Exam Study Guide - Developmental Psychology

Bobo Doll Study

(Bandura) Study that illustrates social learning of aggression; children observe an adult model's aggressive behavior and imitate the same behavior. Study: Preschool children initially watched a short in which an adult model performed highly aggressive actions on an inflatable Bobo doll. Conditions: - adult rewarded - adult punished - no consequence

GENE EXPRESSION: additive genes, dominant-recessive patterns, norm of reaction

*Additive Genes*: Interactions among genes and alleles are often called this because their effects *add up* to influence the phenotype. - multiple genes that contribute equally to a trait. (very few follow an additive pattern. *Dominant-recessive patterns* - Dominate is expressed (1/3 genes have alleles - two or more different forms of a gene). The environment contributes to the person's observable characteristics. A genotype will develop differently in different environments. *Dominant*: Reflected in the phenotype. Dominant genes have more influence on traits than recessive genes. *Recessive*: Hidden, not dominant. Recessive genes are carried in the genotype and are not evident in the phenotype, except in special circumstances. *Carrier*: A person whose genotype includes a gene that is not expressed in the phenotype. This carried gene occurs in half of the carrier's gametes and thus is passed on to half of the carrier's children. If such a gene is inherited from both parents, the characteristics appears in the phenotype. *NORM OF REACTION*: Range of phenotypes that could result from a given genotype in relation to different environments Parents influence children't phenotype (early dev)

Attachment theory: influenced by ethological theory; "secure base" behavior, reciprocal relationships; synchrony; proximity-seeking behaviors, contact-maintaining behaviors

*Attachment*: According to Ainsworth, "an affectional tie" that an infant forms with a caregiver--a tie that binds them together in space and endures over time. *Secure base or (secure attachment) (Type B)*: A relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his/her caregiver. (means that when an infant is scared, or frightened, they can derive a sense of security or comfort from the caregiver.) *Two signs indicate attachment: contact-maintaining and proximity-seeking* *Attachment theory*: - Caregiver-child attachments: Are reciprocal: *Proximity-seeking* behavior, *contact-maintaining* behavior - Builds slowly from parent-infant interactions over the first year of life. - *Synchrony*: A coordinated, rapid, and smooth exchange of responses between caregiver and an infant. (when you allow the child to lead the interactions) - *Asynchronous*: is when the child has turned away & you're like, " you know what, I gotta get this baby fed" and you then put that spoonful of food in their mouth, even though that child is turning away. *still-face technique*: An experimental practice in which an adult keeps his/her face unmoving and expressionless in face-to-face interaction with an infant.

The Genetic Code: MATCHING GENES AND CHROMOSOMES

*Autosomes* - Chromosomes pairs 1-22, each member of the pair is closely matched - each contains hundreds of genes in the same positions and sequence. ➡️*Homozygous*- codes for the genes match (e.g., brown eye and brown eye) ➡️*Heterozygous* - codes for the genes do not match (e.g., brown eye and blue eye) *SEX CHROMOSOME*: 23rd chromosome FEMALES = two "X" MALES = one "X", one 'y" x chromosome carry more genetic information than the y chromosome.

Factors that influence security for each primary attachment classification

*Caregiver Hypothesis*: Promotion of a secure attachment - sensitive & responsive - Sensitivity - Positive Attitude - Interactional Synchrony *Attachment Classifications*: - *Resistant*: Inconsistent (sometimes caregivers meets baby needs & sometimes they don't.) - *Avoidant*: - Non-responsive (caregiver does not respond.) - Over-zealous (when you have caregivers who are asynchronous with their infants - meaning they lead the interactions.) - *Disorganized/Disorientated*: - Frightening (something frightening about that caregiver.)

What is a developmental theory and what do they do?

*Developmental theory*: a systematic statement of general principles that provides a framework for understanding *how* and *why* people change as they grow older. (a comprehensive statement of general principles that provides framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow older). *What theories do*: - form the basis for a hypothesis (Theories produce hypotheses.) - generate discoveries (Theories generate discoveries) - offer insight and guidance for everyday concerns (Theories offer practical guidance.)

