fundamental aspect of a fair trial, applying to both federal and state prosecutions.

Civil Rights versus Civil Liberties How does the textbook define civil rights? Civil rights and civil liberties are both types of legal rights. How are they different from each other? What is meant by the terms "public discrimination" and "private discrimination"?

1. Definition of Civil Rights and Distinction from Civil Liberties: Civil Rights: The textbook likely defines civil rights as protections and privileges granted to individuals based on their status as citizens. Civil rights are designed to prevent discrimination based on characteristics such as race, gender, religion, and more. They involve the government's role in ensuring equal treatment and opportunities for all citizens. Examples of civil rights issues include voting rights, employment nondiscrimination, and equal access to public facilities. Civil Liberties: Civil liberties refer to the fundamental freedoms and protections of individuals from government interference. They are often seen as limitations on government power to ensure the autonomy and personal freedoms of individuals. Civil liberties are explicitly protected by the Constitution, such as the freedoms of speech, religion, and privacy. 2. Public Discrimination and Private Discrimination: Public Discrimination: Public discrimination refers to discriminatory actions or policies carried out by government entities or in public spaces. For example, if a government agency enforces policies that discriminate against a particular group based on race or gender, it would be considered public discrimination. Private Discrimination: Private discrimination occurs when individuals or non-governmental entities discriminate against others based on certain characteristics, such as race, gender, religion, etc. Private businesses, organizations, or individuals engaging in discriminatory practices fall under this category. Private discrimination can be addressed through civil rights laws that prohibit discriminatory practices in areas like employment and public accommodations.

What is meant by standards of review? What are the three standards? What is strict scrutiny? It is applied to discrimination against "suspect classes"? What examples of suspect classes are discussed in the textbook? What is intermediate scrutiny? How is it different from strict scrutiny? To what form(s) of discrimination is intermediate scrutiny applied? What is meant by "rational basis"?

1. Standards of Review: Standards of review refer to the levels of scrutiny that courts apply when analyzing the constitutionality of government actions or laws that may infringe upon individuals' rights. The standard of review determines the level of justification the government must provide to justify its actions. 2. Three Standards: There are three main standards of review:Strict Scrutiny,Intermediate Scrutiny,Rational Basis. 3. Strict Scrutiny: Strict scrutiny is the most rigorous standard of review. The government must show that the law or action serves a compelling government interest and is narrowly tailored to achieve that interest. Strict scrutiny is applied to laws or government actions that involve fundamental rights or discriminate against suspect classes. Suspect classes are groups of people who have historically faced discrimination, and laws that classify individuals based on these characteristics are subject to strict scrutiny. 4. Intermediate Scrutiny: Intermediate scrutiny is a less stringent standard than strict scrutiny. The government must show that the law or action serves an important government interest and is substantially related to that interest. Intermediate scrutiny is applied to laws or government actions that involve important but not fundamental rights or discriminate based on certain characteristics, such as gender. 5. Rational Basis: Rational basis is the lowest standard of review. To pass rational basis scrutiny, the government must show that the law or action is rationally related to a legitimate government interest Rational basis is applied to laws or government actions that do not involve fundamental rights or suspect classes. This standard is often applied in cases involving economic regulations or social policies where the government has broad discretion.

What, according to the textbook, are the "two vital functions a free press and independent media play in democracy"?

1. When the press investigates and alerts the public about goverment wrongdoings, it performs the watchdog role of the press. 2. The free press can faciliate public commentary and debate over the public interest and thereby enlighten and refine citizens' judgements about matters of public importance. The is called the marketplace of ideas role of the press.

-How did the NAACP help end the peonage system?

2. NAACP's Role in Ending the Peonage System: The NAACP played a crucial role in challenging and ultimately ending the peonage system, particularly through legal advocacy. The organization took on cases involving individuals who were subjected to exploitative convict leasing and peonage arrangements. NAACP lawyers, often working in collaboration with other civil rights organizations and attorneys, brought legal challenges to these systems. Through litigation and advocacy, the NAACP contributed to legal precedents and changes in laws that helped dismantle the exploitative practices of the peonage system.

-The textbook highlights three acts of Congress that were the most influential acts of civil rights legislation of the 1960s. What were those three acts?

3. Influential Acts of Civil Rights Legislation of the 1960s: The three acts of Congress highlighted in the textbook as the most influential acts of civil rights legislation in the 1960s are:Civil Rights Act of 1964: This landmark legislation outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It ended segregation in public places and banned employment discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.Voting Rights Act of 1965: This act aimed to overcome legal barriers at the state and local levels that prevented African Americans from exercising their right to vote as guaranteed by the Fifteenth Amendment. It eliminated discriminatory voting practices, such as literacy tests, and authorized federal oversight of elections in jurisdictions with a history of voting discrimination.Fair Housing Act of 1968: This legislation prohibited discrimination in the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, national origin, or sex. It aimed to address systemic housing discrimination and promote fair housing practices.

What was the "belief-action" framework?

A legal test used by courts to analyze and determine the constitutionality of government actions that may involve both speech and conduct. The belief-action framework aids in assessing the extent to which 1st Amendment protections apply to a particular case.

What is meant by "the bandwagon effect"?

A phenomenon in which individuals decide to support a cause or candidate simply because polls demonstrate the popularity of the cause or candidate. For this reason, political activists, political parties, and candidates for office will publicize polls that seem to demonstrate the popularity of their causes or candidacies. Sometimes they will even conduct their own polls and—either intentionally or unintentionally—allow for preventable biases to influence the results in their favor.

How does the textbook define a representative sample? Be sure to know and understand what it means to say a sample is demographically representative.

A representative sample is one which proportionately reflects the relevant diversity of opinions in the population from which it is drawn. Although it can be imperfect, one way to approximate a representative sample is to make sure it demographically representative: i.e., the sample proportionally reflects the racial, ethnic, religious, gender, and class diversity of the population. If, for example, you want to measure Georgia State University students' opinions about corporate taxation, you would not want to take your sample only from seniors in the Robinson College of Business.

The Establishment Clause establishes there can be no official or mandatory government religion in the United States. What is the difference between the concepts of "separation of church and state" and "accommodationism"?

According to accommodationism, the Establishment Clause requires. that no one be forced to participate in religious activities against their will and that government not endorse or promote one religion over another. Separation of church and state is designed to reduce or eliminate the role of religion in government affaits altogether.

