Exam 4

252. Which amendment lowered the voting age to 18?

26th

257. What are initiatives and referenda?

A ballot initiative is an election where the voters decide whether to support or reject a proposed law. A referendum is an election where the voters go to the polls to approve or reject a law that has been passed by the state legislature or a local government body.

265. What are sound bites?

A piece of a person speaking during a speech or video. Nowadays, sound bites are used to make fun of a politician. People will take these sound bites out of context and use them to negatively represent the politician.

273.Know the difference between preemptive and preventative war.

A preventive war is launched to destroy the potential threat of the targeted party, when an attack by that party is not imminent or known to be planned. A preemptive war is launched in anticipation of immediate aggression by another party.

258. Know what a primary election is, and know the several times of primary elections.

A primary election is an election to determine who will be the party's nominee for office. A primary election is typically an intra-party election: the members of a party vote to determine who gets to run with the party label in the general election. There are four basic types of primary elections: closed primaries, open primaries, modified closed primaries, and modified open primaries. Closed primaries are primary elections where voters are required to register with a specific party before the election and are only able to vote in the party's election for which they are registered. Open primary elections allow anyone who is eligible to vote in the primary election to vote for a party's selection. In modified closed primaries, the state party decides who can vote in its primary. In modified open primaries, independent voters and registered party members can vote in the nomination contest.

264. What are safe seats, and how do they affect responsiveness to one's constituents? Why are House elections considered fairly undemocratic (hint: it has to do with gerrymandering)?

A safe seat is a seat in a legislative body that is very unlikely to be lost to the opposition in an election. This affects responsiveness to one's constituents in the way that the opposition is unlikely to participate in the election because they know there is no chance of them winning the seat. House elections are considered fairly undemocratic because of the possibility of gerrymandering occurring. Re-writing electoral district lines in the way that the election will favor one party over another, which diminishes the value of being able to vote for the party you're going for.

262. Why does abolishing the Electoral College seem unlikely? Which states benefit from this institution?

Abolishing it is unlikely because doing so would require a constitutional amendment—and ratification of a constitutional amendment requires three-quarters of the state legislature to support it. The less populous states are not likely to support an amendment to abolish the Electoral College in favor of direct popular election of the president because doing so would decrease the voting power of the less populous states. Small states such as Wyoming and North Dakota would lose power and more populous states such as California and New York would gain power.

181. In what sense do political parties and other "mediating structures" empower people?

Because political parties give a sense that the people can have a voice in their government.

185. Be familiar with the-single member district plurality and proportional representation electoral systems. How do these systems affect the way that the political game is played? Also, be familiar with Duverger's Law. See your lecture notes.

Both representation systems provide a way for each party that is running to get some sort of representation.

275. Be familiar with the following terms: collective security, containment, deterrence. See your lecture notes.

Collective Security: The cooperation of several countries in an alliance to strengthen the security of each. Containment: The action or policy of preventing the expansion of a hostile country or influence. This was put into play when the U.S. wanted to limit Soviet influence in countries. Deterrence: The action of discouraging an action or event through instilling doubt or fear of the consequences. For example, preventing a nuclear threat.

272. What institution formally declares war?

Congress formally declares war.

271. Know the major government participants (e.g., the State Department) in the global affairs issue network, as well as their roles and goals (in brief).

Congress: The Constitution grants Congress the power to declare war and it requires treaties, which are negotiated by the president, to be ratified by the Senate. Congress also has the power of the purse. This is relevant to global affairs because it means that Congress enacts the civilian budget for the State Department, which is one of the main foreign policy actors, and the military budget for the Department of Defense. Congress uses its power of the purse, its budget authority, to influence foreign and national security policy. The President: The president and the secretary of state, a presidential appointee, are the primary actors responsible for making and managing foreign policy. The State Department: The main executive branch agency responsible for developing and implementing foreign policy under the president's direction. The Department of Defense: Plays a central role in providing for national security. The National Security Agency: Protect U.S. national security systems and to produce foreign signals intelligence information. The Central Intelligence Agency: "The nation's first line of defense." The Department of Homeland Security: It can be considered an umbrella organization because it has responsibility for such a broad range of functions that are related to homeland security ranging from transportation to immigration to telecommunications policy. Non-Governmental Organizations: There is a large and growing body of non-governmental actors that lobby in the area of global affairs policy. The interest groups are varied, with organizations advocating on behalf of economic, ideological, ethnic and national identity, religious, and other issue-based interests or causes.