Bioecological/ecological systems approach

*Ecological-systems approach*: A perspective on human development that considers all of the influences from the various contexts of development. *Microsystem*: the immediate social contexts that directly affect each person, such as family, peer group, work team. *Exosystem*: the community institutions that affect the immediate contexts, such as churches, and temples, schools and colleges, hospital and courts. *Macrosystem*: the overarching national or cultural policies and customs that affect the more immediate systems, such as the effect of the national economy on local hospitals (an exosystem) or families (a microsystem) *Chronosystem*: the impact of historical conditions (wars, inventions, policies) on the development of people who live in that era. *Mesosystem*: a connection between one system and another, such as parent-teacher conferences (connecting home and school) or workplace schedules (connecting family and job).

Brain Development: 3 Ways to Frame

*Gene-Driven Processes*: only requires genes in order for the process to unfold. *Experience-Expectant (expectancy) Processes*: the brain is expecting to have certain experiences to develop typically - roughly correspond to "sensitive periods" - Normal, universal experiences - Vulnerability *Experience-Dependent Processes*: the brain will develop depending upon the unique experiences of that individual (the brain develops in light of what unique experiences an individual has) - roughly corresponds to ordinary learning throughout life - *Idiosyncratic experiences*: individual experiences

Three key elements (genes and enviroment)

*Genotype*: the individual's genetic inheritance. Has to do with what is handed down from parent to offspring as it relates to genes. *Phenotype*: the observable expression of the genotype. What it really mean is who a person is. What do they look like? What are their personality traits? *Environment*: the nurture piece. Everything that environmentally surrounds that developing individual.

Holophrastic Period: One word at a Time (what is it, common early words; overextension and under-extension)

*Holophrase*: A single word that is used to express a complete, meaningful thought. The fist stage of meaningful language: a single word represents an entire sentence's worth. Children's productive vocabulary is constrained by the sounds he/she is able to produce. - "ba" for ball. Early words limited by sounds mastered. - P M B N (easier to say) - J V TH ZH (harder to say) *Building a vocabulary*: - start with 1 word at a time - 18-24 months, 10-20 words a week (or more!) *Naming explosion*: A sudden increase in an infant's vocabulary, especially in the number of nouns, that begins at about 18 months of age. *Words common in early vocabularies*: - object....dada, doggie, ball, car - action....bye-bye, look, more, up *Common errors*: - *OVEREXTENSION*: (may call everyone "daddy" not know that is specific to one person) Specific words to refer to broad category. - *UNDER-EXTENSION*: (I want candy - means anything. Wants a sucker, however, can't say sucker) General word to refer to a specific thing Adults use higher pitch, simpler words, repetition, varied speed, and exaggerated emotional tone when talking to infants. Babies respond with attention and emotion By 7 months, they begin to recognize words that are distinctive: *bottle, doggie,*and *mama*, for instance, might be differentiated, not *baby, Bobbie,* and *Barbie*. Infants like alliteration, rhymes, repetition, melody, rhythm, and varied pitch.

Imitation and Object Permanence

*Imitation is adaptive*....why? - According to Piaget: Imitation was possible around 8 to 12 months - imprecise imitation - more precise imitation (12-18 months) - *Deferred Imitation* (toddlers remember what they have seen and repeat it later themselves) - present between 18-24 months➡️Emergence of symbolism *OBJECT PERMANENCE*: knowing that objects (and events) continue to exist even when they can't be seen, heard, or touched. - 1- to 4-month olds: will not search for an object hidden from view - 4- to 8-month-olds: will retrieve partly covered objects - 8- to 12-month-olds: *START* to develop object permanence - 18- to 24-month-olds: mentally represent an object

Five characteristics of the life span

*Life span perspective: An approach to the study of human development that. takes into account all phases of life, not just childhood or adulthood. *Development is MULTIDIRECTIONAL*. The study of life-span development highlights *how and why people change over time* *Five Characteristics* - MULTIDIRECTIONAL - MULTICONTEXTUAL - MULTICULTURAL - MULTIDISCIPLINARY - PLASTICITY

The Eager Mind: Listening to learn, Looking to learn, Core knowledge, Theories of the infant mind