•Be sure to know and understand each of the following types of media effects (and how they differ from each other):Agenda setting, Priming,Framing

Agenda Setting- covering some events and issues more than others Framing- highlighting particular considerations or aspects of the issue Priming- leading to unconsciously bring certain considerations to the top of our head when evaluate the issue

Did civil liberties listed in the Bill of Rights of the U.S. Constitution apply to actions taken by state governments prior to the Civil War? Did they apply to actions taken by the federal government prior to the Civil War?

All of the civil liberties in the Bill of Rights of the U.S. Constitution apply to actions taken by the federal government. This has been the case since the Bill of Rights was ratified in 1791. The nature of Americans' constitutional right to free speech, and of Americans' civil liberties in general, changed after the Civil War (1861-1865) and upon the ratification of the 14th Amendment in 1868. In 1833, Barron v. Baltimore was a case involving the 5th Amendment command that "private property" shall not "be taken for public use, without just compensation". The U.S. Supreme Court held that the 5th Amendment, along with every other part of the Bill of Rights, was only concerned with actions taken by the federal government.

While the LGBTQ+ community is diverse, what common goals hold the coalition together?

All the groups face cultural, social, and/or legal oppression on account of their sexuality and/or gender identities

According to the textbook, what are the central issues today surrounding the deportation of illegal immigrants?

By the 2010s, deportations of illegal immigrants had increased dramatically. Both the Obama and Trump administrations engaged in large scale deportations and separated children from their parents during deportation. One of the major unresolved issues is what to do with children of illegal immigrants in the United States: although their parents might have come illegally, young children came through no fault of their own with their parents, and these children have no viable path to citizenship, yet the United States is the only country they know. Congress has tried to fix this problem with repeated attempts to pass the Dream Act, a bill that would give these children (called "dreamers"), a citizenship path in the United States.

•Competitive market pressures lead news organizations to seek to both reduce the cost of producing news stories and (in order to raise advertising revenue) produce news stories that attract a large audience. How do these two factors (cost pressures and the need to attract revenue) explain why news organizations can fall short of the aspiration of providing relevant and useful information that helps citizens make wise and just decisions?

By this standard, simply reporting factually reliable information is not sufficient for journalism to fulfill its purpose. Rather, it needs to provide relevant and useful information that guides citizens in making wise and just decisions. The claim that the news media is afflicted by market bias is a claim that the media can fall short of this standard due to the need to contend with competitive market pressures.

The European conquest of North America, in particular, decimated the indigenous peoples' populations by 90%. How did the long-term effects of this extreme population loss impact the rise of the American Indian Movement?

Civil Rights and Equality: The Chicano Movement addressed systemic discrimination and promote civil rights for Mexican Americans. Activists challenged discriminatory practices. Educational Reform: The movement called for educational reforms to address the inequalities in the education system, including inadequate funding for schools serving Mexican American communities and lack of culturally relevant curriculum. Political Empowerment:Chicano activists advocated for increased political representation and empowerment. They sought to challenge the underrepresentation of Mexican Americans in political offices and to promote policies that addressed the needs of their communities.Cultural Pride and Identity: Embracing cultural heritage and fostering a sense of pride in Chicano identity were important goals of the movement. Activists worked to celebrate and preserve Mexican American culture, language, and history. Economic Justice:The Chicano Movement aimed to address economic disparities faced by Mexican American communities. This included advocating for fair labor practices, better working conditions, and economic opportunities for Chicano workers. The UFW played a pivotal role in advocating for the rights of farmworkers, most were Mexican Americans.Labor Rights and Agricultural Reform: The UFW focused on advocating for farmworkers' rights, many were Chicanos. Their efforts included campaigns for fair wages, improved working conditions, and the right to organize.Social Justice and Civil Rights:The Chicano Movement and UFW were driven by a commitment to social justice and civil rights. They sought to address the systemic inequalities and discrimination faced by Mexican Americans. Intersectionality: The Chicano Movement and the UFW recognized the interconnectedness of various issues affecting Mexican American communities.

•What is market bias?

Competitive market pressures lead news media organizations to produce content that is less relevant and useful than citizens need for making wise and just decisions.

Be able to define the delegate and trustee models of representation. What are they? How do they differ with respect to how they think public opinion should influence government?

Delegate Model of Representation: In the delegate model, elected representatives are seen as delegates or agents of the voters. According to this perspective, representatives are expected to mirror the views, preferences, and interests of their constituents faithfully. They act as conduits for public opinion and are expected to vote and advocate for policies based on the direct input of the people they represent. Trustee Model of Representation: In contrast, the trustee model of representation emphasizes the idea that elected officials are entrusted with the responsibility to exercise their own judgment and expertise. Representatives are considered trustees who are expected to use their knowledge, experience, and understanding of complex issues to make informed decisions on behalf of their constituents. Differences: Source of Decision-Making: Delegate Model: Decision-making is primarily based on the expressed will of the majority of constituents. Trustee Model: Decision-making is based on the representative's own judgment, knowledge, and expertise. Role of Public Opinion: Delegate Model: Public opinion is a central guiding factor, and representatives are expected to reflect it faithfully. Trustee Model: Public opinion is considered, but representatives are not bound to follow it if they believe it is not in the best interest of the community. Flexibility vs. Independence: Delegate Model: Emphasizes responsiveness and flexibility to changing public opinion. Trustee Model: Emphasizes independence and the exercise of judgment, even if it means resisting popular opinion. Representation Philosophy: Delegate Model: Reflects a more participatory and populist philosophy of representation. Trustee Model: Reflects a more deliberative and expert-driven philosophy of representation.

How, according to the textbook, can social media provide a third democratic function?

Due to its inherently participatory and social nature, social media helps coordinate collective political action, such as voting, protests, signing petitions, donating money to causes and campaigns, and boycotts. It does so by helping like-minded people find one another, notify each other of political events and participation opportunities, and encourage each other to take action and contribute. These activities are addressed further in the chapter on Political Participation.

What, according to the textbook, is the most influential agent of socialization on children?

Family is the first and most influential socialization influence on children. Children may hear adult conversations at home and piece together the political positions their parents support. Children who accompany a parent to a polling location on Election Day are exposed to the act of voting and the concept of civic duty. Families active in community projects or politics make children aware of community needs and politics. Perhaps most importantly, parents strongly influence the partisan identification of the offspring they raise. Generally speaking, children of Democratic parents are more likely to become registered Democrats, whereas children in Republican households more often become Republicans.

