Exam #3 - Biology the World and Us

How is SARS spread? What does it cause?

spread by air and contact. causes pneumonia.

Photosynthesis chemical equation

Carbon dioxide + water + light energy -> glucose + oxygen 6CO2 + 6H20 --> (light energy) --> C6H12O6 + 6O2

what strengthens clinical trials

Clinical trials are strengthened by good design: placebo control, randomization, blinding, large size

How is HIV transmitted?

sex, contaminated needles, blood transfusions

Where does the sugar go once it is processed through the plant leaf?

simple sugars storage sugars protein cell wall

describe the harnessing plants initiative

"ideal plants" could actually capture carbon and store it in the ground

what are some examples of climate change mitigation to reduce co2 in the atmosphere?

- develop new habits to avoid wasting energy - switch to carbon-free energy sources (solar and wind) - plant trees to increase the amount of CO2 taken up by forests - establish a carbon tax/dividend to build the cost to pollute into the economy

what are some examples of climate change adaptation to anticipate and adjust to new conditions?

- protect habitat or structures threatened by climate hazards - make and implement a climate resilience plan - plant hardier crops

what do antibodies do?

1) Antibodies can stop viruses from binding to ACE2 (a cell-surface protein), from fusing to a cell, or from escaping a vesicular membrane into the interior of the cell. 2) A strong antibody response can clear the virus before it reaches the lungs

how can we ensure the transition to renewable energy is JUST? what's an example of just energy transition?

1) Focus on people, skills, decent job creation 2) Use social dialogue with government, employers, unions, communities 3) Prioritize clean energy access & elimination of energy poverty. EXAMPLE: Zimbabwe - installing solar panelsas part of the Solar for HealthInitiative enabling reliable healthservices in poor, rural areas.

what 3 things will happen to plants as the climate changes?

1) water - warmer temperatures will change the location of freshwater sources 2) light - moving crops away from the equator changes productivity 3) temperature - plants have optimal growing / reproducing temperatures that will be impacted

what are three projected climate change impacts on human health and ecosystems?

1. asthma 2. extreme heat waves, wildfires and drought 3. more extreme hurricanes: stronger storms that move more slowly

what are 5 things we are doing to reduce carbon emissions?

1. international policy 2. market-based policy 3. national and subnational policy 4. private sector actions 5. civil society

WHAT do we talk about re: climate change? five key facts?

1. it's real (earth is warming) 2. it's us (fossil fuels) 3. it's bad (and unjust) 4. scientists agree (99%) 5. there's hope (in action)

how are hurricanes being affected by the changing jet stream / extreme weather patterns due to climate change?

1. precipitation rates are increasing 2. storms are intensifying faster 3. more stronger storms 4. storms are moving more slowly 5. storms are getting bigger 6. storms are moving northward 7. sea level is increasing storm surge

what are 3 potential solutions that GIVE US HOPE + involve harnessing plants to help our crops in the face of climate change?

1. reforestation - because deforestation is decreasing the recapture of carbon dioxide 2. harnessing plants initiative 3. acid rain

Describe the Jan Baptist experiment - history of photosynthesis

1648- Jan Baptist weighed soil, planted willow sapling, weighed the willow sapling and soil after 5 years. the sapling had gained 164 pounds, but the soil had the exact same mass. what was added? Discovery: plants are not growing by using soil material

Describe the mouse + sealed chamber experiments and how these led to the discovery of photosynthesis

1767 - Joseph Priestley put a mouse and a burning candle in a sealed chamber. in a sealed chamber, the burning candle extinguishes and the mouse dies. but when a PLANT is added to the chamber, the candle stays lit and the mouse lives Discoveries: - air is made up of various gases - plants convert gases in the air 1772 - Jan Ingen-Housz Did the same experiment but changed the variable of light. He found that the mouse rescue occurs only in the light, not in the dark Discoveries: - plants need light to convert gases

how many people suffer long covid

65 million, continuing to rise.

different kinds of covid tests

Antigen tests (at-home tests like Binax Now) detect viral proteins, not RNA • PCR tests and antigen tests only deliver positive or negative results.

What is phage therapy?

Bacteriophages, or phages, are viruses that specifically target bacteria. Phage therapy involves using phages to treat bacterial infections. Phages are everywhere. From the soil to our guts, there are thousands of different types

Explain why "electrifying everything" is a primary way that we can reduce carbon emissions

Because switching appliances to electric automatically becomes clean when the power plant making the electricity begins to run on solar/wind

What is the source of influenza? What did it spillover from?

Birds

What does chlorophyll do?

Captures light and converts it into energy for photosynthesis

what is the purpose of clinical trials

Clinical trials for vaccines, drugs, and other treatments are designed to measure efficacy—the reduction of risk of an outcome (infection, death, etc.) • Clinical trials also compare adverse side effects of a treatment versus a placebo.

non pharmaceutical interventions for covid

Contact tracing • Isolation and quarantine • Banning large indoor gatherings • Physical distancing • Masks • Building ventilation

what is epidemiology?