*Listening to learn*: Sensation does not usually become perception, and perception does not necessarily become cognition. Instead, babies listen closely to sounds that can teach them, particularly the human voice. - *Distinguishing Speech Sounds*: newborns do not understand words but they have an inborn affinity for language. Vast differences are audible in adult speech: Russian does not sound like a tonal language such as Chinese; English does not pronounce the "r" as French does; the cadence of German is quite different from that of Spanish. Babies need to learn whatever language their caregivers speak, which means that every linguistic nuances must be perceived. Even in the early weeks, babies distinguish the difference between the sound of *pa* and *ba* and they hear the nuances of many other speech sounds--some insignificant in one language but crucial in another. They are called *universalists* because they hear the differences in any language. By 1 yr after birth - their ability to distinguish sounds in never-heard language deteriorates, a loss that continues throughout childhood. Study shows, first, that very young babies are primed to learn language, and second, that 1-year-olds already know the accepted way to pronounce words. *Bilingual proficiency* begins in the first year of life--every young human brain can learn several languages. Parents often speak two languages, and then their children become doubly fluent as well. The brains of bilingual 1-year-olds respond to both. Most bilingual adults use one language with friends and family and the other one in more formal settings. Very young infants figure out which language is most important and respond preferentially to that one. - Was conclusion from a study of 94 newborns (age 0 to 5 days) - half of them, mother spoke English and Tagalog (a language native to the Philippines); for 1/3, their mothers spoke only English; and for 1/6, their mothers spoke English and Chinese. The infants in all 3 groups sucked on a pacifier connected to a recording of 10 minutes of English and 10 minutes of Tagalog. The 2 languages were match for pitch, duration, and number os syllables. As evident in the rate and intensity of their sucking (which activated the recording), babies with English-only mothers preferred English and those with bilingual mothers preferred Tagalog. Because of what they heard in the womb, they connected Tagalog with more animated, emotional talk--and that is what they wanted to learn first. *Looking to Learn*: young infants spend most of their time looking around while awake. Thus, one good way to quiet fussy 3-month-olds is to carry them to see different sights--traffic on the street, dogs coming to be petted, toys that move. *Gaze-Following*: very young babies choose to look at whatever is likely to advance their understanding. They wisely focus on their caregivers' attention, via *gaze-following*, instinctively knowing that what caregivers look at might tell them something important. (e.g., they look at the face of someone entering the room, ignoring the ceiling, the floor, or the person's feet.) *Have they learned that adults look at faces because expressions are informative, or is gaze-following natural for infants?* Both. It was thought that gaze-following occurred only as a response to adults, who alert the babies to opportunities to learn. Adults says, "Javier, look, here comes Daddy.," or "Sophia, here is your teddy bear." Such guides to gaze-following are part of adults' natural tendency to teach babies through *natural pedagogy*. This is evident when caregivers direct the baby's gaze, calling their name, pointing at an object, etc. *Early logic* -Nature and nurture may also give babies some understanding of the laws of physics. In one study, a toy dinosaur was removed from a display where it had been next to a flower. A screen then covered the display. A moment later, the screen lifted to revel the dinosaur instead of the flower. Infants stared longer when the flower was surreptitiously replaced with the dinosaur than when the flower was still there. *This indicated that they knew how things should be and were surprised when their basic understanding was wrong. *Core Knowledge*: includes the understanding that gravity makes objects fall, moving objects are stopped by a solid wall, and adult gaze signals important information. Core expectations not only prime learning but also alert the infant when something unexpected happens. Core knowledge make rapid learning possible as the brain grows and experiences accumulate. *Recognizing faces* (another example) - unless you have *prosopagnosia* (face blindness), the *fusiform face area* of your brain is astonishing adept. Newborns are quicker to recognize a facd that they have seen just once than older children and adults. Because of *experience-expectant* brain development, every face is fascinating. With this learning development, babies smile more readily at familiar people, differentiate men from women, and distinguish among face from their own ethnic group *(called the own-race effect)*. *How to Learn*: Curiosity is an inborn reflex, newborns look at and listen to everything. Then, some infants are allowed to explore and experiment (fingering their toys, reaching for people, and so on); other are not ("Don't touch!"). It matters whether caregivers encourage curiosity, respond to noises, and shape reflexes. It is concluded that adults should sometimes let children see them struggle to complete a task. The idea that hard work pays off is a learning strategy that helps throughout a person's education. *Theories of the Infant Mind* Two theories relevant to understanding the infant mind: *INFORMATION PROCESSING*: The central idea of this theory is that the human brain is like a computer, accumulating experiences and then establishing knowledge. This theory leads to the hypothesis that the infant mind is programmed for cognition: The myriad sights and sounds produce understanding. *EVOLUTIONARY THEORY*: The idea that the human brain, unique among mammals, has evolved to be extraordinarily plastic so that human babies can learn everything they need within their culture. - occurs in 2 steps: 1. infants innately attend to caregivers as well as to things that were crucial for survival. That is why they listen to voices, like to be held snugly, and look at snakes more than flower. 2. the diversity of human culture required that the infant brain be amazingly plastic, allowing rapid cognitive growth as inborn predispositions adapt to whatever life may bring. *The Sucking Reflex*: does not begin until about 33 weeks after conception. This is an example of the infant's eager mind, because these tiny babies quickly learned to adapt an inborn ability (sucking) with experience (as both information processing and evolutionary theory suggest).ds