According to the Supreme Court, which of the following forms of expression are entitled to less First Amendment protection than ordinary forms of political expression: flag burning; slander of public figures; obscenity; student speech (in public schools); hate speech; the spending of money on political campaigns; "fighting words;" expression that merely promotes (but is unlikely to actually produce) lawless action; content-neutral restrictions on the time, place and/or manner in which ideas are expressed; expression that promotes, and is likely to incite or produce, imminent lawless action; libel of public figures?

Flag Burning: Protected expression. The Supreme Court has held that flag burning is a form of expressive conduct protected. Slander of Public Figures: Subject to a higher standard. In the case of public figures, speech is protected unless it is made with "actual malice," meaning the speaker knows the statement is false or is recklessly indifferent to its truth or falsity. Obscenity: Not fully protected. The Supreme Court has ruled that obscenity is not protected. However, defining what constitutes obscenity involves a three-part test known as the Miller test. Student Speech (in Public Schools): Limited protection. Student speech in public schools is subject to more restrictions than speech in other contexts. Hate Speech: Generally protected, protects hate speech unless it directly incites imminent lawless action or constitutes true threats. Spending of Money on Political Campaigns: Generally protected. The Supreme Court, in cases like Citizens United, has ruled that spending money on political campaigns is a form of protected speech. "Fighting Words": Not fully protected. The Supreme Court has held that "fighting words" that are likely to incite an immediate violent response are not protected. Expression That Merely Promotes (But Is Unlikely to Actually Produce) Lawless Action: Generally protected unless it meets the imminent lawless action standard set by the Supreme Court. Content-Neutral Restrictions on Time, Place, and/or Manner: Subject to intermediate scrutiny. Expression That Promotes and Is Likely to Incite or Produce Imminent Lawless Action: Not fully protected. Speech that incites or produces imminent lawless action is not protected. Libel of Public Figures: Subject to a higher standard.

•What does "freedom of the press" typically mean today?

Freedom of the press typically refers to the freedom of journalists and news media organization to report information without fear of censorship, financial penalty, imprisonment, physical abuse or intimidation by government.

What is meant by "heteronormativity"? How does this relate to homophobia and the oppression of LGBTQ+ people?

Heteronormativity can be defined as the culturally reinforced belief that the only natural and appropriate form of sexual relationships are heterosexual and between cisgender persons (i.e., those persons whose gender identity corresponds with their biological birth sex) The culturally reinforced belief that the only natural and appropriate form of sexual relationships are heterosexual and between cisgender persons. (see heterosexual and cisgender) Persons whose gender identity corresponds with their biological birth sex. Heteronormativity is so pervasive and "normal," it can be difficult to understand without taking a moment to consider all the ways it is expressed and reinforced, often unintentionally.

What does Oliver Wendell Holmes' notion of a "marketplace of ideas" have to do with the Court's insistence that content-based restrictions are almost always in violation of the constitutional right to free expression?

Holmes famously endorsed a metaphorical "competitive marketplace of ideas" on the grounds that the "best test of truth is the power of the thought to get itself accepted in the competition of the market ...."* Thus, the best response for defeating beliefs and ideas we dislike is not to use government to ban their expression but, rather, to demonstrate the superiority of our own beliefs and ideas through our own acts of free expression.

How did the Supreme Court rule on the male-only military draft?

In 1981, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the male-only draft registration law. Writing for the Court, Justice William Rehnquist stated that the exclusion of women from the draft "was not an 'accidental by-product of a traditional way of thinking about women.'" In Rehnquist's view, men and women "are simply not similarly situated for purposes of a draft or registration for a draft."

What did Congress do in 1988 to compensate Japanese Americans for their internment during World War II?

In 1988, Congress passed the Civil Liberties Act, a landmark piece of legislation aimed at addressing the historical injustice of the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II. The primary purpose of the Civil Liberties Act was to acknowledge and provide compensation for the wrongful internment and violation of the constitutional rights of Japanese Americans during the war.

In 1996, the Supreme Court heard a case regarding admission into the Virginia Military Institute. What was decided in this case? What was the impact of that decision?

In 1996, the Court ruled that the Virginia Military Institute (VMI), an all-male state-run military college, had to accept women as cadets.Saying that the state of Virginia had to advance an "exceedingly persuasive justification" for the exclusion of women, the Court rejected the state's argument that admitting women would undermine the special character of the institution. The VMI ruling was the final nail in the coffin for male-only public institutions of higher education in the United States.

On what ground did the U.S. Supreme Court, in Lawrence v. Texas (2003), declare unconstitutional a Texas statute that made it a crime to engage in sodomy "with another individual of the same sex."

In Lawrence v. Texas (2003), the U.S. Supreme Court declared unconstitutional a Texas statute that criminalized consensual sexual activity between individuals of the same sex. The statute in question was a sodomy law that made it a crime for individuals of the same sex to engage in "deviate sexual intercourse." The key ground on which the Supreme Court declared the Texas statute unconstitutional was a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause and the right to substantive due process. The Court's majority opinion, written by Justice Anthony Kennedy, held that the law violated the petitioners' fundamental rights to liberty and privacy. The Court explicitly overruled its earlier decision in Bowers v. Hardwick (1986), which had upheld a similar Georgia sodomy law. In Lawrence v. Texas, the Court rejected the reasoning in Bowers, stating that it was not consistent with the principles of equal protection and due process. The majority opinion emphasized the right to privacy and autonomy in intimate relationships and concluded that criminalizing consensual same-sex sexual conduct was an unconstitutional intrusion into individuals' private lives. The Lawrence decision had broader implications beyond the specific Texas statute, effectively invalidating similar laws in other states that criminalized consensual same-sex sexual activity. It marked a significant milestone in the legal recognition of LGBTQ+ rights and affirmed that the government could not criminalize private, consensual sexual relationships between adults based on their sexual orientation.

What did the Supreme Court declare about the right of self-incrimination in Miranda v. Arizona (1966)? Specifically, according to the Court in Miranda, what must police tell criminal suspects before they question them? Relatedly, what are "Miranda warnings"?

In Miranda v. Arizona, the Supreme Court declared that the Fifth Amendment's privilege against self-incrimination requires law enforcement officials to inform individuals of certain rights before conducting custodial interrogations. The Court held that, to protect the right against self-incrimination, police must advise suspects of the following rights, now known as "Miranda rights" or "Miranda warnings"These warnings are intended to ensure that suspects are aware of their rights and the potential consequences of waiving those rights during police interrogations. The right to remain silent:suspect must be informed that they have the right to remain silent and that anything they say can be used against them in a court of law.If a suspect is not informed of their Miranda rights, and they make statements during custodial interrogation, those statements may be excluded from evidence in court. The right to an attorney:suspect must be informed that they have the right to an attorney, and if they cannot afford one, an attorney will be provided for them. The warning that anything said can be used against them: The suspect must be informed of the consequences of waiving their right to remain silent, specifically that any statements they make can be used against them in a court of law. The warning that they can stop answering questions at any time: The suspect must be informed that they can stop answering questions at any time, even if they initially agree to talk to the police.

