Exam 3 - Attitudes & Persuasion - Social Psychology (PSY 2325)

Brehm appliance study

-asked women to rate the attractiveness and desirability of several kinds of small appliances; -given the choice to choose one product from two that she had rated equally; -then the woman rerated the appliances: -when they received the appliance of their choice, the women rated its attractiveness somewhat higher than they had the first time, and drastically lowered the alternative appliance they rejected.

self-affirmation theory

A theory that describes how people can reduce the arousal caused by dissonance by affirming a different part of their identities, even if that identity is unrelated to the cause of the arousal. E.g., Steele et al. (1993) - similar to Brehm Appliance Study but with music CDs. They were asked to choose between two CDs rated near the bottom of the ranking. Those who were given positive feedback on a personality test did not change their rankings.

Theory of planned behavior

A theory that describes people's behavior as caused by their attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control.

impression management theory

A theory that individuals are not motivated to be consistent, but rather to appear consistent. Individuals do not want to be seen as hypocritical, so we try to show that our attitudes and behaviors match (even though they do not)

when do we process information centrally, and when do we process information peripherally?

Ability to focus (If you are distracted (limited ability to focus), it is more difficult to process central messages, so you may rely more on peripheral cues.) Relevance (Messages that are of high personal relevance motivate us to pay attention, and as long as we have the ability, we process such messages centrally. Messages that are of low personal relevance or that need to be processed while we have little attention to devote to them are processed peripherally.)

The "New Look" Dissonance Theory

According to the "new look" of dissonance theory (Cooper & Fazio, 1984), four steps are necessary for people to experience attitude change following dissonance: Negative or adverse consequences, personal responsibility, physiological arousal and discomfort, attribution of arousal to his or her behavior.

3 main components of attitudes

Affective - your emotional reaction towards the target Cognitive - your thoughts and beliefs towards the target Behavioral - your actions and observable behavior towards the target

justification of effort

Another form of dissonance reduction in that individuals tend to increase their liking for something they worked hard to attain. Aronson & Mills (1959) - Severe initiation study

attitude-behavior link

Attitudes only predict behavior when the attitude is; strong, accessible, specific, and fits into social norms.

How can cognitive dissonance be reduced?

Change behavior to match your attitude, Change attitude to match your behavior (or add a new attitude to match your dissonant attitude), or Decide that inconsistency isn't a problem; reduce importance of attitude and/or behavior.

persuasion

Communication that is designed to influence one's attitudes.

audience and persuasion

Demographic factors, such as age, gender, and personality traits, can influence the effectiveness of persuasive messages. Late adolescent to early adulthood are most influenced. Attitudes are less stable early on. Personality factors: Self-monitoring - the tendency to change one's attitudes to fit the situation Need for cognition High need for cognition = more likely to use central route Low need for cognition = more likely to use peripheral route

post-decision dissonance

Dissonance aroused after making a decision, reduced by enhancing attractiveness of choice you made and devaluing the rejected alternative.

sleeper effect

Even non-credible sources can become more persuasive over time. This occurs because over time, people may remember the message, but not remember the speaker.

forewarning effect

Making people aware that they will soon receive a persuasive message. It allows people to construct counter-arguments. It is especially effective when it includes specific training on evaluating features of the upcoming persuasive message.

When is modeling most effective?

Modeling is most effective at leading to attitude formation when it is done by someone who is similar to yourself. Why? Because those who we identify with serve as more effective models for behavior.

who has the most influence on our first attitudes?

Our parents and friends (also referred to as information from our social environment)

positive mood and persuasion

People in a good mood are more easily persuaded than those in a less good mood. People who are in a good mood want to maintain this positive feeling, and thus are less likely to process information carefully. In turn, they tend to rely on short-cut peripheral cues, such as availability of a given argument, when evaluating a message.

credibility and persuasion

People who argue unexpected positions--meaning those that seem to go against their own self-interests are often especially persuasive because they are seen as highly credible. Repeated exposure to a persuasive message can lead individuals to attribute the message to a more credible source.