263. What are midterm elections? How well does the incumbent president's party typically perform during these elections, and why?

Congressional elections that do not coincide with presidential elections are called midterm elections—because they occur in the middle of a President's four-year term of office. There is a historical pattern that the incumbent president's party loses seats in mid-term elections. In mid-term elections, the president is not on the ballot. The president's party usually loses seats in mid-term elections. One reason for mid-term losses is the president's popularity has slipped during the two years in office. Another cause of mid-term election loss is the fact that voter turnout is lower in mid-term elections, and members of the president's party are less likely to vote in an election when their president is not on the ballot. These patterns of voting behavior illustrate the partisan linkages between congressional and presidential elections.

239. What is the difference between budgets deficits and the overall national debt? Keynes supported deficit spending. Why? See your lecture notes.

Deficit spending occurs when government spending exceeds revenue in a fiscal year and the year ends with red ink. If the government spends more than it taxes, the fiscal year ends with a budget deficit. The national debt is the cumulative budget deficits. Keynes believed that government should use fiscal policy to manage the business cycle, to moderate the extremes of expansion and contraction, to avoid the boom (the rapid economic expansion that leads to inflation) and burst (recession or depression).

202. What is social capital, and why does it matter? See your lecture notes.

Democratic and civic habits of discussion, compromise, and respect for differences, which grow out of participation in voluntary organizations

254. Be familiar with the different ways in demographic factors (e.g., race) affect voter turnout. Review your lecture notes on the hypothesized causes of America's low turnout.

Demographic factors that are related to voter turn-out include income, education, race and ethnicity, gender, and age. Wealthy citizens have higher rates of voter turnout than poor citizens. Income has an effect on voter turnout. Wealthy citizens have higher levels of political efficacy and believe that the political works and their votes will count. On the other hand, people that make less money and have less wealth are less likely to believe that the political system will respond to their demands as expressed in elections. Race is also related to voter turnout. Whites vote at higher rates than minorities. Gender is also related to voter turnout. Women voted at lower levels than men for many years after gaining suffrage with the passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920, but today women vote at much higher levels than men do. Age is also important. There is a strong relationship between age and voter turnout. Older people vote at higher levels than younger people do, which helps explain why candidates for office and government officials are so sensitive to issues that affect seniors (such as reducing spending on Social Security or Medicare).

201. What is a party realignment? See your lecture notes.

Dramatic shifts in a party that drastically alter the political landscape preceded or bought out by.

194. What were some of the innovations of the Progressive Era (1890s-WWI)?

Election Reforms to stop Fraud and Suffrage/extended voting rights

251. What kind of system of representative government did leading Federalist, Alexander Hamilton, favor? What about the Anti-Federalists?

Federalist- Alexander Hamilton advocated a system of representative government that resembled "a natural aristocracy" that was run by "gentlemen of fortune and ability." Anti-federalist- The Anti-federalist Republicus advocated an American democracy that provided for "fair and equal representation," which he defined as a condition where "every member of the union have a freedom of suffrage and that every equal number of people have an equal number of representatives."

274. The world of 2030 is expected to include much more fighting over natural resources, particularly _____________and ________________.

Food and water

204. What are collective goods problems? What is a free-rider? See your lecture notes.

Free riding, anarchy and conflict interest. Free riding-stock-trading to describe the practice of buying and selling shares or other securities without actually having the capital to cover the trade.

270. What is hard power? What is soft power?

Hard power is military force to achieve certain objectives. Soft power is using economic power and political influence including diplomacy to achieve certain objectives.

183. How were political parties viewed during the Founding Era? What was George Washington's position? What was James Madison's position? In what sense were parties a solution for him?

In the founding era, the fathers thought that political parties would tear the nation apart, George Washington thought similar and wanted the country to steer clear from political parties, James Madison was an opponent of parties as well because unlike congress, the presidency and the supreme court are not mentioned in the constitution.

188. A third party usually can become successful only if it can ______________.

Influence an election, they can never win but they can have some sort of effect on elections

186. Why do proportional representation systems make it easier for smaller or minor parties to survive?

It gives a greater variety of candidates to be elected. The more representatives per district and the lower the percentages the more the minor parties get representation.

