Exam 3 Practice
When using a means-ends analysis, as in the Tower of Hanoi problem, the typical purpose of subgoals is to:
bring the problem solver closer and closer to the goal state.
According to Grice, the way we understand the intended meaning of an utterance is
by recognizing that the utterance violates a conversational maxim and then making a conversational implicature
The smallest unit of meaning in a given language is called:
morpheme
Reasoning about causality, about threat, and about seeking permission are typically done using
pragmatic reasoning schemas.
When we say "Can you open the door?" instead of "Open the door!", we are using rules of politeness. These rules are part of which aspect of linguistic knowledge?
pragmatics
Which of the following types of linguistic knowledge is likely to involve social skills and considering the perspective of other speakers?
pragmatics
Spreading activation
primes associated concepts
The ability to shift experience from one problem-solving situation to a similar problem is known as
analogical transfer
Which is NOT true for highly typical members of a categories?
They are produced late when listing members of that category
People commit the conjunction fallacy when:
They judge that the probability of two events co-occurring is higher than the of one of the events occurring alone.
Warren and colleagues found that when they replaced a speech sound with the sound of coughing or noise, listeners perceived it according to the sentence context (e.g., hearing "heel" in "It was found that the *eel was on the shoe"). These findings suggest:
Top-down effects of context on speech perception
Which of the following provides the best example of functional fixedness
Using a juice glass as a container for orange juice
When a professor in an in-person class points to a diagram projected on the screen, what kind of common ground does the professor establish with the students in that moment?
Visual / physical co-presence
Which co-presence heuristic refers to information in the shared perceptual environment?
Visual co-presence
Writing the resume you'd need for your dream job to identify the steps you need to get there, best exemplifies which formal method?
Working backward
You enroll a seminar w/ 20 students where 10 are students whom you've gotten to know this semester in this class & 10 are strangers. Right after the first class meeting..
You are likely to overestimate the number of students you know in the s
If you keep trying the same strategy again and again in problem solving, even when that strategy isn't efficient or successful, you may be experiencing
a mental set effect
In evaluating retrieval rates for category information for a concept, Collins and Quillian's hierarchical semantic network approach would predict the slowest reaction times for which of the following statements using a sentence verification technique?
a sparrow is an animal
In Swinney's experiment just described, hearing the ambiguous word "bug" primed
both "ant" and "spy" at the early point and only "ant" later point
Creativity implies that a solution is
both novel and useful
In a lexical decision task, you would be fastest to confirm that pair of words:
bread-wheat
Which of the choices best represents cognitive economy in the following sentence? The property _______is stored at the _______node.
can fly; bird
Not all of the members of everyday categories have the same features. Most fish have gills, fins, and scales. Sharks lack the feature of scales, yet they are still categorized as fish. This poses a problem for the ___________ approach to categorization.
classical / definitional
Which of the following terms is most closely associated with the hierarchical semantic network?
cognitive economy
Learning in the connectionist network is represented by adjustments to network
connection weights
Learning in the connectionist network is represented by adjustments to network
connection weights
One of the key properties of the ___________ approach is that a specific concept is represented by activity that is distributed over many units in the network.
connectionist
The process of back propagation is most closely associated with
connectionist networks
Sentences that are syntactically ambiguous:
contain a word that has many different meanings
What is NOT a way to improve problem solving:
continuing to use same strategy, even if it isn't efficient or successful
Functional fixedness refers to tendency for people to think in terms of
conventional functions of objects.
"The horse raced past the barn fell." The reason we have trouble understanding garden path sentences like this one is that
language is interpreted word by word, as we hear it.
The fact that participants alternated their gaze fixations between the apple and the empty towel in the context with one apple but not in the context with two apples suggests that
listeners can eliminate syntactic ambiguity in the right visual context. listeners cannot resolve syntactically ambiguous sentences even with visual context (missed question)
In a referential communication task, pairs repeatedly referring to the same objects (e.g., tangram shapes) exhibit all of the following patterns EXCEPT
longer references over time
You are visiting MIT, which has a very large engineering department and a very small art department. You see a bearded professor in a coat with paint splotches on it, and decide he must be a faculty member in the art department. What judgment error have you made?
neglecting the base rate
Functional fixedness would be LOWEST for a(n)
novel object.