There are two phases in the Sherbert Test. Which questions are asked are in each phase?

In Phase 1, the Court must determine whether the person has a claim involving a sincere religious belief and the government action is an actual burden on the person's ability to act on that belief. Both conditions must be met to continue to phase 2. In phase 2 the government action must withstand strict scrutiny. Phase 2 questions: in furtherance of a compelling government interest; and the least restrictive (or least burdensome) option available to the government for pursuing that compelling government interest. When courts apply strict scrutiny through Phase 2 of the Sherbert Test, the questions are specifically whether ... the government interference with religious practice is the result of pursuing a compelling government interest, and there is a way for government to pursue the compelling government interest that would have placed less of a burden on the free exercise of religion.

What is strict scrutiny? What does it have to do with the Sherbert Test?

In Phase 2, the government action must withstand what is called strict scrutiny. Strict scrutiny is the label given to the most stringent approach taken by courts when reviewing potentially unconstitutional government actions. (It is used in many areas of constitutional law, not only issues arising under the Free Exercise Clause.).

In Roe v. Wade (1973) and Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992), the Supreme Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment Due Process Clause protects an unenumerated constitutional right to privacy that include the right of a woman to choose to have an abortion. What did the Supreme Court declare about the constitutional right to choose to have an abortion in Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health (2022)? As a result, abortion laws are now determined primarily by what level of government (federal or state)?

In Roe v. Wade (1973), the Supreme Court recognized a woman's constitutional right to choose to have an abortion as a fundamental right protected by the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. This right, grounded in a woman's right to privacy, extended through the first two trimesters of pregnancy. In Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992), the Court reaffirmed the central holding of Roe v. Wade while modifying the legal standard. The Casey decision allowed states to impose restrictions on abortion as long as these restrictions did not place an "undue burden" on a woman's ability to obtain an abortion. An "undue burden" was defined as a "substantial obstacle in the path of a woman seeking an abortion before the fetus attains viability." As for Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health (2022), I cannot provide specific details on the ruling. However, it was a case that challenged a Mississippi law that banned most abortions after 15 weeks of pregnancy. The decision in Dobbs has the potential to shape the legal landscape concerning abortion rights in the United States. If the Supreme Court were to significantly alter or overturn the precedents established in Roe v. Wade and Planned Parenthood v. Casey, it could impact the extent to which states can regulate or restrict access to abortion. The determination of abortion laws would then be primarily made by individual states, as the federal protection of the right to choose to have an abortion would be diminished or eliminated.

What is happening to local newspapers today and what impact is this having on the watchdog role of the media at the local level of government?

In the 21st century, newspapers have struggled to stay financially stable. The rise of free news sites have made it difficult for newspapers to force readers to purchase online subscriptions to access material they place behind a digital paywall. Local newspapers have begun using social media to stay visible and profitable. Most local newspapers are closing. Newsroom employment at newspapers in the U.S. declined by 50% between 2008 and 2019, meaning there are 1/2 as many journalists and editors focused on local events today, including local government and politics, as there were 15 years ago. This results in the watchdog role of the media being imperiled at the local level.

What is "Incorporation"? What does it have to do with the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment?

Incorporation means that the Court declares a civil liberty from the Bill of Rights to be protected against state government abuse through the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment. Each time the Supreme Court has determined that a particular civil liberty from the Bill of Rights applies against the states via the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause, it is said that the Court has "incorporated" that part of the Bill of Rights into the Due Process Clause.

These two concepts are closely tied to the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment: (1) Incorporation and (2) Unenumerated Constitutional Rights. (010*) What's the difference between those two constitutional sources of civil liberties?

Incorporation refers to the process by which certain provision of the Bill of Rights are applied to the states through the Due Process of the 14th Amendment. It involves the recognition that fundamental rights protected by the Bill of Rights are essential to the concept of due process and protected against state infringement. Unenumerated Constitutional Rights refers to rights that are not listed in the text of the Constitution but are considered to be implied by or derived from other constitutional provisions or principles. Difference: Scope: Incorporation specifically involves applying certain provisions of the Bill of Rights to the states through the Due Process Clause. It is a process of extending existing, enumerated rights to protect individuals from state action. Nature of Rights: Unenumerated constitutional rights, on the other hand, involve recognizing and protecting rights that are not explicitly listed in the Constitution. These rights are often derived from broader constitutional principles and interpretations.

Be sure to know and understand the current status of these discriminatory laws or practices that have impacted the LGBTQ+ community (see the table in the textbook): Laws prohibiting same-sex marriage and the associated government-guaranteed spousal rights and benefits Laws prohibiting same-sex sodomy (but allowing it for heterosexuals) Laws prohibiting openly LGTBQ+ from serving in the military Legal environment allowing landlords, house sellers, and private lenders to discriminate against LGBTQ+ persons in access to housing and mortgages.

Laws Prohibiting Same-Sex Marriage: The legal landscape regarding same-sex marriage has undergone significant changes in various countries. In the United States, the landmark case of Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) legalized same-sex marriage nationwide. The decision held that state bans on same-sex marriage were unconstitutional. However, LGBTQ+ rights continue to be a subject of legal and political debates. Laws Prohibiting Same-Sex Sodomy: In the United States, laws criminalizing same-sex sodomy were rendered unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in Lawrence v. Texas (2003). The decision invalidated anti-sodomy laws that targeted same-sex couples, affirming a right to privacy for consenting adults engaging in private, noncommercial sexual activity. Laws Prohibiting Openly LGBTQ+ Military Service: The U.S. military's "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" (DADT) policy, which prohibited openly gay and lesbian individuals from serving in the military, was repealed in 2011. Since then, LGBTQ+ individuals can openly serve in the U.S. military without fear of discrimination based on their sexual orientation. Anti-Discrimination Laws in Housing and Mortgages: Discrimination against LGBTQ+ individuals in housing and mortgages remains a concern in various places. In the United States, protections against discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity may vary by state and local jurisdiction. Federal laws, such as the Fair Housing Act, do not explicitly include sexual orientation and gender identity as protected classes, but efforts have been made to address these gaps through legislation and executive actions. It's essential to be aware that LGBTQ+ rights are dynamic, and progress may occur or face setbacks depending on legal and societal developments.

