exam 3

Four-year-old Alejandra keeps sustaining minor injuries around the home. The most likely reasons according to research are all of the following except __________.

Alejandra is a girl

All of the following statements are true regarding gender and cultural differences in children's autobiographical narratives, except __________.

Asian parents tend to have more detailed conversations about past events with their children than Western parents

What is an important difference between moral and social conventional rules?

Conventional rules are viewed by children as more open to change than moral rules.

One of the best ways for young children to first begin learning addition and subtraction is to __________.

count on their fingers or use concrete materials such as chips

Evidence for __________ is provided by studies showing that each gender pays greater attention to and has better memory for objects and events associated with their own gender.

gender schema theory

According to Barbara Rogoff, an adult who hands a child a toy shovel to play with in the sandbox as the adult digs with the shovel in the garden is engaging in __________.

guided participation

In a classic study of delay of gratification, it was observed how long 4-year-olds could wait for a larger treat when they had a smaller treat in front of them. Children who could wait longer, or who did not give in and eat the smaller treat, __________.

had higher educational achievement and social competence in adolescence

Diana Baumrind's influential studies of parenting style showed that children of authoritarian parents were more likely to __________ than children of authoritative parents.

have higher levels of both internalizing and externalizing behavior

Compared to Piaget's original versions of tasks, children are less likely to make errors of egocentrism and centration with tasks featuring all of the following characteristics except __________.

higher demands on sustained attention

A 4-year-old boy who adamantly believes that only boys can be firefighters and only girls can be nurses is applying __________ to the classification of these two careers.

his gender schema

Results of the National Head Start Impact Study __________.

included temporary cognitive gains and temporary reduction of behavior problem

The fact that in the afternoon child care is associated with rising levels of cortisol and staying at home with falling levels of cortisol __________.

indicates that at least some children may experience child care as stressful

Young children construct theories about what makes living and nonliving things different by __________ and asking questions about living things.

observing biological processes

Contemporary researchers investigating the zone of proximal development concept have found that children working together generally work at a higher level of skill than children working alone, but only when __________.

one collaborator is more advanced in the particular domain

One important way to maintain children's health is to be sure they get their full set of vaccinations. The following illnesses can be prevented by vaccines except __________.

otitis media

A child who watches a magician and then tries to do the trick on his own might imitate the magician's tone of voice or accent. This is called __________.

overimitation

As the kindergarten year progresses, a teacher lengthens the time he expects children to stay engaged in activities (from 5 to 10 minutes), an aspect of attention referred to as __________.

sustained attention

To study developmental changes in the bases of prosocial actions, researchers staged games in which a child or the experimenter "accidentally" damaged a block tower painstakingly built by another experimenter. The researchers concluded that 2-year-olds responded more on the basis of __________ and 3-year-olds on the basis of __________.

sympathy; guilt

All of the following are aspects of cognitive development that may contribute to improvements in autobiographical memories after age 3 except __________.

the formation of scripts for familiar events

Children tend to have more advanced conversation skills when __________.

they have parents who often signal when the child needs to clarify a remark

Children learning to speak English develop an increasing variety of sentences that use subject-verb-object order between 2 and 4 years of age. Development of these sentences appears to hinge on children's learning of the meanings of __________.

verbs

A mutually responsive orientation at ages 1 to 2 years differs from secure attachment in infancy in that it consists of __________.

warmth and responsiveness as well as the establishment of rules

The zone of proximal development is defined as the gap between __________.

what children can do on their own and what they can do with the help of a more skilled partner

Three-year-old Rosito uses his left hand to throw, eat, and draw like his father. His mother allows him to use his left hand when he wants to, which is most of the time. She is right-handed, though, and has been showing him how to use his right hand because she wants him to have the option of using both hands. According to research, Rosito__________.

will be slightly delayed in developing highly skilled movements with the left hand but will ultimately be predominantly left-handed

Young children display more advanced emotions, such as embarrassment, pride, and shame, between ages __________. These self-conscious emotions are crucial to human interaction.

18 and 24 months

All of the following statements about gross motor development are true, except for which one?

Fundamental movement skills do not follow any particular developmental sequences.

According to research, what should a father who wants to increase prosocial behavior in his 3-year-old boy do?

Model prosocial behavior or help the child regulate his emotions.

After five decades of follow-up research, developmental scientists now agree that __________.

Piaget underestimated young children's cognitive competence, and development is more gradual and continuous than Piaget thought

Which of the following descriptions of research findings regarding factors that influence the development of executive function is correct?

The cumulative amount of stress in the home environment is more important than any single stress factor considered alone.

A child asks for some candy in the car ride to the grocery store and starts crying when denied. Her father calmly explains that they are stopping at the store to buy groceries for dinner, and not candy. He tells his daughter she is expected to hold his hand and walk through the store quietly. Which parenting technique did this father use?

The father established family routines and responsibilities.

Which of the actions below appropriately uses more than one of the parenting techniques recommended in the chapter in a situation in which a child has just hit another child hard enough to leave a bruise?

The parent explains to the child how aggression makes others feel and puts the child in time-out to calm down and think about it.