Epidemiology is the branch of medicine which tackles questions about the incidence, distribution, and possible control of diseases

what is gene therapy?

Gene therapy is a technique used in an effort to treat or prevent disease. When a gene mutation (a permanent alteration in the DNA sequence) causes a protein to be missing or faulty, gene therapy may be able to restore the normal function of that protein.

what are 3 examples of spillover viruses?

HIV, influenza, and SARS

what are some features of the various types of viruses?

Identical-looking viruses may carry different proteins that enable different functions Some viruses use DNA to store their genomes. Others use RNA Some viruses use DNA to store their genomes. Others use RNA Coronaviruses are one group among many groups of viruses.

benefits of "cleaning up the grid" or transitioning to renewable energy resources

If you clean up the grid (replacing combustion with solar/wind &batteries, then everything connected to the grid becomes clean Plus... no more oil spills, no more mountaintop removal, water quality improves, airquality improves, water quality improves, health improves, energy is cheaper, and theelectrical grid is more robust

covid symptoms

In ~40% of confirmed Covid-19 cases, people never feel symptoms • Symptoms of mild Covid-19 can include fever, aches, loss of taste, sore throat, coughs • Mild Covid usually lasts a few days. Severe Covid can emerge after a week

Combustion inputs and outputs:

Input: oxygen, fuel, heat Output: heat, water, CO2

How can we map photosynthesis onto the cells of a leaf?

Light is absorbed through the top layers - the cuticle and the epidermis. Photosynthesis takes place in the mesophilic layers. Carbon dioxide enters the leaf through stomata, and oxygen leaves the leaf through stomata. Water and (released) sugar come in through the veins of the leaf.

what is long covid

Long Covid can include many symptoms and pathologies. Symptoms can resolve in weeks or months.

spectrum of human viruses (4 types)

Marburg virus: Severe disease, 50% case fatality rate (percent of cases ending in death) • SARS-CoV-2: highly transmissible, <1% infection fatality rate for people under 60 before vaccines • Rhinovirus: Mild disease (colds), ~0% fatality rate • Anelloviruses: Few if any symptoms, carried by everyone from infancy to death. Hiding in plain sight and only recently discovered. Possibly beneficial?

evidence that covid can spread airborne?

On January 24, 2020, ten people got infected in a restaurant in Guangzhou, China (shown in red). The timing of the infections is consistent with an airborne spread of aerosols. Computer simulations showed that poor ventilation allowed tiny droplets to float around one end of the restaurant.

Identify a key misperception among the public that makes it harder to talk about climate change, and describe the action that any individual can take to address this misperception

People underestimate how worried others are and how much support there is for stronger action. Simply talking about our concerns can help bring more attention to the issue and motivate more decision-makers to explore their own solutions

where did viruses come from?

Present at the earliest stage in the history of life • Parasitic DNA breaking away from cellular life • Existing viruses shifting to new host species

define mitigation

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions &/or removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to slow global warming to reduce its harmful impacts.

how is HIV a "spillover virus"?

SIV - simian immunodeficiency virus - has jumped between African primates for years. SIV has "spilled over" from apes into humans numerous times over the past cenutry. the dominant lineage is HIV-1.

when does severe covid occur and what are its symptoms?

Severe Covid occurs when the virus colonizes the lungs and triggers a damaging immune response • Severe symptoms include difficulty breathing, chest pressure, difficulty staying awake

what is the moderna vaccine?

Spike gene messenger RNA in a lipid nanoparticle -- made of mRNA + water, sucrose, FDA approved buffers

what are t cells and what do they do?

T cells "learn" to recognize antigens on infected cells • T-cells that recognize viral epitopes can attack infected cells. • They cause cells suicide and trigger inflammation to fight infection • T cells take longer to develop and may be important for halting severe disease

how does the moderna vaccine work?

The Moderna vaccine uses mRNA for coronavirus spike proteins, encased in a lipid nanoparticle. Moderna vaccine is injected into muscle. The LNP is taken up by cells, including antigen presenting cells. The LNP deliver their mRNA to cells, which translate the mRNA into spike proteins (which are ultimately degraded entirely, leaving no trace). Antigen-presenting cells, a type of immune cell, take up these spike proteins and present them to T cells and B cells, which initiate the immune response. B cells create antibodies that can latch onto the spike proteins, preventing them from binding with ace2 receptors in the future.

What does fire combustion require?

The fire triangle: oxygen, heat, and fuel

how did HIV spread / what did it follow?