•What is Section 230? Why is it controversial in today's social media environment?

No provider or user of an interactive computer service shall be treated as the publisher or speaker of any information provided by another information content provider. Online platforms may not be sued for content posted by users on their sites even if the platforms act like publishers by, for example. moderating posts, establishing community standards, and distributing commercial advertisements.

Be sure to know and understand nonresponse bias and how it can lead to an unrepresentative sample.

Nonresponse bias occurs when individuals with certain characteristics are less likely to respond to surveys than others, producing a sample that under-represents those who are less likely to respond.

What is meant by "citizen journalism"?

Occurs when citizens use their personal recording devices and phones to capture events and post them on the internet.

Be able to recognize the following kinds of question-wording problems: Ordering effects Double-barreled questions Leading questions

Ordering Effects: social scientists have conducted dozens of experiments demonstrating that the order in which questions are asked on a poll can influence responses.* Double-Barreled Questions:respondents are asked about more than one issue but are only allowed to give one answer. Leading Questions:a question worded in a way that sways the respondent toward one side of an argument.

What is meant by the term "patriarchy"?

Patriarchy refers to a social system in which power and authority are predominantly held by men, and societal norms, institutions, and structures are designed to favor and prioritize male perspectives and interests. In a patriarchal system, men typically occupy positions of authority, leadership, and decision-making, while women may face systematic disadvantages in terms of access to resources, opportunities, and influence.

What is meant by "political socialization"? How does it relate to political predispositions?

Political socialization refers to the lifelong process through which individuals acquire political attitudes, beliefs, values, and behaviors. It is the way in which individuals, often beginning in childhood and continuing throughout their lives, learn about, internalize, and develop their understanding of politics and government. Political socialization involves the transmission of political culture, knowledge, and norms from one generation to the next. Formation of Predispositions: Political socialization is the process through which individuals acquire the foundations of their political predispositions. Early experiences and exposures to political information contribute to the development of attitudes and beliefs. Stability and Change: While political socialization shapes initial predispositions, these predispositions can be stable over time or may evolve based on new experiences, information, and life events. Political socialization is ongoing, and individuals can continue to adapt their political views throughout their lives. Influence on Political Behavior: Political predispositions influence how individuals approach political decision-making, voting, and participation. Individuals are more likely to align with political groups, candidates, or ideologies that resonate with their predispositions.

What is the "downside" of unmediated communication?

Politicians can escape scrutiny from journalists who hold them accountable for corrupt activity, incompetent governance, and/or making false or misleading statements.

What is the "upside" of unmediated communication

Politicians can escape unfair or inaccurate portrayals of themselves created by biases in the media.

Why do pollsters generally not use samples sizes as large as 4,500?

Pollsters determine sample sizes based on statistical principles and the desired level of precision in their survey results. While larger sample sizes generally lead to smaller margins of error and more precise estimates, there are practical considerations that limit the use of extremely large samples, such as 4,500 respondents. Cost: Conducting surveys, especially large-scale ones, can be expensive. Larger sample sizes require more resources, including increased survey administration costs, data processing, and analysis. Organizations conducting polls often need to balance the desire for precision with the available budget. Logistics and Time Constraints: Collecting responses from a large number of participants can be logistically challenging and time-consuming. It may not be feasible to interview or collect data from a very large sample within a reasonable time frame, especially for time-sensitive issues. Diminishing Returns: As the sample size increases, the marginal improvement in precision becomes smaller. There is a point of diminishing returns where the additional resources invested in increasing the sample size result in relatively small reductions in the margin of error. Pollsters aim to strike a balance between precision and cost-effectiveness. Population Homogeneity: If the population being studied is relatively homogenous, meaning that there is not much variability in responses, a smaller sample size may be sufficient to achieve a desired level of precision. In such cases, larger sample sizes may not provide significantly greater accuracy. Representativeness: Ensuring that the sample is representative of the population is crucial for the validity of survey results. Achieving representativeness is challenging with very large samples, and issues related to subgroup representation may arise.

Civil liberties

Refer to the fundamental rights and freedoms that individuals possess and that are protected from infringement by the government or other entities. They are often outlined in constitutions, laws, and international human rights agreements. They are essential for the protection of individual autonomy and the promotion of a free and democratic society. Some common examples are: Freedom of Speech: The right to express one's ideas, opinions, and beliefs without fear of censorship or punishment. Freedom of Religion: The right to practice any religion (or none at all) without interference from the government. Right to Privacy: The right to be free from unwarranted government intrusion into personal and private affairs. Freedom of Assembly: The right to peacefully gather with others for social, political, or religious purposes. Freedom of the Press: The right of journalists to publish information without government censorship or interference. Right to a Fair Trial: The right to a fair and impartial trial, including the presumption of innocence until proven guilty. Freedom from Unreasonable Searches and Seizures: Protection against arbitrary searches and seizures of one's person, home, or property without a warrant or probable cause. Right to Equal Protection: The right to be treated equally under the law and to be free from discrimination based on factors such as race, gender, religion, or sexual orientation. Freedom of Movement: The right to travel freely within one's own country and, in some cases, internationally. Right to Due Process: The right to fair and lawful procedures in legal matters, ensuring that individuals are given notice and an opportunity to be heard before the government takes away their life, liberty, or property.

What's the difference between "selective incorporation" and "total corporation"? Which approach has the U.S. Supreme Court used?

Selective incorporation is the more widely accepted approach in the U.S. constitutional law. It involves the gradual and case-by-case application of specific provisions of the Bill of Rights to the states through the 14th Amendment's Due Process Clause and sometimes the Equal Protection Clause. Total incorporation is more expansive and less widely accepted view that suggests that the entire Bill of Rights should be automatically and immediately applied to the states without a selective, case-by-case basis. The U.S. Supreme Court uses the selective incorporation approach. The allows for a nuanced examination of each right and relevance to the principles of due process and fundamental fairness under the 14th Amendment. The Court has not embraced the idea of total incorporation, preferring a more measured and deliberate process of extending constitutional protections to the states.

-In what case did the Supreme Court declare that the doctrine of "separate but equal" has no place in public education?

Supreme Court Case Declaring "Separate but Equal" Inapplicable in Education: The Supreme Court case that declared that the doctrine of "separate but equal" has no place in public education is Brown v. Board of Education (1954). The Court ruled that state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students were inherently unequal and violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

What is meant by the "funnel of causality"? How does it relate to socialization?