269. Political campaigns from "ground wars" to "air" wars. What does that mean?

It is a saying to represent the change from campaigns being undergone in the way of retail politics to wholesale politics. The campaigns are now mainly broadcasted to large groups of people through the media and the print.

187. What is a coalition? What kinds of groups do the Democratic and Republican coalitions consist of?

It is an alliance between two political parties

261. The book mentions four reasons why the Electoral College is criticized. What are they?

It is undemocratic- the people do not actually elect a president; the president is selected by the Electoral College. It is unequal- the number of a state's Electors is equal to the state's congressional delegation. It spotlights swing states- the Electoral College system distorts campaigning because the voters in swing states determine the outcome of the election. As a result, voters who live in states that are not competitive are ignored by the political campaigns. It is biased against national candidates- the Electoral College also works against candidates whose base of support is spread around the country rather than in a state or region of the country which would enable them to win the popular vote in one or more states.

191. Third parties can occasionally play a pivotal "king making" role. What does that mean?

It means that that party has some impact on who will be president or not.

196. What was New Deal/Great Society liberalism, and what was one of the values associated with it?

It was a bunch of regulations put forth by FDR, economic relief is one of the values associated with it.

210. What does lobbying mean? What kinds of behavior does lobbying consist of?

Lobbying is a form of advocacy by individuals with an intention to influencing decisions made by legislators and officials in the government.

276. Be familiar with the following: the Monroe Doctrine, Manifest Destiny, the Roosevelt Corollary (to the Monroe Doctrine), the Cold War (what was the key organization relied upon to contain the Soviet threat), and the "War on Terror". See your lecture notes.

Monroe Doctrine: A policy that declared that the entire Western Hemisphere was within the U.S. sphere of influence and any attempts by European imperial powers to colonize countries or to interfere with political developments within the region—at a time when Latin American countries were experiencing independence movements from the Spanish Empire—would be considered justification for American military action. Manifest Destiny: The 19th-century doctrine or belief that the expansion of the US throughout the American continents was both justified and inevitable. The Roosevelt Corollary: An addition to the Monroe Doctrine, in which the U.S. has the right to intervene in order to "stabilize" the economic affairs of small states in the Caribbean and Central America if they were unable to pay their international debts. The Cold War: A period of geopolitical tension between the Soviet Union with its satellite states, and the United States with its allies after World War II. Simply, who was the better country. The key organization that was made to contain the Soviet threat was NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization). War on Terror: Also known as the Global War on Terrorism, is an international military campaign launched by the United States government after the September 11 attacks.

259. Which two states are given special attention during the primary election season, and why?

New Hampshire and Iowa. New Hampshire had an early primary election in 1972 and has held the place of the first primary since that time. Iowa's primary is before New Hampshire, although the state uses a caucus to select delegates. Generally, the Iowa caucus narrows the field of candidates by demonstrating a candidate's appeal among party supporters, while New Hampshire tests the appeal of the front-runners from each party with the general public.

199. What is a catchall party? See your lecture notes.

Not sharing a coherent philosophy. United simply by their opposition to DR.

203. Briefly explain the pluralist, disturbance, and transactions theories on interest groups. See your lecture notes.

Pluralist theory- political power is distributed among a wide array of diverse & competing interest groups. Disturbance theory- people organize when adverse circumstances arise. Transactions theory- individuals who have more time & money have lower transaction cost.

212. What is political litigation? What are the three ways that interest groups "lobby" the courts?

Political litigation is using a lawsuit primarily to change public policy. An interest group may file a lawsuit on behalf of its members. A second way that an interest group can lobby the courts is by filing an amicus curiae brief (that is, a friend of the court brief) that advocates for one of the two sides in a case that is before the court. A third way that interest groups attempt to influence the courts is by sponsoring a lawsuit, providing legal resources for the actual parties.

250. What are the moral arguments for and against flat and progressive taxes? See your lecture notes.

Progressive taxation punishes those who work harder, since they pay proportionately higher taxes than the poor; where flat taxation not everyone can afford to pay at the same rate- they might effectively be taxed into poverty.