A descriptive decision theory is
one that describes the way people typically make decisions.
Utility refers to
outcomes that help achieve our goals and are in our best interest!
During a "tip-of-the-tongue" state, speakers typically have words.
partial access to information about words
Reasoning about causality, about threat, and about seeking permission are typically done using
pragmatic reasoning schemas
In Swinney's (1979) experiment, people heard a sentence like "The waiter poured the port into the glass." (Note: "port" is both a kind of wine and a place to dock ships.) They made a lexical decision at one of two test points: either immediately after hearing "port," or a bit later. For the lexical decision, they had to indicate whether a word shown (e.g., "wine", "ship", "pog") was a real word or not. Overall, the results showed:
priming for both "wine" and "ship" at the early point but only for "wine" at the later point
What is NOT true about the hierarchical semantic network model?
properties (e.g., "is yellow", "can fly") are stored as a separate level of nod, model
What is NOT true about the hierarchical semantic network model?
properties (e.g., "is yellow", "can fly") are stored as a separate level of nodes in the model
Warmth judgments on nearness to a solution _. prior to the solution of an insight problem and prior to the solution of a non-insight problem.
rise suddenly just; rise gradually
Alan Newell and Herbert Simon approached problem-solving is a process that involves
search
Alan Newell and Herbert Simon were early pioneers in designing computer programs that could solve problems. Their research program was based on the idea that problem-solving is a process that involves
search
The water-jug problem demonstrates that one consequence of having a procedure that does provide a solution to a problem is that, if well-learned, it may prevent us from
seeing more efficient solutions to the problem
The water-jug problem demonstrates that developing a mental set may prevent us from
seeing more efficient solutions to the problem.
In a lexical decision task, responding yes to "nurse" after seeing "doctor" is faster than responding yes to "nurse" after seeing "butter." This is an example of
semantic priming
Parsing, the mental grouping of words into sentences, is most relevant to:
sentence comprehension
The most prototypical members of a category
share many attributes with one another
The word frequency effect refers to the fact that we respond more
slowly to low-frequency words than high-frequency words.
Considering the fortress and the radiation problems together in the Gick and Holyoak study, the fortress problem represents the problem.
source
A normative theory of reasoning is one that
specifies what people should do, if they were behaving logically.
Items high on prototypicality have ___________ family resemblances.
strong
"Crow" is at the - level of category membership, while "bird" is at the level.
subordinate; basic
"Haddock" is at the __________ level of category membership, while "fish" is at the __________ level.
subordinate; basic
Jumping from ___________ categories results in the largest gain in information.
superordinate level to basic level
In Chomsky's Transformational Grammar, a sentence uttered by a speaker corresponds to its and the underlying meaning of a sentence corresponds to its
surface structure - deep structure
When two people engage in a conversation, if one person produces a specific grammatical construction in their speech and then the other person does the same, this phenomenon is referred to as
syntactic priming
Autonomous models of parsing claim that
syntax is processed before semantics and pragmatics
In analogical problem solving, the _________________ problem is the problem that an individual is trying to solve, and the _________________ problem, which has been solved in the past, is used as a guide for reaching that solution.
target; source
Consider following scenario. During a road trip, your car runs out of gas in front of a convenience store. You ask the store clerk: You: Excuse me, how far is the nearest gas station? Store Clerk: It's about a mile and a half that way. (points East) You walk in that direction and find the gas station, but it's empty and dilapidated. It has been obviously abandoned for years! Which maxim did the store clerk violate? (Choose the BEST answer.)
the Maxim of Quantity
The lack of invariance problem refers to the fact that there is no one-to- one correspondence between:
the acoustic cues in the speech signal and how we perceive speech so
What is NOT a top-down factor influencing speech perception:
the acoustic properties of speech sounds
Knowing which level of category membership provides the greatest gain in information?
the basic level
Illustrative of functional fixedness, people are more likely to solve the candle problem if
the box is empty
Collins and Quillian's hierarchical semantic network model predicts that the time it takes for a person to retrieve information about a concept should be determined by
the distance that must be traveled through the network.