The "funnel of causality" is a conceptual framework that illustrates the hierarchical and cumulative nature of the factors influencing an individual's behavior, attitudes, and beliefs. This concept is often used in the context of political science, sociology, and psychology to explain how various factors, ranging from broad societal influences to individual experiences, collectively shape an individual's perspectives and actions. The idea is that these influences converge and narrow down like a funnel, ultimately contributing to specific behaviors or attitudes. Relating Funnel of Causality to Socialization: Layered Influences: The funnel of causality helps highlight that socialization is not a singular process but a layered one involving multiple influences at different levels. It emphasizes that individuals are shaped by a combination of societal, institutional, and interpersonal factors. Cumulative Effect: The funnel concept underscores the cumulative nature of influences. As individuals move through different layers of the funnel, the effects of various influences accumulate and shape their worldview. Each layer adds complexity to the individual's socialization. Dynamic and Ongoing Process: Socialization is an ongoing and dynamic process that occurs throughout an individual's life. The funnel of causality illustrates that influences continue to shape individuals over time, with new experiences and interactions contributing to the existing set of influences.

Three Sources of Civil Rights Laws Which kind of discrimination (public or private) is prohibited by the Constitution? Which kind can only be prohibited by laws passed by legislatures or regulatory agencies? According to the textbook, what is the most important provision of the U.S. Constitution with respect to civil rights? What is meant by the "state action doctrine"? Be sure to understand what public accommodations are. (Remember, they are privately owned, and thus discrimination by them is private discrimination.) Which act of Congress (passed in 1964) bans discrimination by public accommodations? Is discrimination by public accommodations prohibited by the U.S. Constitution or by legislative statutes?

The Constitution primarily addresses public discrimination, meaning discrimination carried out by government entities. The Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, prohibits states from denying any person within their jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Private discrimination can only be prohibited by laws passed by legislatures or regulatory agencies. Civil rights laws, such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964, are examples of legislative measures aimed at addressing private discrimination in areas like employment, public accommodations, and more. The most important provision of the U.S. Constitution with respect to civil rights is the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. States are prohibited from denying equal protection of the laws to any person within their jurisdiction. It has been a critical basis for challenging discriminatory laws and practices. The "state action doctrine" holds that constitutional protections, including civil rights, apply only to actions taken by the government or actions with significant government involvement. Private actors are not directly bound by constitutional provisions unless there is a nexus between their actions and state action. Public accommodations are privately owned entities that are open to the public, such as hotels, restaurants, theaters, and other businesses that provide goods and services to the general public. While privately owned, they are subject to certain anti-discrimination laws, particularly those related to public accommodations. The Civil Rights Act of 1964, specifically Title II, prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, or national origin by places of public accommodation. This act addresses private discrimination by businesses open to the public.

The textbook discusses two forms of expression that are protected by the U.S. Constitution (as interpreted by the U.S. Supreme Court) but that are not constitutionally protected in other democratic countries. What are those two forms of expression?

The Court has ruled that so-called hate speech is a form of expression protected by the First Amendment. Hate speech refers to expression that belittles or intimidates persons based on race, color, religion, national origin, or sexual orientation, or that may, because of its content, have the effect of inciting violence or prejudicial action against people based on those traits. The burning of flags out of protest is another controversial example of how the Supreme Court has declared content-based restrictions on speech to be violations of the First Amendment. In 1989, the Court declared unconstitutional a Texas law that prohibited burning of the American flag.*

According to the Supreme Court, in what specific circumstances does the Eighth Amendment not allow imposing the death penalty?

The Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits the imposition of "cruel and unusual punishments." According to the Supreme Court, there are specific circumstances in which the Eighth Amendment does not allow the imposition of the death penalty: Juveniles:It's unconstitutional to impose the death penalty on individuals who were under 18 during their crime. Juveniles are less culpable for their actions bc of age and greater potential for rehabilitation. Intellectual Disabilities: The Court has ruled that it is unconstitutional to execute individuals who have been diagnosed with intellectual disabilities. Executing individuals with intellectual disabilities is considered cruel and unusual punishment, as they may not fully comprehend the consequences of their actions. Insanity or Severe Mental Illness: Executing individuals who are deemed insane or suffering from severe mental illness at the time of their execution may violate the Eighth Amendment. The rationale is that it is cruel and unusual to execute individuals who are not mentally competent. Non-Homicide Offenses: The death penalty cannot be applied to crimes that don't result in the death of the victim. In the case of Kennedy v. Louisiana (2008), the Court ruled that the death penalty could not be applied to the crime of child rape when the crime did not result in the victim's death. Racial Discrimination: While the Court has not categorically banned the death penalty based on racial discrimination, it has held that racially biased imposition of the death penalty may be unconstitutional. If it can be demonstrated that race played a significant role in the decision to impose the death penalty in a particular case, it may be considered a violation of the Eighth Amendment.

Which amendment of the U.S. Constitution and which section of the Georgia Constitution provide protections for the freedom of the press?

The First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution and Section 1 of the Constitution of the State of Georgia

What standards were set by the Supreme Court's 1993 ruling on sexual harassment lawsuits?

The Harris v. Forklift Systems, Inc. decision reaffirmed the legal standards established in earlier cases such as Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson (1986) and Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc. (1998). These standards continue to be crucial in sexual harassment litigation, helping to guide the analysis of whether particular conduct rises to the level of creating a hostile work environment in violation of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

✭What role did white supremacist terror organizations, such as the Ku Klux Klan, play in perpetuating the Jim Crow system? ✭What was the convict-leasing system? And what is meant by "peonage"? ✭In what state did the most lynchings occur between 1877-1950? How many lynchings occurred across the nation during this period? ✭What happened during the Atlanta Race Riot of 1906? ✭How did this and other riots and massacres impact the civil rights movement and African American rights? ✭Literacy tests, poll taxes, and the white primary were three ways that African Americans were disenfranchised despite the 15th Amendment. ✭How were these used to deter African Americans from voting? ✭What impact did this have on voting in the South? ✭In 1896, in Plessy v. Ferguson, the Supreme Court established the doctrine of separate but equal. What was this doctrine? What was its significance for the Jim Crow system of