All of the following are effective sources of increases in young children's receptive and expressive vocabularies except __________.

an adult correcting a child's pronunciation of a word

At 3 and 4 years of age, children's knowledge of living and non-living things is still growing. Which of the following is true?

When asked specific questions such as whether a plant or a toy car can grow, and whether it needs food or water, children of these ages differentiate living from non-living things.

Which of the following was cited by Canadian researchers as a potential cause of nightmares in children?

a fussy or anxious temperament

A type of memory that consists of a generalized version of everyday events is __________.

a script

A developmental cascade can occur in cases of maltreatment in which children have problems with emotion regulation leading later to difficulties with __________.

aggression and rejection by peers

Children whose parents speak two languages to them __________.

are able to select which language to use when addressed in that language

The cognitive benefits of high-quality child care programs __________.

are seen across a wide range of cognitive skills such as language, memory, and literacy

One of the best ways adults can improve children's narratives of events (such as a trip to Grandma's) is to __________.

ask the child to tell what happened and prompt her with specific questions

A mother asks her 3-year-old son to keep his food on the table and reminds him when he "accidentally" knocks it off. When he throws food at his sister, she explains to him that this is against the rules because it makes things dirty and hurts his sister's feelings. This parenting style would be classified as __________.

authoritative

The finding that many Chinese parents use a style that is more demanding and less overtly affectionate than the average Western (European or Euro American) parent __________.

can be viewed as a culturally influenced variation on authoritative parenting

According to DeLoache's dual representation hypothesis, young children may not be able to use a scale model to help them search for a hidden object in a full-sized room because they __________.

cannot think of the scale model as both an object and a representation of another object at the same time

When Allison picked the taller of two glasses with equal amounts of liquids as having more, she was demonstrating __________.

centration

Cross-cultural studies of the development of theories of mind have found all of the following except __________.

children show the most progress in understanding theory of mind concepts between two and three years of age across cultures

A cultural difference in moral socialization goals was found in which Taiwanese parents emphasized __________ with their young children, whereas European American parents emphasized __________ days or weeks after the original misbehavior.

children's misdeeds and their consequences; the children's autonomy and self-esteem

Both Kellogg's classic studies of children's drawing and a more recently published study show that a key process underlying the development of drawing at ages 3 to 4 years is __________.

cognitive advances in understanding and using symbols

Height is affected by all of the following except __________.

cognitive development

Each of the following has been found in laboratory studies to be an effective emotion regulation strategy in the preschool years except __________.

comforting the child with physical affection

All of the following are aspects of the self-concept obtained from children's self-descriptions except __________.

complex psychological characteristics such as trustworthiness

The growth of white matter in early childhood seems to serve the purpose of improving __________.

connections among many different brain areas

Although the total amount of aggressive behavior decreases between 4 and 8 years of age, as a proportion of aggressive behavior, instrumental aggression __________ and reactive aggression __________.

declines; increases

Psychologists infer that children know they have a personality because when asked to compare themselves to a puppet's personality, the children __________.

described how they usually acted in a way that was consistent with parents' assessment of their personality traits

Which key principle of developmental systems theory underlies the observation that certain experiences bias children from birth to be predominantly left- or right-handed, but the process of development of hand preference can be delayed or even reversed (e.g., from left to right or right to left) within the first 5 years of postnatal development?

developmental cascade

Parents promote gender typing not only by modeling gender stereotyped roles around the house, but also by praising gender-typical play and ignoring (or failing to reward) gender-atypical play, a process known as __________.

differential reinforcement

Children who can guess what a character described as selfish might do next in a story appear to have a level of understanding of other people's __________.

dispositional traits

Four-year-old Lisa meets a cuddly-looking dog at the park. She has a dog at home, and in the past she has impulsively petted unfamiliar dogs. However, before petting the dog, she asks the dog's owner if it's OK. Lisa is demonstrating __________.

effortful control

A child thinks that because she is traveling in a car, headed toward the zoo, everyone else on the road must be going to the zoo. This is an example of __________.

egocentrism

The five main categories of maltreatment consist of all of the following except __________.

emotional abuse

Older studies gave children a choice as to whom they were more like, boys or girls. A recent study asked children how similar they were to both boys and girls in terms of appearance, behavior, preferences, and spending time. About half of the children endorsed primarily their own birth gender. The next most common response was to __________.

endorse both genders about equally

All of the following are aspects of attention that improve in early childhood and may contribute to the ability to comprehend stories read aloud by a teacher or math lessons except __________.

engaging in social interaction at the same time as listening to the teacher

Adoptive parents who were authoritative tended to have adoptive children with higher social competence at age 7, independent of the child's temperament or attachment security. This finding suggests that there are __________.

environmental influences of parenting style on social competence

Studies measuring cortisol levels as children were induced to experience a self-conscious emotion revealed that __________.

evaluative embarrassment and shame are more stressful than simple embarrassment

According to Vygotsky, sociodramatic play with peers may have benefits for _________

executive functioning

According to the PING study, brain areas showing the greatest amount of increase in surface area in early childhood (3 to 5 years) were areas governing __________.