information source and persuasion

Source - the person or persons who deliver the message. Their attractiveness, Similarity to one's self, and credibility. Attractiveness - attractive and likable sources are more persuasive than unattractive and less likable ones. Similarity (to one's self)- messages delivered by similar sources can be persuasive Credibility - sources who appear credible (competent, trustworthy) are more persuasive.

message content and persuasion

The arguments presented (strong or weak) influences persuasion Length - "Length means strength" (if processed peripherally) Discrepancy - messages that are too discrepant (different) from people's original attitudes are likely to be ignored. "Stealing the thunder" - a tactic used to weaken the force of an adverse point. By introducing the point first and being open about it or rebutting it, the force of the opposition's argument is diminished - their "thunder" is stolen.

attitude accessibility

The ease or accessibility with which one's attitude comes to mind can also influence the attitude-behavior link. Those attitudes that are easily accessible tend to be stronger and better predictors of behavior. More information about a topic increases accessibility. Situational factors can increase accessibility or decrease accessibility.

social norms

The informal rules a given group has for its members - can influence attitude-behavior link. Our attitudes (and thus behavior) are heavily influenced by others in our group.

observational learning and the media

The media is very influential in the formation of attitudes E.g., Children who watch more television request more toys than those who watch less television, presumably because more exposure to toy advertisements leads to more positive attitudes towards these products (Chamberlain, Wang, & Robinson, 2006).

attitude specificity

The more specific an attitude, the more likely it is to predict behaviour

mere exposure effect

The more we are exposed to something, the more we like it. This explains why we prefer mirror-image pictures of ourselves—because that is how we normally see ourselves—whereas our friends prefer reverse-mirror-image pictures of us—because that is normally how they see us.

self-perception theory

The theory that people infer their attitudes by simply observing their behavior. People don't actually change their attitudes but simply look to their own behavior to determine what their attitudes are. E.g., Valins (1966) Male Ps shown centerfolds Hooked up to machine that "measures heart beat" Pick a picture to take home

fear-based persuasion

The use of negative emotion, and particularly fear, in persuasive messages. Research shows that fear based persuasion is not very effective, unless: 1) A moderate amount of fear is created 2) People believe that listening to the message will provide them with reassurances on how to reduce the fear.

How do we form attitudes?

Through information from the social environment, observational learning, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning.

external justification

When the reason for dissonant behavior resides outside the individual (in order to receive a reward or avoid punishment). It does not lead to attitude change.

Prototype willingness model

a model that describes the role of prototypes, or social images of what people who engage in the behavior are like, in influencing their willingness to engage in the behavior in a given situation Gerrard et al. (2002) Researchers asked teenagers to "think for a minute about the type of person your age who drinks alcohol frequently," and then rate your image of that person (e.g., smart, popular, boring, self-confident, independent, confused, etc.) Then Ps rated their own willingness to drink alcohol in various situations. As predicted, those who did not drink alcohol rated the drinker prototype more negatively than those who did drink.

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that elicits a specific response, and eventually the neutral stimulus elicits that response on its own. (Learning by association) Attitudes can be formed based on an association between an object or person and a pleasant or unpleasant event. (Association)

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior that is rewarded increases whereas behavior that is punished decreases.

observational learning (aka modeling)

a type of learning in which people's attitudes and behavior are influenced by watching other people's attitudes and behavior.

attitude inoculation

exposure to a weak version of a persuasive message strengthens people's ability to resist that message later on.

insufficient justification

freely performing a discrepant behavior without having any external justification for doing so; causes attitude change. Freedman (1965) - Insufficient deterrence/punishment (Robbie the Robot study)

subliminal persuasion

mere exposure that influences attitudes below the level of consciousness.

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

persuasive communication can cause attitude change through two routes: Central or Peripheral

attitudes

positive and negative evaluations of people, ideas, objects, and events.

cognitive dissonance theory

when behavior conflicts with attitude (or when one holds two conflicting attitudes), psychological discomfort is experienced, motivating the individual to reduce the dissonance.

reactance theory

when people feel their freedom to perform a behavior is threatened, an unpleasant state is aroused. They reduce this state by performing the threatened behavior.