The Ku Klux Klan (KKK), played a crucial role in perpetuating the Jim Crow system. The convict-leasing system emerged as a form of legalized slavery. Southern states leased out convicts(African Americans arrested for minor offenses) to private companies for labor. Peonage is a system where debtors are bound to labor until their debts are paid. To African Americans in the South, it was a form of debt servitude that resembled slavery. Many were forced into peonage through deceptive labor contracts, debt manipulation, or coercion.Mississippi had the most lynchings between 1877 and 1950. The total number of lynchings nationwide during this period is estimated around 4,000. Lynchings were tools of racial terror, reinforcing white supremacy and maintaining racial control. The Atlanta Race Riot of 1906 was a violent outbreak of racial violence against the city's African American population.The riot resulted in numerous deaths, injuries, and significant property damage in African American neighborhoods. Riots, massacres, and systemic racial violence fueled a sense of urgency within the African American community to fight for civil rights. They served as catalysts for activism and laid the groundwork for the Civil Rights Movement. literacy tests-Required individuals to demonstrate a certain level of literacy to vote. Poll taxes required voters to pay a fee in order to vote, disenfranchising those who could not afford the tax. White primary was a practice where political parties in the South excluded African Americans from participating in primary elections. Plessy v. Ferguson, the Supreme Court established the "separate but equal" doctrine. This allowed for racial segregation as long as the separate facilities provided for different races were deemed equal in quality.

According to the U.S. Supreme Court, what part of the U.S. Constitution is violated if state or local governments deprive same sex couples of the right to marry?

The U.S. Supreme Court, in the case of Obergefell v. Hodges (2015), held that depriving same-sex couples of the right to marry violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. The key issue in Obergefell v. Hodges was the constitutionality of state laws that prohibited same-sex couples from marrying or recognizing same-sex marriages performed in other jurisdictions. In a 5-4 decision, the Supreme Court ruled that these state laws denying same-sex couples the right to marry were unconstitutional. Writing for the majority, Justice Anthony Kennedy asserted that the fundamental right to marry is protected by the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The Court held that denying same-sex couples the right to marry violated their substantive due process rights, emphasizing the importance of the institution of marriage in the lives of individuals and the protection it affords to families. Additionally, the Court found that the denial of the right to marry to same-sex couples also violated the Equal Protection Clause. The Court concluded that treating same-sex couples differently from opposite-sex couples in the context of marriage was a form of discrimination based on sexual orientation and that such discrimination could not withstand constitutional scrutiny. In summary, according to the U.S. Supreme Court in Obergefell v. Hodges, the denial of the right to marry to same-sex couples by state or local governments violates both the Due Process Clause and the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. This decision legalized same-sex marriage nationwide and represented a landmark ruling in the recognition of LGBTQ+ rights in the United States.

What is meant by unmediated communication?

The ability for officials to directly communicate with the public without going through media filters. This is typically accomplished via social media.

How do those two concepts relate to the two vital democratic functions of the free press mentioned previously?

The distinction, however, between these two media functions—the reporting of factual information and the facilitation of a flow of diverse opinions to the marketplace of ideas—has become increasingly blurred. Primetime shows on cable news channels and posts on social media sites typically consist of deluges of opinionated commentary interlaced with factual reporting. However, the standard format of newspapers continues to reflect a division between the two functions. The main pages consist of factual reporting while opinionated commentary is located in a special Opinion section, which includes opinion pieces written by regular contributors (known as opinion columnists), opinionated articles written by guest contributors (known as op-eds), opinion statements written by the editors of the newspaper (known as editorials), and brief opinionated letters submitted by readers (known as letters to the editor) .

Define religious freedom. What is the name of the first two clauses of the 1st Amendment that are constitutional basis of religious freedom in the United States?

The freedom to develop and live according to one's own religious beliefs insofar as doing so does not interfere with the freedom of others. The two clauses are the Establishment Clause, "Congress shall make no law [1] respecting an establishment of religion, or [2] prohibiting the free exercise thereof. and the Free Exercise Clause, "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion".

What does it mean to say the First Amendment allows for content-neutral "time, place, and manner" regulations of expressive activities?

The government may impose content-neutral regulations that interfere with speech so long as regulations are reasonable.

What do the different letters of "LGBTQ+" stand for?

The letters stand, respectively, for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender (or Transsexual), Queer (or Questioning), Intersex, Asexual, Polygamous (or Polyamorous), and Kink

What is margin of error?

The margin of error (MOE) is a statistical measure that quantifies the range within which we can reasonably expect the true value of a population parameter to fall. It is commonly used in survey research and opinion polling to express the uncertainty associated with survey results.

•What are the main characteristics of thematic and episodic framing? Be sure to be able compare each type of frame.

The news media often cover events through what is called an episodic frame rather than a thematic frame. An episodic frame portrays an event as a stand-alone occurrence, whereas a thematic frame seeks to put the event in broader context and compare it to longer-term trends

What, according to the textbook, is "the primary purpose" of the 4th Amendment? What is the exclusionary rule? Why did the Court create that rule? Why are a growing number of constitutional scholars, lawyers and judges questioning its wisdom?

The primary purpose of the Fourth Amendment is to protect individuals from unreasonable searches and seizures by the government. The Fourth Amendment states: "The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized." The amendment establishes the requirement for warrants based on probable cause and ensures that searches and seizures are reasonable and supported by legal authority. The exclusionary rule is a legal principle that prohibits the use of evidence obtained through an unconstitutional search or seizure in a criminal trial to deter law enforcement officers from conducting searches and seizures in violation of individuals' constitutional rights. The exclusionary rule was established by the U.S. Supreme Court as a judicially created remedy in the case of Weeks v. United States (1914) and later applied to the states in Mapp v. Ohio (1961). Deterrence Effectiveness: The exclusionary rule might not be the most effective deterrent and that alternative methods, such as internal disciplinary actions or civil lawsuits, could achieve similar results without the negative impact prosecuting criminal cases. Public Safety Concerns: Some critics express concerns that the exclusionary rule may lead to the exclusion of relevant and reliable evidence, potentially jeopardizing public safety by allowing guilty individuals to go unpunished. Balancing of Interests: There is ongoing debate about the proper balance between the interests of deterring unlawful police conduct and the interests of ensuring that the truth is revealed in criminal proceedings.

Civil liberties pertaining to criminal justice establish rules and procedures that the executive and judicial branches must follow when investigating, accusing, convicting, and punishing criminal suspects and convicts. What, according to the textbook, is the purpose (or "aim") of these rules and procedures? Generally speaking, how do liberals and conservatives tend to differ in how they interpret civil liberties pertaining to the criminal justice system? Why, according to the textbook, is the incorporation of criminal justice rights under the 14th Amendment "especially important"?

