Exam III- Fossil Fuels and Nuclear Energy

Hydraulic fracturing (fracking)

(1) Large volumes of water withdrawn from ground water and surface water resources to be used in the hydraulic fracturing process. (2) the hydraulic fracturing fluid- acquired water + chemical additives and proppant (3) Pressurized hydraulic fracturing fluid is injected into the well --> creating cracks in the geological formation that allow gas to escape through the well to be collected at the surface. (4) after process complete, the direction of fluid flow reverses, and water and excess proppant flow up through the well to the surface. (5) issue of contaminated drinking water. The Environmental Protection Agency has documented more than 900 chemicals that are found in fracking fluids.

Oil Refinery

(1)crude oil is heated--> which breaks and rearranges the carbon chains in crude oil. (2) new molecules are refined petroleum products (vary in the length of their carbon chains). (3)Shorter-chain molecules, such as jet fuel and motor gasoline, are recovered near the top of the refinery, while longer-chain molecules, such as asphalt, are recovered near the bottom of the refinery.

Operating Cost

(operation and maintenance: O&M cost) is the cost to operate and maintain the plant over its lifetime. Operating costs include fuel costs (the cost of buying the enriched uranium, coal, oil, or natural gas) and the costs of operating the facility itself.

US Natural Gas Pipelines

- how most natural gas is transported -large deposits of natural gas are located in Mexico, but the Mexican constitution prohibits exports; therefore, the U.S. pipeline system has few connections to Mexico.

Gas Shortages

-1973-1974 and 1979-1981 global reduction in oil production. During these shortages motorists waited in line to buy gasoline. -Changed the view towards cars- in the 1950s/60s, cars like the catalac were a massive financial burden, and no longer a marker of status -People went toward cars that were more efficient -Oil from the middle east is only 30% of the US' oil- but because OPEC is such a large conglomerate, they can set the demand for oil, leading to these conflict

conventional fossil fuels

-Fossil fuels, coal, oil, and natural gas, cheapest fuels to produce supply most of fossil fuel produced energy

Fossil Fuels Issues/ Concerns LWTEC

-Heavy land requirements- removing coal, natural gas, etc- this impacts land -Water requirements- water is being used the during the process of extraction of these fossil fuels through fracking, the potential extraction of fossil fuels pollutes water either locally or remotely -Tailing ponds- fracking, using water that is being rejected into the wells- pond is the requirement of the water used- often heavily contaminated, no longer viable for agriculture/ consumption use -EROI- energy return on investment (Is the energy return from harvesting/ mining truly beneficial) -Carbon intensity- what is the carbon footprint in the infrastructure that requires the use of these fossil fuels

Fukushima, Japan

-March 2011 -Tsunami following the Tohoku earthquake (March 11) -Destroyed emergency generators cooling the reactors at Fukushima Daiichi plant -Tsunami wavers were 3X the size of protected seawall at the power plant -Insufficient cooling led to 3 nuclear meltdowns and the release of radioactive material

Natural Gas

-Natural gas is favored as an "environmentally attractive" fuel compared with other hydrocarbon fuels.

energy trends

-Nuclear energy and renewable energy exhibited the greatest overall increase from 1965 to 2011, although they contribute a much smaller fraction of total energy use compared to the fossil fuels. -Natural gas increased by the greatest amount among the fossil fuels, showing a nearly five-fold increase. -China and the United States =40% of the world's primary energy use. -The 20 nations consuming the most energy account for ~ 4/5 of the world's primary energy use.

levelized cost

-Operating and capital costs are combined o which can be thought of as the average price of electricity over the lifetime of the plant. Nuclear power has low operating costs, but very large capital costs compared to natural gas, which is the most common type of new power plant built in the United States.

Oil Price Regimes

-The early decades of the oil industry in the United States were characterized by boom and bust behavior. A large discovery would trigger a rush of investment, which increased supply and caused prices to fall. -The shift in market power from the Texas Railroad Commission and other state bodies to OPEC was driven by the depletion of cheap oil in the United States, making that one of the most important energy transitions in the nations' history.

World Energy Use

-Total energy use- 30% oil, 28% renewable, 22% natural gas... -Renewable energy- 51% biomass, 29% solar (This is only 17% of overall energy use) -Fossil Fuels- 80% total

US Oil imports

-US Oil imports have steadily increased since 1950. The fall in the mid to late 70's is attributed to socio-political conflict in the Middle East and increased oil prices.

Secondary Oil Recovery

-maintain reservoir pressure and to displace hydrocarbons toward the wellbore. -Secondary recovery use solvents, water, or steam to remove remaining oil, but will never fully remove every last drop. (quite expensive, and can have lasting environmental implications.)