The historic spread of HIV followed the main means of human transportation in colonialera Democratic Republic of Congo: rivers and railways

How is the jet stream changing over time? How exactly is this happening? describe: 1) radiation and convection 2) what a "dry sinking" zone is 3) what a jet stream is

The jet stream is meandering more widely and getting stuck, leading to extreme weather. This is happening because.... due to radiation and convection, earth's surface is heated unequally. hottest around the equator, and then that heat is distributed to the poles. air rises and falls. when it rises, it becomes cooler. cool air can't hold as much water as warm air, so it drops the water as rain. as it descends or sinks, it becomes denser, drier, and warmer. the sahara desert, for example, is under a large zone of dry, sinking air. the jet stream pushes weather systems across the globe. it is a "river" or stream of fast-moving air in the upper atmosphere that flows from west to east, formed where warm tropical air meets cool polar air. Waves in the stream form ridges & troughs that can get stuck for days or even weeks, creating extreme weather that can be very different on opposite sides of the stream BUT A smaller pole-equator temperature difference --> a weaker jet stream. and a weaker jet stream --> slower wind speeds and bigger wiggles

what is the post hoc fallacy and how do clinical trials avoid this?

The post hoc fallacy is to conclude that A causes B merely because A comes before B Instead, clinical trials compare the relative risk of B if A happens, compared to the risk of B when A doesn't happen.

what are process-based global climate models?

They use hundreds of mathematical equations to represent the different parts of the climate system and how these parts interact with each other • Interactions include the exchange of mass, momentum, heat, and more

how is influenza transmitted? what does it infect?

Transmitted by air, contact -- Infects airway, can cause inflammation in the lungs

treatment of severe covid?

Treatment may require oxygen, ventilation, and steroids

how does creating antibodies work?

Unvaccinated people take four days to start making antibodies that can neutralize SARS-CoV-2. Dendritic cells capture viruses and present protein fragments (called antigens) to other immune cells. B cells develop antibodies that can bind to the antigen on full viruses.

why is vaccine safety especially important vs, say, a chemotherapy treatment?

Vaccine safety is particularly important, since vaccines are given to huge numbers of healthy people By contrast, a chemotherapy drug might be given to a small group of very sick people at high risk of death without treatment.

has carbon pricing already been implemented?

YES! 68 carbon pricing instruments have been implemented globally

what is the paris agreement?

a legally binding international treaty signed in 2016 at cop21 196 countries participating every five years countries submit an updated national climate action plan or "nationally determined contribution"

Describe some differences between the structure of a cell and the structure of a virus

a virus has spike proteins, envelope proteins, membrane proteins a cell has a large nucleus and nucleolus with a plasma membrane

what are global warming's 6 americas?

alarmed concerned cautious disengaged doubtful dismissive

what are the 7 key steps of viral replication

bind to a cell, release RNA, get the cell to make nonstructural proteins, manipulate the cell (stop host translation, turn down immune system), copy RNA, make spike and other structural proteins, package new viruses

what's are two examples of market-based policy to reduce carbon emissions?

carbon tax , + subsidies and standards

what countries in the world emit the most CO2?

china + EU + US = more than 50% global emissions.

what activities release CO2 into the environment? what's harmful about the amount that's currently being released?

combustion, respiration, volcanic activity, decomposition, burning fossil fuels... the earth is currently producing many more gigatons than can be absorbed

what do vaccines do?

create an adaptive immune response to a specific pathogen. a few vaccines eliminate infection, but most vaccines only reduce the risk.

general timeline of beginning of covid?

december 2019: first case in wuhan, january 2020 human to human transmission confirmed, feb 2020 disease named , march 2020 a pandemic

How was HIV first recognized/identified

early 1980s

what are some ways to approach reforestation?

environmental campaigns that encourage replanting trees modern technology can help plant trees - reforestation drones equipped with seed canisters

what are the three components that turn a severe weather event into a disaster for people and society?

exposure vulnerability weather and climate events

what are some examples of private sector actions to reduce carbon emissions?

ford campaigns for all electric vehicles geoengineering (pulling CO2 out of the air, reflecting sunlight to cool the planet) innovation: direct air capture (DAC): U.S.-based carbon removal facility hopes to capture CO2, roughly the equivalent of 5 million return flights between London and New York annually.

where are people most vulnerable to climate impacts?

south america and africa. this overlaps with where people already live in poverty, die from unclean water.

how does a carbon tax work?

governments levy a tax per unit of carbon dioxide produced. collect taxes and use for a specific purpose (subsidize renewable energy? return the money to individuals?) adjust the tax rate until we achieve the carbon emission reductions we want, consistent with the climate change target we've chosen

describe the impact in increase in asthma due to climate change (e.g. what demographics are impacted most)

hot days can enhance pollen productivity, which increases allergies and causes more asthma. pollution + smog also create asthma. puerto ricans are nearly 2x more likely than whites to have asthma. women account for 2/3 of US asthma deaths.