240. Be familiar with the four listed purposes for which taxes are used. What are "sin taxes"?

Raise money- the main purpose of taxing is to raise money to pay for the things that the government does: gas taxes provide money to build roads and bridges; real estate taxes provide money for schools; and income taxes provide money for fighting crime, fighting fires, and for national security. Subsidize- the government's power to tax is also used to subsidize behavior that the government wants to encourage or goals that it promotes. Tax policy can subsidize marriage, having and raising children, religious and charitable contributions, or conservation of national resources by promoting green energy sources. Taxes for these purposes are primarily to subsidize behaviors rather than to raise money. Regulate- the government also uses taxes to discourage or regulate behavior that it wants to discourage. Redistribution- tax policy is also used to redistribute wealth from some individuals or groups to others. Taxes can be used to redistribute income or wealth from richer persons to poorer persons, from younger individuals to older individuals, from wealthier states or regions of the country to poorer states or regions. Tax money used for social welfare purposes is re distributive. The term "sin" tax refers to using tax policy to decrease smoking or gambling or drinking alcohol.

197. What kinds of problems did Republicans blame liberal democratic policies for during the latter 1960s? What has the Republican coalition consisted of from that period onward?

Republicans opposed liberal Democratic policies that conservatives blamed for an increase in crime, social disorder (race riots, prison riots, and antiwar demonstrations), the loss of the War in Vietnam, loosening of sexual mores, school busing, affirmative action, the separation of church and state, inflation, and going soft on communism. During this era, the Republican Party was like a four-legged stool supported by following four legs: . Anti-crime: Advocates of getting tough on crime. . Anti-communism: Cold Warriors. . Economic conservatives: advocates of the free market. . Values voters: the conservatives who support traditional and religious values.

208. What are think tanks?

Research and policy organizations that often have a particular ideological perspective or a particular economic theory that informs their policy analysis and advocacy.

266. Campaign finance has become more important as campaigns have changed from traditional retail politics to wholesale politics. What does that mean, and what is the result of this change (as far as costs are concerned)?

Retail politics are campaigns where candidates meet voters one-on-one, in small groups or communities, at town hall meetings, or other face-to-face settings such as walking a neighborhood. Wholesale politics are campaigns where candidates address large audiences often using the print and electronic mass media. The change to wholesale politics has increased the cost of campaigning by shifting from labor-intensive campaigning—where friends and neighbors and campaign workers and volunteers canvas a district or city or make personal telephone calls to individual voters—to capital-intensive campaigns where money is used to purchase television air time or advertising.

249. Know how different taxes affect people differently. See your lecture notes.

Sales and value- added taxes- hit the poor the hardest. Taxes on luxury goods- hit the wealthy the hardest. Payroll/wage taxes-hit the labor forces the hardest.

182.Be familiar with the functions that parties perform.

Select candidates, mobilize voters, facilitate governance, Monitor the opposing party in power

256. Understand the three main purposes that elections serve in representative democracies.

Selecting government officials- elections provide an opportunity for the people to choose their government officials. Informing government officials- elections also provide government officials with information about what the people want, what they expect, and what they think about government. Holding government accountable- elections provide regular or periodic mechanisms for holding elected representatives, other government officials and even political parties accountable for their actions while in power.

193. Over what two issues were the Democratic and Republican parties divided during the period between the Civil War and 1896? What did they specifically support with respect to these two issues?

Slavery and Representation in government/land ownership. The republicans were anti-slavery and the democrats who were in the south favored slavery.

209. Briefly review the solidarity, material, and purposive incentives to join interest groups.

Solidarity incentives for a person to join a group are essentially social reasons. Material incentives are essentially economic motives for membership. Purpose incentives are those that appeal to an individual's commitment to advancing the groups social or political aims.

260. With regards to the Electoral College, Maine and Nebraska do things differently. How so?

State law regulates how the state's Electoral College votes are cast. In all states except Maine and Nebraska, the candidate that wins the most votes in the state receives all its Electoral College votes (a "winner takes all" system). From 1969 in Maine, and from 1991 in Nebraska, two electoral votes are awarded based on the winner of the statewide election, and the rest (two in Maine, three in Nebraska) go to the highest vote winner in each of the state's congressional districts.

248. Be familiar with supply-side economics, as well as Reaganomics. What was the budgetary effect of Reaganomics? See your lecture notes.

Supply-side economics- inflation can be reduced more effectively by increasing the supply of goods. Proponents favor tax cuts to simulate investment. Less government regulation of business (which ultimately increases government revenue). Reaganomics- blending of tax cuts, deregulation, cuts in spending for social programs, and increases in defense spending.

268. What government body is charged with monitoring the disclosure of campaign finance information, enforcing the provisions of the law such as the limits and prohibitions on contributions, and overseeing the public funding of U.S. presidential elections?