Low-birthweight: causes and consequences

*Low birthweight (LBW)*: A body weight at birth of less than 2,500 grams (5 1/2lbs) *very low birthweight (VLBW)*: A body weight at birth of less than 1,500 grams (3lbs, 5oz) *extremely love birthweight (ELBW)*: A body weight at birth of less than 1,000 (2lbs, 3oz) Causes: 1. In most nations, malnutrition is the most common reason for slow fetal growth. 2. The second common reason, particularly in developed nations, is drug use. 3. A third reason is multiple births. Twins gain weight more slowly in pregnancy and born, on average. three weeks early. Consequences: - tend to have neurological problems in middle childhood, including small brain volume, lower IQ, and behavioral difficulties. - risks persist into adulthood - higher rates of diabetes, obesity, heart disease, and depression

Multiple Births - Monozygotic and Dizygotic twins

*Monozygotic (identical) births*: Twins who originate from one zygote that splits apart very early in development. (also called identical twins). Other monozygotic multiple births (such as triplets and quadruplets) can occur as well. - genetically identical (start with one zygote) - 1/3 of multiple births - can donate a kidney or other organ to their twin with no organ rejection. - to improve the change of implantation, the technician may puncture (called *hatching*) a minuscule hold in the blastocyst. This slightly increases the rate of monozygotic twins. *Dizygotic (fraternal) twins*: Twins who are formed when two separate ova are fertilized by two separate sperm at roughly the same time. (also called fraternal twins.) - No more genetically similar than siblings (starts with two zygotes+) - 2/3 of multiple births - People say that twinning "skips a generation," but really it skips fathers, not mothers. Since dizygotic twinning requires multiple ovulation, the likelihood of a woman ovulating two ova and thus conceiving twins depends on her genes from her parents. The father's genes are irrelevant.

Motor Development: Reflexes, Gross Motor Skills, and Fine Motor Skills

*Motor skill*: The learned abilities to move some part of the body, in actions ranging from a large leap to a flicker of the eyelid. (The word motor here refers to movement of muscles.) *Reflex*: An automatic, built-in reaction to a particular stimulus - Sucking - Rooting (Nourishment [survival]) - Stepping - Crawling - *Swimming (Foundations for motor development)* - Moro - Eye blink - Grasping - Escape (Survival/Protection) - Babkin - Tonic next - Babinski (Primitive) *A few considerations:* ONE: - Proximodistal development (center-out) - Cephalocaudal development (head-down) TWO: - Gross motor skills - large (large muscle movements - child's ability to crawl, walk, etc.) - Fine motor skills - small (small muscle movements - entails the mouth, tongue, hands, feet and toes. *Gross Motor Skills*: Physical abilities involving large body movements, such as walking and jumping. (The word gross here means "big".) - typically develops more quickly than fine motor. *GROSS MOTOR SKILLS*: 1. Fetal position (newborn) 2. Holds chin up (1 month) 3. Holds chest up (2 months) 4. Sits when supported (4 months) 5. Sits alone (7 months) 6. Stands holding furniture (9 months) 7. Crawls (10 months) 8. Walks if led (11 months) 9. Stands alone (11 months) 10. Walks alone (12 months) *Fine Motor Skills*: Physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing and picking up a coin. (The word fine here means "small".) *Fine Motor Skills* (examples) - 3-months - reach for an object - 6-months - grasp an object with both hands - 9-month - fingers to grab object - 12-month - pincer grasp (using thumb and forefinger to pick up tiny objects) (self-feeding - first w/ both hands, then fingers, then utensils) - newborns have a strong grasp but lack control - during their first two months, babies excitedly stare and wave their arms at objects dangling within reach. - by 3 months, they can usually touch such objects, but because of limited eye-hand coordination, they cannot yet grab and hold on unless an object is placed in their hands. - By 4 months, infants sometimes grab, but their timing is off: They close their hands too early or too late. - By 6 months, with a concentrated, deliberate stare, most babies can reach, grab, and hold on to almost any graspable object. Some can even transfer an object from one hand to the other.