Oils Spills

-the release of crude oil from tankers, offshore platforms, drilling rigs and wells, as well as spills of refined petroleum products such as gasoline and diesel fuel, heavier fuels used by large ships such as bunker fuel, or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil. -Due to the toxicity of oil, all such releases have potentially harmful effects on the environment and human health.

Oil Shale

At relatively shallow depths, temperatures and pressures leave kerogen relatively unaffected. Under these conditions kerogen becomes trapped in materials that eventually become part of sedimentary rocks

Coal Mining Techniques

Underground mining methods are used to extract coal when the seam is far from the surface. Where the coal is closer to the surface, surface mining techniques, such as mountaintop removal and strip mining, are used.

Crude Oil and Natural Gas Extraction

Within the sedimentary rock, the oil, gas, and water often exist in three layers. Natural gas is the least dense. It rises toward the top of the reservoir and presses against the structural trap. Oil forms a middle layer, floating on a dense layer of water. NATURAL GAS OIL WATER

Crude Oil

a mixture of hydrocarbons that exists in the liquid phase in natural underground reservoirs and remains liquid at atmospheric pressure after passing through surface separating facilities.

Kerogen

an insoluble organic material that is the main precursor of crude oil and natural gas. Trapped in sedimentary rocks (oil shale). Formed once the organic material is cut off from oxygen, anaerobic bacteria this energy as a source of energy, and they form this organic material.

When Will the World Run Out of Oil?

apron 2040 if we do not change what we are doing

Chernobyl Accident

category 7 accident o Ukraine o Miscommunication between operators and technicians lead to a misalignment of the cooling system to the reactors o Created a massive radioactive fallout o High concentrations of cancers as a result

Natural Gas

flammable gas, consisting largely of methane and other hydrocarbons, occurring naturally underground (often in association with petroleum) and used as fuel.

unconventional fossil fuels

more expensive to produce than coal, oil, or natural gas; but they may replace these fuels as supplies of conventional fossil fuels are depleted (ex: Oil sands and tar sands)

Crude oil

most widely used fuel in the world (followed closely by coal and natural gas)

Formation of Fossil Fuels- Crude Oil and Natural Gas

o Derived from aquatic organisms, mainly plankton o Shallow marine environments (bays, estuaries)

• U-238

o Does not undergo fission o Is considered a fertile isotope- cannot sustain nuclear reaction o Creates plutonium (U-239- extremely volatile) o Hiroshima was Uranium bomb, Nagasaki was Plutonium bomb

• World Nuclear Power Generation

o France/Lithuania- dominant nuclear power generation o US is far behind though still slightly above the world average o Excluding France and Japan from the list of countries here, the increase in nuclear power is declining in most nations

Nuclear Electricity Production

o Huge rise in production from 70s to now o There was a dip between 2011 and 2015 o Largest rise of nuclear energy over time was between 1970-85 and 85-90 (slope) o US and France are dominant

• The Yucca Mountain Site

o In July 2002 President Bush signed legislation that recommended the Yucca Mountain site as the nation's first repository for the disposal of spent nuclear fuel and high-level radioactive waste. o However, under the Obama Administration, funding for development of Yucca Mountain site was terminated. The closure was for political, not technical or safety reasons.

• US Uranium Industry

o Increase in importation in the late 80s because more cost efficient o Most uranium ore in the United States is lower grade, and hence higher cost, than the resources in Australia and Canada. o Many uranium deposits in the United States became uneconomic when the price of uranium declined sharply in the late 1970s, leading to a decline in domestic production and an increase in imports.

Environmental Issues with Coal LACLAC

o Land disturbance and concomitant impacts on ecology and hydrology o Acid mine drainage- the outflow of acidic water from (sometimes abandoned) metal mines or coal mines. The source of the pollutant is sulfur in coal. o Coal mine fires o Land subsidence- the collapse of material above an excavated underground coal mine o Air pollution o Climate change

Formation of fossil fuels

o Large amounts of organic matter in small area o Organic matter cut off from oxygen o Rearranged to concentrate energy content o All of these conditions occurred together only rarely. Indeed, fossil fuel can be thought of as a geological accident. o Fossil Fuel resource base represents a bit more than century of primary production of terrestrial ecosystems

• U-235

o More common isotope of uranium o Fissile- can sustain chain reaction overtime without additional energy input o The separation of U-235 to other elements (Kr and Ba) is what produces energy

Uranium Ore

o Natural uranium is radioactive, and it is present in most rocks and soils as well as in many rivers and in sea water. o The property of uranium important for nuclear weapons and nuclear power is its ability to fission, or split into two lighter fragments when bombarded with neutrons, releasing energy in the process. o Uranium can be in two isotope forms, U-235 and U-238.