The FEC (Federal Elections Commission)

277. Which organized preceded the United Nations, and why did it fail? See your lecture notes.

The League of Nations preceded the United Nations. This organization failed because many countries, including the U.S., never joined, international relations conflicted with the League's requirements for collective security, it depended on the members to act in times for war, etc.

184. What kind of party system does the U.S. have? What are the dominant parties, and what are the two well-established minor parties?

The US has a two-party system. The two dominate parties are the Democrat and Republican parties. Two well established minor parties are the green party and the libertarian party

278. What is the United Nations Security Council primary duty? Who are its permanent members? What privilege do permanent members enjoy, and how does that affect the UN's ability to authorize military action. See your lecture notes.

The United Nations Security Council's primary duty is being responsible for the maintenance of international peace and security. The five permanent members: China, France, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Any one of the five permanent members have the power of veto, which enables them to prevent the adoption of any "substantive" draft Council resolution, regardless of its level of international support. This means that the permanent members can strike down any proposal they want. This makes it difficult for the UN to authorize military action.

190. What brought about the end of the Whig Party? What anti-slave party rose to prominent during the same time?

The compromise of 1850 and the expansion of slavery led to the end of the Whig party. The republican party rose to prominence at that time.

189. What were the first two political parties? What did they stand for? Who were their most prominent members? What regions were they based in? See your lecture notes.

The federalist party: who supported the ratification of the constitution The anti-federalist party opposed a powerful central government and wanted a bill of rights

195. During what era did the Democratic Party become identified with the common person, minorities, and labor, while the Republican Party became identified with business and the wealthy?

The middle of the 20th century.

255. Why does the U.S. have elections on a Tuesday? Why does this affect turnout?

The reason for Tuesday elections goes back to the days of horses and buggies when Monday elections would require traveling on the Sabbath and Wednesday was market day. So, in 1845 Congress provided for Tuesday elections. The U.S. has comparatively low rates of voter turnout but bills to change to weekend voting die in committee in Congress.

211. What is an issue network? What does it consist of?

The term Issue Network describes the patterns of interactions among three sets of participants in the policy making process: a congressional committee; an Executive Department; and interest groups.

198. What are the culture wars?

The values and lifestyles conflict between liberals and conservatives was called the culture wars.

180. In what sense are parties linkage institutions? Why is that an important function in mass political systems?

They are a linkage institution because they connect the people with the government. This is important in mass political systems because it can lead to control over the population

192. What are coalition governments, and why are they more likely in systems where there are numerous parties?

They are alliances between political parties, they are good when there is a lot of political variety in a specific country

267. True or false: Political campaigns are largely privately (not publicly) financed. Why does it matter whether campaigns are privately or publicly financed?

True. This matters because money is often considered a corrupting influence on democratic politics. The perception is that the wealthy can purchase access to government officials or pay for campaigns that influence public opinion.

253. What are the three factors that account for America's relatively low democracy ranking?

Voter Turnout- The U.S. has comparatively low rates of voter turn-out. European countries, for example, have much higher rates of voting. A Presidential System- The U.S. has developed into a system of presidential governance system where executive power is dominant rather than the more democratic legislative or parliamentary systems. National Security- The U.S. has developed extensive provisions for secrecy and national security and emergency powers which are hard to reconcile with democratic values.

244. Be familiar with the Federal Research Board: (a) How many members does it have (what are their terms)? (b) Who is the current chair?; (c) How is relatively independent politically; (d) What is expected to happen when it lowers or increases the discount rate?; (e) How is it an undemocratic institution? See your lecture notes.

a. The Federal Reserve Board (of Governors) consists of seven members who are appointed for 14-year terms. It includes an Open Market Committee, which consists of 12 Members (seven Governors and the heads of five regional banks. b. Jerome H. Powell c. The Federal Reserve structure within the government, but is still relatively independent of government to isolate the Fed from day-to-day political pressures in fulfilling its varying roles d. If the Federal Research Board increases the discount rate, the general level of interest rates increases. Decreases the discount rate, interests rates decrease and money supply increases. e. It's undemocratic to have an unelected agency, unaccountable to the US public, and a dictating monetary policy.

245. How does the Capture Theory explain why regulators do not do what they were created to do?

according to the capture theory, government regulators are created an industry but they eventually are captured by the interests that they were created to regulated. This happens because regulators work with the regulated and eventually come to identify with them and the industry.