Which view of categories accounts best for ad hoc categories (e.g., things you'd take from your home during a fire)?
the exemplar view
Which view of categories accounts best for ad hoc categories (e.g., things you'd take from your home during a fire)?
the exemplar view
Stereotypes are reinforced by all of the following EXCEPT
the falsification principle
The availability heuristic in decision making comes from the fact that we tend to rely on information that is easy to retrieve from memory. Which of these factors makes information easier to retrieve and use in applying this heuristic?
the frequency of and familiarity with the information.
Which of these factors makes information easier to retrieve and use in applying the availability heuristic?
the frequency of and familiarity with the information.
The vertical dimension of the hierarchical organization of categories captures their __________ whereas the horizontal dimension captures __________ .
the level of abstraction across category levels; typicality within a given category level
Which of Grice's maxims states that our contributions to the conversation must be truthful?
the maxim of Quality
In the abstract version of the Wason task we've been considering, the most common error--choosing to check the backside of the E and 4 cards--is:
A modus tollens error
People tend to incorrectly conclude that more people die from tornados than from asthma because
They are more frequently exposed to stories about tornados than about asthma media
Connectionist models differ from the hierarchical semantic network model in that 10 ces A. they abandon the assumption that concepts are hierarchically organized B. properties of objects are not linked directly to the nodes/units of the concept C. they include hidden units A, B, and C
A,B, & C
Connectionist models differ from the hierarchical semantic network model in that
A,B, and C
Why is it faster to answer the question "Can a bird fly" than "Can a bird sing?"
Because "can fly" is directly linked to "bird", and "can sing" is stored more dis a subordinate category like "canary".
Why does the hierarchical semantic network offer "cognitive economy"?
Because shared properties are stored only once, at higher level node
Why does the hierarchical semantic network offer "cognitive economy"?
Because shared properties are stored only once, at higher level nodes
Which of the following statements does NOT apply to the results of research on differences between how experts and novices solve problems?
Being an expert in one field can transfer to better problem solving in another field.
According to the feature comparison model, when comparing two concepts, the first stage is to
Compare all their features (defining and characteristic) to establish the overall degree of overlap
According to Chomsky's Transformational Grammar the sentences "The dog chased the cat" and "The cat was chased by the dog" have the same:
Deep structure
"Syndrome Z" is a very serious disease that is nearly always fatal and strikes one person in 1,000,000. Common symptoms are blurry vision, shaky hands, a rash, and a craving for broccoli. A certain Dr. Payne examines a patient who has blurry vision, shaky hands, and a craving for broccoli, and immediately diagnoses that the patient has Syndrome Z. What is probably going on here?
Dr. Payne's diagnosis is probably wrong; he is disregarding the base rate.
When listeners hear synthesized sounds with varying voice onset times (VOT) (e.g., between /ga/ and /ka/) and have to identify each as belonging to to either phonemic category:
Identification changes abruptly at some point along the continuum of
Which of these versions of the Wason task would probably be the most difficult to reason about?
If a card has a vowel on one side, it should have an even number on the
According to the feature comparison model, when comparing two concepts all their features (defining and characteristic) of the concepts are compared first. Then,
If there is moderate overlap in those features and a decision cannot be made, their defining features are compared
The view that we use all available information (syntactic, lexical, discourse, visual) in our initial parsing of a sentence describes the model of parsing
Interactive/ Constraint-based
What is NOT true about the hierarchical semantic network model?
It explains typicality effects
Which of the following is not true about divergent thinking?
It generates a single correct answer.
Which of the following is NOT part of a complete definition of a problem?
It has one correct answer
Incubation involves getting ideas after taking a time-out from working on a problem. Why does incubation work?
It helps release from mental sets and functional fixedness It helps retrieve new information by changing contexts It helps recover from fatigue resulting from conscious problem solving
What is NOT a typical characteristic of face to face conversation?
It results in a tangible record that speakers can later access
The phenomenon that two people come to use the same terms when they repeatedly discuss the same object is called:
Lexical Entrainment
In deductive reasoning, reasoning forward from the premises to the conclusion is called:
Modus ponens
In the public health crisis dilemma we've just seen, people are more risk- seeking when the problem is phrased as a loss because
Of loss aversion: people have more intense reactions to losses than correspor so they try to avoid losses
What is NOT true?