A nuclear Renaissance

o Nuclear power emits fewer quantities of greenhouse gases and other air pollutants o First, nuclear power emits fewer greenhouse gases and other air pollutants than do fossil fuels. o Second, nuclear power plants are very reliable. Reactors now run 90% of the hours in a year, compared with less than 60% in 1979, dramatically lowering operating costs. o Third, if a carbon tax is enacted to combat climate change, fossil fuels will rise in cost compared to nuclear power. o Cost issues and long-term waste

• Nuclear Waste

o Nuclear wastes are generated by many activities, ranging from nuclear power to nuclear weapons facilities to hospitals and universities. o By far the largest quantities—in terms of both radioactivity and volume—commercial nuclear power and military nuclear weapons production industries and by nuclear fuel cycle activities to support these industries such as uranium mining and processing.

Pilgrim Nuclear Generating Station

o Only nuclear power plant operating in MA o Commissioned December 1972 o Planned to close June 2019 o Uses Cape Cod water for cooling the 1 unit reactor o ~480 million gallons of seawater taken in and after cooling reactor it is pumped back into the bay up to 3C warmer o Kills plant and animal life around reactor discharge systems o Produces 14% of electricity in MA (energy is much cleaner than other sources)

Why is it that nuclear power rose from the 60s to the 90s but then plateaued?

o Public Opinion ♣ Initially positive when demand/ prices were high- energy process declined, which shifted our view on the dependence of the plants o Costly to build ♣ Requires initial capital, cost is minimal after initial instillation compared to other sources o Accidents ♣ Concerning to many political tension/divide

Effects of Oil Spills

o Spilled oil poses serious threats to fresh water and marine environments. It affects land surface resources and a wide range of subsurface organisms that are linked in a complex food chain that includes human food resources. o Spilled oil can harm the environment in several ways, including the physical damages that directly impact wildlife and their habitats (such as coating birds or mammals with a layer of oil), and the toxicity of the oil itself, which can poison exposed organisms.

Energy Use in the United States, 1780-2010

o The Industrial Revolution started when coal displaced wood. The fraction of U.S. energy uses from coal peaked early in the twentieth century as the use of oil and natural gas increased. o Recently the fraction of energy uses from these fuels deceased b/c greater use of coal and electricity generated from nuclear and hydroelectric sources.

• Long Term Disposal: Geological Repository

o The long-term storage of nuclear waste in geologic formations in Earth's crust. o Geologic disposal involves packaging wastes inside long-lived containers that are placed deep underground and sealing these facilities with appropriate materials. o The assumption is that conditions in these underground sites remain stable over the long periods needed to allow the radioactivity to decay to a sufficiently low level. - best way to deal with nuclear wastes (current opinion)

• Global Uranium Sources

o Vary from country to country o Australia- dominant in Uranium ore levels

Looking toward Trump Administration....

o favors o feels the permitting process needs reform o stresses the need to be careful because nuclear power "does have issues" o no mention of nuclear energy on his policy website (no alternative energy mentioned)

Capital Cost

o is the cost to construct the plant

Three Mile Island

oMarch 23, 1979 oPartial nuclear meltdown in Dauphin County, Pennsylvania oMost significant nuclear accident in US power plant history oMechanical failure compounded by human error oPartial meltdown resulted in the release of radioactive gases and radioactive iodine into the environment oResulted in new regulations to nuclear industry oContributed to the decline of a new reactor construction in the US

Indian Point Energy Center

oOld plant, reactor unit licenses expired in 2013 and 2015 o20 year license extensions were granted o30 miles from downtown NYC o does not meet safety regulations o located on fault line (Concerning if there is an earthquake) o political divide- many past mayors support because it provides so much energy to NYC o 50% of nuclear power plants are reaching their expiration date but are given extended licenses because they are still producing energy. What is the safety/ efficiently of plants out of code?

Sedimentation

the burial of organic material by particles, occurred which satisfied the second requirements for fossil fuel formation.

Probability of accidents?

• The probability of something like this happening is extremely low! .00009% probable!! (compare this to oil spills, coal fires, etc.) incident- 1-3 Accident - 4-7

Fission

♣ Fission- regard to nuclear power, uranium 235 is bombarded with a neutron U236 dissociates into barium and krypton • In this process, a lot of energy is produced, this energy can be harvested in a nuclear power plant for commercial/ residential use • We focused on this more because it is a more viable energy source with today's technology

Fusion

♣ Fusion- nuclear reaction whereby the reaction between the isotopes shows the joining of two lighter fragments into a larger one, producing a lot of energy • We usually see this on the surface of the sun (production of helium) • Technology is behind our ability to harness power from nuclear fission- fusion requires massive reactor cell • + Does not require the input of radioactive material (beneficial) • + Waste is less hazardous, has a shorter half life ♣ Both generate radioactive waste, fission reactors generate waste at a similar volume