227. How does the National Bureau of Economic Research define a recession?

as a "significant decline in economic activity spread across the economy, normally visible in real GDP, real income, employment, industrial production, and wholesale-retail sales."

218. The numbers reveal a clear trend toward ____________, measured as a share of gross domestic product, in western democracies.

bigger government

207. The greatest number of interest groups is _______________ interest groups.

economic

233. The U.S. has a system of health care insurance that is based on _____________. Why is that important?

employment. The loss of a job often means the loss of health care insurance

238. What is fiscal policy? What is monetary policy? What institutions are responsible for what kind of policy? See your lecture notes.

fiscal policy- is the government's use of taxing and spending powers to achieve policy goals. Monetary policy- is defined as using the money supply to achieve economic goals such as controlling inflation and maintaining employment. Federal reserve board- monetary policy and fiscal policy- enacted by president and congress.

234. Social Security and Medicare provide income security primarily for the ___________. Why does that matter?

for the elderly. These aspects of the U.S social welfare safety net explain why high rates of long-term unemployment for young people present such a serious economic and political challenge.

231. There are two reasons why manufacturing no longer produces the jobs that it once did. What are they?

globalization and technology

205. What are the differences between interest groups and social movements? What is the difference between a political party and an interest group? See your lecture notes.

interest group refers to groups with less people and more money/power, while social movement refers to a larger amount of people with less clout per person. Political parties are multi-focused and interest groups generally center their attention on one issue.

243. The price of money is another term for _______________________.

interests rates

220.What is an economic bubble?

occurs when the value of an asset increases so fast that its price gets so high compared to other economic measures such as income that the price cannot be sustained and ultimately collapses.

236. What is meant by "moral hazard"?

one explanation of the modern era pattern of financial crises and bailouts.

241. What is one of the ironies of the pattern of distribution of federal tax policies?

one of the ironies of the pattern of distribution of federal tax policies is that red states tend to be benefactors, and blue states tend to be contributors. Red states benefit, while blue states pay.

232. Why is the political impact of economic downturns greater in the U.S. than in other western democracies?

the U.S has a smaller social welfare safety net

246. For what purpose was the World Trade Organization created?

the WTO was created to supervise and liberalize international trade. It includes a framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements and a framework for resolving trade disputes.

235. What are the "organization-level explanations" that account for why corporate executives engage in risky or bad business practices (such as those that led to the Great Recession) that jeopardize their company and the economy?

the first organizational explanation is that some decision makers are insulated from the adverse consequences of their bad decisions. The federal deposit insurance corporation is a federal program that guarantees bank deposits in savings accounts. A second organizational explanation is even more important in explaining risky corporate behavior particularly in the financial services sector of the economy: the separation of ownership and management in modern corporations.

237. The fact that the FDIC insures bank deposits, and the fact that some companies are considered too big to be allowed to fail, means that _______________.

the government is protecting or other business leaders from the negative consequences of their risky or bad decisions.

200. What contributed to the arguable decline of political parties? See your lecture notes.

the increase in the number of Americans who consider themselves Independents, and the ability of candidates to run for office using their own resources rather than the resources traditionally provided by a political party, has renewed speculation about the decline of political parties or even an end to the era of political parties.

242. What are the three main stages of the federal budget process?

the office of management and budget submits the administration's proposed budget to congress. congress adopts a budget resolution. reconciliation of the budget resolution

247. What is economic protectionism? What is a tariff?

the term economic protectionism describes policies that policies that favor domestic business over foreign business, or favor in-state business over out-of-state business. A tariff is a tax on imports, goods that are brought into a country. Import taxes can start trade wars, where countries retaliate against one another by passing tariffs.

206. The main question about interest groups is ___________ (see the introduction).

whether they advance their special interests to the detriment of the general, public, or national interest.

230. What is meant by a structural change in the economy?

● A structural change is a major economic transformation similar to the Industrial Revolution, which brought about the change from an agrarian to an industrial economy, and then the post-industrial transformation from a manufacturing economy to an information- and service-economy.

216. The American political system has many veto points. What does that mean?

● All of these attributes of the political system create many veto points at which an individual or organization can try to stop action. The multiple veto points make it easier to stop action than to successfully propose it and interest groups are important players in the defensive contests to stop change that they oppose.