The purpose is to safeguard individual rights and ensure a fair and just legal process. The rules and procedures are designed to protect individuals from potential abuses of government power, including unwarranted searches and seizures, coerced confessions, unfair trials, and cruel and unusual punishment. The legal system aims to strike a balance between maintaining public order and safeguarding the rights of individuals accused of crimes. Liberals emphasize the importance of protecting the rights of individuals, even those accused of crimes. They may be more concerned with police accountability, defendant's rights, preventing unjust or discriminatory law enforcement practices. Liberals advocate for due process-enhancing reforms, limiting excessive force, and addressing racial and socioeconomic disparities in the criminal justice system. Conservatives prioritize maintaining law and order and ensuring public safety. They emphasize the role of law enforcement in preventing and punishing crime. Conservatives are inclined to support policies that prioritize the interests of crime victims and deter criminal activity. They advocate for strict interpretation of criminal laws and less restrictive law enforcement practices. The incorporation of criminal justice rights under the 14th Amendment is deemed "especially important" because it extends certain protections to individuals at the state and local levels. The 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause and Due Process Clause have been interpreted by the courts to apply fundamental rights, including those related to criminal justice, to state and local governments.

What is the "watchdog role" of the press?

The role of the press investigating and alerting the public of government wrongdoings. This helps the government to better serve the people while the press helps citizens to monitor the government and hold it accountable.

What is meant by "sample"? How does it relate to a "population"? How big is a typical sample in opinion polls conducted today?

The small subset of individuals drawn from a population is referred to as a sample. Today, samples typically range in size from 500 to 1,500 individuals. The scientific study of public opinion involves making estimates about the opinions of large populations based on polls conducted on small samples from those populations.

How does the state of the economy influence how people feel about the government and politicians?

The state of the economy can have a significant impact on how people feel about the government and politicians. Economic conditions often play a crucial role in shaping public perceptions, attitudes, and evaluations of political leaders.

•Where does the term "the press" come from? HINT: It has to do with Johannes Gutenberg

The word "press" has origins in Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the movable type printing press. The printing press enabled for fast and efficient mass production and distribution of written expression. This proved to be a powerful instrument for checking and controlling the power of established religious and government authorities.

The rise of the Information Revolution accompanied by the proliferation of cable news has helped create a political knowledge gap in the United States and elsewhere. How does the textbook describe this process?

Those with little to no interest in politics are able to avoid political news more easily than before, and know little about politics, while those with high interest consume political news vociferously and are more knowledgeable.

The "marriage law doctrine of coverture" is just one example of historical barriers faced by women in the U.S. What does this term mean? And what are some other examples of historical barriers faced by women according to the textbook?

Women sacrificed most of their rights and very legal existence to their husband upon being wed. According to this longstanding legal conception of marriage, married women could not own property, enter into contracts, or earn a salary in their own name. Barriers women faced: right to vote(suffrage) Equal Pay reproductive rights military service

What does sample size have to do with the margin of error?

You may be wondering what margin of error has to do with sample sizes. The answer is that, due to the laws of probability, researchers can influence the margin of error by altering the size of samples.

How does the textbook define public opinion?

an aggregate measure of the beliefs, attitudes, judgments, and/or preferences of a population over matters of public concern.

•The textbook recommends exposing oneself to an ideologically diverse set of information sources. What does it claim are advantages of doing that?

citizens expose themselves to sources representing a diversity of ideological perspectives (including perspectives different from their own), they can develop a richer understanding of issues, make sounder judgments, and become better equipped to engage in constructive and respectful discussions and debates across partisan and ideological lines.

Do constitutions protect civil liberties against infringement by private individuals (or businesses) or do constitutions only protect against infringement by government?

civil liberties apply to the government, that only have the constitutional obligation not to interfere with the freedom speech. Private individuals and businesses is not obligated under the constitution to respect civil liberties.

•Which ideological group (liberals or conservatives) more often claims the mainstream media to be ideologically biased against them?

conservatives and republicans

•The textbook also recommends relying only on sources that have earned reputations for factual accuracy, credibility, and trustworthiness. This is how you can avoid both misinformation and disinformation. Make sure to know the definitions of those two terms.

misinformation- false claims that are published unintentionally. disinformation- a form of propaganda involving the dissemination of false information(misinformation) with the deliberate intent to deceive or mislead.

What is meant by political predispositions?

one's pre-existing attitudes, values, beliefs, and social identities that condition how one formulates opinions about public affairs.

•How does social media agenda setting differ from the traditional agenda setting of television news, newspapers, etc.?

social media agenda-setting differs from traditional agenda-setting in terms of source diversity, speed, user-generated content, personalization, interactivity, and global reach. These differences contribute to the unique dynamics of how issues are framed and prioritized in the digital age.

What is the "marketplace of ideas"?

the free press facilitates public commentary and debate over the public interest and thereby enlighten and refine citizens' judgements about matters of public importance.

How does the textbook define media?

the means of mass communication(newspapers, magazines, radio, TV,internet, and journalists, editors, news organizations,etc) who use these channels of communication to inform the general public.

•What is meant by "ideological bias"?

the systematic slanting of coverage in favor of one or more ideological or partisan orientation(s) and against others.

What is meant by "poll aggregators"?

they gather and average the results of multiple polls.

Contemporary African American Civil Rights Issues What is meant by "affirmative action"? What is the concept of reparations? And what does it have to do with the racial wealth gap in the U.S.?

🔹 Affirmative Action:Refers to policies and practices that aim to increase opportunities for underrepresented groups, especially in areas where they have historically faced discrimination. Policies may involve preferential treatment, such as in hiring or college admissions, to address existing inequalities and promote diversity. Affirmative action is often implemented in education, employment, and government contracting. 🔹Reparations refer to compensation or amends provided to individuals or communities who have been historically wronged or oppressed. The concept of reparations is often associated with addressing the historical and ongoing impact of slavery, segregation, and systemic racism. 🔹Racial Wealth Gap: The racial wealth gap in the U.S. refers to the disparities in wealth between different racial groups, particularly between Black and white Americans. The wealth gap is a result of historical injustices, including slavery, segregation, discriminatory policies, and practices that have hindered the ability of African Americans to accumulate wealth over generations. 🔹Reparations and the Racial Wealth Gap Connection: Advocates for reparations argue that providing compensation or resources to the descendants of those who suffered from slavery and systemic racism is a way to address the deep-seated economic disparities. Reparations, in this context, may take various forms, such as direct payments, investments in education and housing, and initiatives aimed at reducing systemic inequalities.