People should only use base rate information when making judgments abou someone is a member of a specific class of the population
The inhabitants of a village have been exposed to a lethal virus. Fortunately, the virus is contained within the village and will not spread any further. The mayor of the village is considering two programs to combat the virus. If Program I is adopted, half of the people in the village will die and half will live. If Program II is adopted, there is a 50% chance that everyone will die and a 50% chance that everyone will live. Based on Tversky & Kahneman's research on framing, which program is the mayor most likely to choose?
Program II, because people tend to be risk-seeking in the face of a potential loss.
Which strategy DOES NOT result in failure on the Wason task?
Seeking evidence that falsify the rule
During a "tip-of-the-tongue" (TOT) state:
Speakers have partial access to words: they have access to the meaning, but not enough phonological information
What is claimed by the classical view of categories?
That a category can be summarized by its necessary and sufficient features
Which of the following affects speech perception?
The acoustic properties of speech The speaker's speech rate The predictability of the sentence context
The vertical dimension of the hierarchical organization of categories captures their level of abstraction, whereas the horizontal dimension captures
The typicality of a case in a category
Which is NOT true for highly typical members of a categories?
They are affected less by priming
Consider the Wason task with this rule: Whenever Cookie Monster eats cookies, he drinks milk. Four situations are represented by four cards below. Each has a statement about what Cookie Monster is eating on one side and a statement about what he is drinking on the other. 1. Cookie Monster is eating cookies. 2. Cookie Monster is drinking milk. 3. Cookie Monster is eating popcorn. 4. Cookie Monster is drinking ginger beer. The task is to turn over the fewest number of cards possible, to see if the rule is being violated.Participants who turn over cards 1 and 2:
are incorrect, possibly because of a matching bias.
Words that have more than one meaning
are lexically ambiguous
According to the feature comparison model, judgments about less typical category members (e.g., "chicken" in relation to "bird"):
are slower because they require going through the second stage (of compa defining features of the two concepts)
The finding that people tend to incorrectly conclude that more people die from tornados than from asthma has been explained in terms of the
availability heuristic
In the study by Tanenhaus and colleagues (1995), participants heard the sentence "Put the apple on the towel in the box", either in a visual context with one apple on a towel and an empty towel, or in a visual context with two apples: one on a towel and one on a napkin. The researchers found that:
b. When the visual context had only one apple, participants were more likely to alternate their gaze fixations between the apple and the empty towel (indicating confusion about the interpretation of "on the towel"). d. The findings suggest that listeners can eliminate syntactic ambiguity in the right visual context.
In a connectionist network, learning takes place through a process of ___________ in which an error signal from the property units is transmitted back through the network.
back propagation
Consider the following logic: 1. All living things need water. 2. Dogs need water. 3. Conclusion: Therefore, dogs are living things. Why are people fairly likely to judge the conclusion of this syllogism to be valid?
because the conclusion is *true*.
What is NOT one key area of inquiry the field of psycholinguistics?
documenting the grammar of different languages
One beneficial property of connectionist networks is graceful degradation, which refers to the property that
damage to the system does not completely disrupt its operation
One beneficial property of connectionist networks is graceful degradation, which refers to the property that
damage to the system does not completely disrupt its operation.
Reasoning from general principles to specific cases refers to:
deductive reasoning
The two different versions of the speech sound /t/ in the words "tennis" and "butter" are:
different allophones of /t/
What is NOT a problem for the classical view of categories:
establishing necessary and sufficient features for geometric shapes
The availability heuristic states that
events that come to mind more easily are judged as being more probable
The "gambler's fallacy" is due to
failing to treat each throw of the dice as independent of previous thre
According to prospect theory, when a situation is framed in terms of gains, people tend toward a risk-taking strategy.
false
According to the probabilistic view of categories, each member of a category must share all the features of all other category members.
false
More participants solved Ducker's candle problem when the material for solving the problem were presented in boxes.
false
Syllogisms that are valid are always true.
false
Even though attributes of a category (e.g., "chair) are frequently shared by other members of the category (e.g. having four legs), there is no single attribute that is common to all instances. Still, people can recognize a variety of examples because each instance has one or more attributes in common with one or more other instances. This illustrates the principle of _________
family resemblance
In a referential communication task, pairs repeatedly referring to the same objects (e.g., tangram shapes) exhibit all of the following patterns EXCEPT:
fewer definite expressions over time
Metcalfe and Wiebe (1987) gave participants problems to solve and asked them to make "warmth" judgments every 15 seconds to indicate how close they felt they were to a solution. They predicted that participants' ratings would be more accurate in predicting how close they were to the solution:
for non-insight problems (algebra) than the insight problems (e.g., triangle and chain problems)
Experts categorize problems based on
general principles that problems share.