what does "vulnerability" mean, in terms of extreme weather events?

how unpepared we are for weather and climate events

what are 5 hypothesis for long covid?

immune dysregulation, microbiota dysbiosis, autoimmunity and immune priming, blood clotting and endolethial abnormalities, dysfunctional neurological signaling

define adaptation

improving our ability to cope with or avoid harmful impacts. Actions to reduce assets' vulnerability and risk, &/or exploit opportunities.

covid associated acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)

inflammation • Immune cells invade from blood vessels • Cell death, scarring • Blood clots

what does knowing a virus' genome make it possible to do?

make a polymerase chain reaction test (PCR)

why is testing for covid valuable?

makes it possible to estimate the total number of cases, hospitalization rates, and other important factors in a disease. • Scientists can also sequence the RNA in positive test samples. They can then reconstruct the full genome of SARSCoV-2 in an infection

Where on a leaf does photosynthesis occur?

mesophyll cells

what are our three choices when it comes to dealing with climate change?

mitigation, adaptation, and suffering

how is climate change impacting the location of freshwater? and how will this impact crop growth?

most continental masses are getting dryer, but only far further north will it be very wet. we will have to move crops away from the equator.

what puts people at greater risk for severe covid?

number one factor is age. but also obesity, chronic kidney disease, neurocognitive disorders g

what's an example of international policy to reduce carbon emissions?

paris agreement

why are photosynthesis and combustion important for the atmosphere?

photosynthesis and combustion control carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere. combustion gives off co2, green plants absorb it

pluralistic ignorance, and its impact?

pluralistic ignorance = Misjudging what other people generally think about an issue is called. relevance to climate change: a study asked people: What % of adults in the U.S. think global warming is happening? people said 54%. the real number was 72%.

pros and cons of carbon pricing?

pros: putting a price tag on polliution incentivizes companies to invest in cleaner technologies in order to avoid buying permits that will increase in cost every year cons: allowable levels can be too generous, slowing the move to cleaner enrgy. allowing businesses to trade permits means the dirtiest polluters can keep polluting, often in poor minority neighborhoods

risk ratio calculation

risk in group of primary interest / risk in comparison group

how, generally, does the coronavirus infect cells?

step 1: the virus' spike protein binds to a receptor on the host cell called ACE2. the host molecule cleaves the spike protein, exposing parts that fuse the viral membrane with the host's membrane step 2: viral RNA is translated into NSPs (non-structural proteins). they suppress the host messenger RNAs in favor of viral RNAs. step 3: the virus transforms the cell's ER -- internal membrane network -- into bubble-like structures that could host even more viral RNA step 4: once the newly made molecules assemble into a completed particle, it leaves the cell through the golgi apparatus step 5: a host enzyme makes a cut on the spike protein of the virus, which helps it infect another cell

what are subsidies and standards

subsidies: financial incentives for low-emissions technology innovation and deployment -- can be implemented through tax credits or direct public funding performance standards: create regulations that require specific products or processes to meet minimum or average benchmarks (e.g. tons of CO2 per kilowatt hour).

what's the most important thing we can do when it comes to climate change?

talk about it!

what does the climate system encompass?

the biosphere (living things), the hydrosphere (oceans, rivers and lakes), the cryosphere (ice and snow and glaciers), the atmosphere and the lithosphere (soil, rocks, geologic activity)

what does "exposure" mean, in terms of extreme weather? how is it impacted by the increase in extreme weather and climate events?

the people and valuable assets like infrastructure that are in harms way. with the increase in extreme weather and climate events, exposure is also increasing

why are viruses an important part of ecology?

they control the numbers of predator and prey. Phages are estimated to kill about 50 percent of all ocean bacteria every day. Viruses create natural selection for defenses against viruses in their hosts.

what's an example of national policies in china and the US to reduce carbon emissions?

though china is the worlds largest emitter of CO2, china has implemented over 100 policies to lower emissions what about the US? they implemented the inflation reduction act 2022, which seeks to lower energy costs, increase energy security, decarbonize all sectors, and focus on disadvantaged communities!

abundance in order of most to least: virus, prokaryote, protist?

virus, prokaryote, protist

how do we know we can trust climate models?

when they reproduce patterns observed in the present and past

primary variables in a climate model

winds temperature pressure and density moisture and humidity

in order of most energy consumed -> least energy consumed, what sources did the US get energy from in 1776-2020?

wood -> coal -> oil -> methane -> fossil fuels/renewables/nuclear fuels

what did SARS emerge / spillover from?

• Scientists found SARS-CoV in wild mammals sold in animal markets • Closely related coronaviruses were later discovered in bats • Another coronavirus, MERSCoV, emerged in 2015, spilling over from bats through camels in the Middle East • Scientists became concerned about other coronaviruses in bats that might spill over through intermediate hosts