213. What is grassroots lobbying? What is astroturphing? See your lecture notes.

● Influencing government decision makers though indirect pressure (usually in the form of letters, emails, phone calls) from large numbers of constituents. ● indirect lobbying efforts that manipulate or create public sentiment. "astroturf" being artificial grassroots

217. What do interest group resources include (besides the most obvious - money)?

● Interest groups use resources including people, money, and expertise to support their lobbying efforts.

226. What was John Maynard Keynes's belief about the proper role of the government in the economy? Be familiar with the influence of Keynesian economics on U.S. presidents and public policy. See your lecture notes.

● Keynes argued that governments should use fiscal policy (the taxing and spending powers embodied in the budget) to achieve economic stability and prosperity. ● Keynesian economic theory which assumes that the government can and should intervene in the economy to 1) regulate the extremes of the boom-and-bust business cycle; and 2) provide economic stability.

222. What was the Progressives' (during the Progressive Era) position on the role of the government in the economy?

● Progressives were social reformers who tried to address some of the problems caused by the Industrial Revolution. They believed that big government was necessary to regulate big business (corporations). Progressives advocated social welfare legislation to protect individuals from the economic insecurities of the marketplace.

223. How did the Great Depression affect Americans' attitudes about the role of the government in the economy?

● The American people did not merely accept these hardships as part of the normal boom-and-bust business cycle. They expected government to do something about the shortage of jobs, food, and shelter and the government responded to public opinion with a major change in economic policy.

221. How did Federalists and Anti-Federalists differ over the role of the government in the economy?

● The Federalist Party supported a national government with a strong and active role in economic development. Alexander Hamilton was a Federalist who, as Secretary of the Treasury, advocated using the national government's power to develop a national economy. The other major political party, the Jeffersonians or Democratic-Republicans, believed that economic matters were the primary responsibility of the state governments.

219. Western countries (like the U.S.) now face three new conditions that, taken together, present serious challenges for the economic and political systems. What are they?

● The first problem is low rates of population growth. Low rates of population growth also contribute to the second problem: comparatively low rates of economic growth. Third, demographic changes, specifically aging populations, mean that the countries will have an increase in the proportion of older workers and older citizens who require more social services such as Social Security and health care (Medicare). An aging population means a decrease in the ratio of working age people (the producers) to non-working age people (the consumers).

229. How did the government respond do the Great Recession?

● The initial reaction was a massive government bailout of businesses. The bailouts were followed by fiscal and monetary policies that were intended to stimulate the economy.

215. The political system makes it easier to play defense than offense. That is, it is easier to prevent the government from acting than to prompt it to act. Why is this so?

● The separation of powers. Passing a federal law requires working with both the legislative and executive branches. ● Bicameralism. In order for a bill to become a law it must pass both houses of Congress. •The committee system in Congress. The committee system is a functional division of labor that creates natural contact points for interest groups to participate in the policymaking process. Interest groups can lobby a committee to "kill the bill." ● Party politics. The "OUT" party often has a vested interest in opposing a bill proposed by the "IN" party. ● Federalism. The geographic division of power between the national and state governments is part of the system of checks and balances.

224. What is mercantilism?

● an economic theory that the government should direct, manage, and license economic activity for the good of the nation.

225. What was laissez-faire theorist, Adam Smith's, view of human nature, and what was his solution for dealing with it? What is meant by his concept of the "invisible hand"? See your lecture notes.

● argued that the free market, while appearing chaotic and unrestrained, is actually guided by an invisible hand to produce the right amount and variety of goods. A "natural price" for a product is set by the following marketplace dynamics: A product shortage will increase the price, thereby stimulating more production; overproduction will decrease price, thereby causing less production until equilibrium is reached. ● He believed that individual selfishness and greed were checked and balanced by other self-interested individuals. Competition, not government control, kept individuals in check and coincidentally benefited society as a whole.

228. When did the Great Recession officially end? Why has the economic recovery not produced more jobs?

● the Great Recession officially started in December 2007 and ended in June 2009. ● Because of the advancement of technology and the increased productivity it brings. Corporates rather have machines do the work than go the extra mile to interview, drug test, and actually train people to get the job done.

214. What did the Court rule in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010)? What type of entity was created by this ruling?

● the Supreme Court held that corporate funding of independent political broadcasts in candidate elections cannot be limited, because doing so would violate the First Amendment. Super pack