What is one danger of applying the difference reduction method of problem solving?
hill climbing
What is one danger of applying the difference reduction method of problem solving?
hill climbing
Noam Chomsky proposed that
humans are genetically programmed to acquire and use language.
According to the feature comparison model, when comparing two concepts all their features (defining and characteristic) of the concepts are compared first. Then,
if there is moderate overlap in those features and a decision cannot be ma defining features are compared
In Gick and Holyoak's (1980, 1983) studies of problem-solving, people were more likely to transfer an earlier solution to solving the "radiation problem".
if they had read an analogous problem and they were prompted to think
In Gick and Holyoak's (1980, 1983) studies of problem-solving, people were more likely to transfer an earlier solution (presented in an analogous problem: "the fortress story"), to solving a new problem (the "radiation problem"):
if they had read an analogous problem and they were prompted to think about it
The fact that people are play at casinos even when they know that the casino always wins in the long run...
is against expected utility theory
What is NOT true about the hierarchical semantic network model?
it explains typicality effects
What is NOT true about the distance between nodes in a semantic network?
it is larger when concepts (nodes) are semantically related
refers to our abstract knowledge of language, which permits us to make judgments about what acceptable or not in our language.
language competence
In a lexical decision task, participants have to decide whether
the presented stimuli are words
Which view of categories determines category membership based on a weighted sum of features?
the probabilistic view
Collins and Quillian's hierarchical semantic network model predicts that the reaction time to verify "a canary is a bird" is ___________ the reaction time to verify "an ostrich is a bird."
the same as
Insight refers to
the sudden realization of a problem's solution.
In studies on categorical perception, listeners hear synthesized sounds with varying voice onset times (VOT) (e.g., between /ga/ and /ka/) and have to identify each as belonging to either phonemic category (e.g., as a /ga/ or a /ka/). Results show that
there is a boundary along the continuum of VOT associated with an abrupt change how the sounds are classified
How many morphemes are there in the word "drycleaner"?
three
According to Grice, the way we understand the intended meaning of an utterance is by recognizing when it violates a conversational maxim and drawing a conversational implicature to make sense of that violation.
true
All models of conceptual organization are semantic network models.
true
Analogical transfer is the ability to transfer experience from one problem- solving situation to a similar problem.
true
If we encounter a new thing (e.g., seeing a fleshy growth on a tree in the forest) and we learn its category (e.g., it's a mushroom), we can make inferences about it.
true
In connectionist models, concepts are represented in terms of distributed activity across many units in the network.
true
Noam Chomsky noted that children generate many sentences they have never heard before. From this, he concluded that language development cannot be explained by imitation and reinforcement, and it is largely driven by an innate biological program.
true
People typically think that it's more likely to get the sequence "1, 4, 6, 3, 5, 4" than "3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3" when rolling a fair die 6 times. This is because they incorrectly judge that the first, unorderly sequence to be more representative of the random
true
The classical view of categories claims that a category can be summarized by its necessary and sufficient features
true
The segmentation problem refers to the fact that speech is continuous, often without pauses, making it difficult to separate words and sounds.
true
Two advantages of the Feature Comparison Model relative to the Hierarchical Semantic Network Model are that (a) it account well for typicality effects, and (b) it accounts for category size effects and reversals.
true
Which is NOT a formal method for problem-solving:
using analogy
The "late closure" strategy of parsing proposes that:
we prefer to attach incoming words to the current clause (phrase)
The "minimal attachment" strategy of parsing proposes that:
we prefer to the syntactic construction the fewest syntactic nodes pos
Which of the following is NOT one of the types of units found within a parallel distributed processing (connectionist) model?
working units