executive functions and speech, language, and memory functions

A longitudinal study of personality types revealed that undercontrolled children were rated by teachers as having more __________ problems than the other two groups and lower scores in reading and math. Overcontrolled children had more __________ problems in relation to resilient children.

externalizing; internalizing

Based on research, children are more likely to remember an event at a later time if they construct a narrative immediately afterward that contains __________.

facts as well as emotional content

According to the Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics, the most common reason that parents bring a child ages 1 to 4 to an emergency room is that the child __________.

fell and got injured

Mason and his parents live in Detroit. His parents are financially strapped and do not always have enough food in the house to feed the entire family. The parents sometimes go without a full meal so that Mason can eat until he is satisfied, but sometimes even Mason does not get enough to eat. Mason's situation would best be described as __________.

food insecurity

The prevention studies focusing on annual family check-up meetings with researchers provided interventions to high-risk children who showed problem behavior as toddlers and lived in adverse family and socioeconomic conditions. A key finding was that __________.

interventions were successful in reducing conduct problems through age 9½ years

Children's emotional knowledge is greater when parents __________.

label and explain emotions

A common scenario in an act of abuse is a type of "perfect storm" in which a parent is under a great deal of immediate stress, a young child's behavior has upset the parent, and the parent __________.

lacks appropriate parenting skills and knowledge of children's capabilities

Parents might put magnetic letters and pictures of items beginning with that letter (such as C - cat) on the refrigerator to reinforce __________ and read stories aloud to their children to build __________.

letter and phonological awareness; oral language skill

High-quality child care is linked to __________ and __________.

low levels of aggression; high levels of social competence

The style of play most characteristic of boys, involving physical play and mock aggression, is called __________ play.

rough-and-tumble

Five-year-old Veronica understands that someone can hold a false belief. She spilled some milk and was not observed doing it. Her father asks her who spilled the milk. Based on observational and experimental studies, she is more likely to do which of the following at this age, compared to age 3?

make up a story about how the milk got spilled by accident

Girls exposed to male sex hormones prenatally may tend to show __________.

masculine play preferences

Studies have shown that programs that make home visits lead to a reduction in cases of child maltreatment among at-risk mothers compared to a control group that did not receive home visits. One likely mediating factor in these experimental interventions is __________.

mothers learning to manage stress as well as child caregiving

Level 1 perspective taking is possible at 2 to 3 years of age, but level 2 perspective taking may not be possible until 4.5 years of age, particularly when children __________.

must realize that another person may see an object differently than the child sees it

Young children's self-assessments of their abilities and personality traits are often characterized by an overconfidence known as __________.

positivity bias

According to Piaget, all of the following statements are true about preschoolers' thinking in the preoperational period, except __________.

preschoolers have a solid understanding of the principle of conservation and can perform reversible mental operations

Studies of how much glucose the brains of children and adults consume (using the PET scanner) found that __________.

preschoolers' brains were the most active

When a child seeks to harm another child's social reputation or social relationships, this type of aggression is called __________ aggression.

relational

Aubrey was screened as part of a health study and was found to have a high blood level of cotinine and frequent asthma symptoms. Aubrey has likely been exposed to __________.

secondhand cigarette smoke

Which aspect of executive function was challenged when researchers asked children to sort cards first by color and then by shape?

shifting between mental states, rules, or tasks

Parenting intervention studies can be used to __________.

show that changes in parenting style may be causally linked to changes in child behavior

With regard to personality type, overcontrolled children are __________ and undercontrolled children are __________.

shy but obedient; impulsive and emotional

Extensive experience in child care (an average of 20 hours per week or more) over the first four years is linked at age 5 to __________.

slightly higher externalizing of problems and lack of compliance with teachers

In contrast to older children, who regard friends as having a long-term relationship based on trust, preschool-age children regard friends as __________.

someone to share toys and have fun with, possibly over several days or weeks

Which method of parental correction has been frequently and consistently associated with negative outcomes, such as higher externalizing behavior (e.g., aggression and antisocial behavior), reduced quality of parent-child relationships, and elevated child mental health problems?

spanking

A first-grade teacher notices that one of her 6½ -year-old pupils is holding his pencil tightly in his fist, making most of his movements with his arm. He is drawing a picture of a man in a hat. She is surprised to see that at his age, he is __________.

still using the power grip

A Chinese boy whose parents recently emigrated from China to the United States becomes impatient with a trip to the grocery store and starts whining loudly. He is likely to be __________.

told by his parents that he is embarrassing them

Part of the reason children can discriminate between moral and social conventional rules at such a young age is that parents __________.

treat moral rules more seriously and speak about different kinds of issues in connection with the two types of rules

When asked what a female or male doll "likes" to do, 3- to 4-year-old boys and girls usually respond that the female doll likes cooking and dressing up, and the male doll likes play-fighting and playing with trucks. This response reflects an awareness of gender __________.

typing

According to Kochanska's longitudinal studies, children who develop a mutually responsive orientation with their parents are more likely to __________ than the children of power-assertive parents.

understand their parents' rules

Children who engage in more sociodramatic play with peers or siblings are found in longitudinal studies to exhibit higher levels of __________.

understanding of other people's mental states (theory of mind)