Fetal Behavior

*Movement*: Early movements start around 5 to 6 weeks; by 12 weeks most movements present at birth have appeared. Around 4 months fetal movements are felt. - Mother reports consistent fetal activity - *Two important movements*: - *Fetal swallowing* - will swallow amniotic fluid, will move through their system to be excreted back out. Helps with development of the palette in the mouth and the refinement of the bodily system. - *Pre-breathing movements* - will breathe in amniotic fluid into the lungs, lungs will expand and then they will exhale it back out. All preparation for post-natal life. BEHAVIORAL CYCLES: - intense movement for a month around 5 to 6 weeks:more constant movement (tells you the central nervous system has no control over any of the voluntary behavior). - after, patterns of inactivity occur: 10 weeks: rest-activity (fetus will be quiet and then all of a sudden there might be movement for awhile and the fetus will be quiet again), second 1/2 of pregnancy: more stable patterns. *Longer term patterns*: morning, evening - more active in evening hours as mother may be trying to sleep, less active in morning hours. *End of pregnancy*: majority sleep - sight and touch - not a lot of visual stimulation - taste (tasting and smelling amniotic fluid - has flavor and scent. This is determined by what the mother has recently eaten. - smell (may have sweet tooth -prefer things that taste sweet. - hearing - internal and external *FETAL LEARNING*: heart rate and activity level - 6-9 months: fetal learning due to the central nervous system being mature enough to allow for very rudimentary or basic aspects of learning. *Habituation studies* - Habituate - stop paying attention - Dishabituate - start paying attention

Brain development: neurons, axons, dendrites, synapses, synatogenesis, synaptic pruning

*Neurons*: cells that receive and transmit neural impulses - a newborn baby has about 100-200 billion neurons *AXON*: A fiber that extends from a neuron and transmit electrochemical impulses from that neuron to the dendrites of other neurons. *DENDRITE*: A fiber that extends from a neuron and receives electrochemical impulses transmitted from other neurons via their axons. *SYNAPSE*: The intersection between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of other neurons. (connective space between one neuron and another.) *MYELIN*: The coating on axons that speeds transmission of signals from one neuron to another. *CORTISOL*: The primary stress hormone; fluctuations in the body's cortisol level affect human emotions. *OXYTOCIN*: The primary bonding hormone, evident lifelong but particularly high at birth and in lactation. *SYNAPTOGENESIS*: Formation of synaptic connections (neural pathways) *Each neuron = up to 15,000 connections* *SYNAPTIC PRUNING*: The removal of connective fibers between neurons - neurons that are not stimulated ("Use it or lose it") - *what this does = streamlines neural networks (more efficient)* - pruning is essential - as brains mature, the process of extending and eliminating dendrites is exclusively attuned to experience, as the appropriate links in the brain are established, protected, and strengthened. Early dendrite growth is called *transient exuberance*: *exuberant* because it is so rapid and *transient* because some of it is temporary. (Transient Exuberance - The great but temporary increase in the number of dendrites that develop in an infant's brain during the first two years of life.)

Passive genotype/environment correlation; evocative genotype/environment correlation; active genotype/environment correction

*Passive genotype/Environment correlation*: The idea is you have a child who has inherited certain genes from those caregivers & and if the caregivers create environmental experiences consistent with those genes, that child is likely to express those characteristics in their current & later development. But if those caregivers provider environmental experiences that aren't supportive of the genes being expressed then it is likely for those genes to actually be expressed in the phenotype. Individuals actively construct their environments - Evoke certain responses - by virtue of their nature and behavior (bringing about a reaction from someone else) *Evocative genotype/Environment correlation* - can evoke simply by who they are. Select certain environments: *Active genotype/environment correlation*: the idea is that you have an individual who has inherited a certain set of genes that makes them gravitate or move towards certain environmental contexts. *Halo Effect* - we have a bias to think that if we see somebody who's physically attractive, we also attribute social virtues to that individual. We attribute virtues that they are compassionate, they are genuine, and they are helpful. *NO CORRELATION*

Ch. 7 - Emotional Development: positive emotions, negative emotions, self-conscious emotions

*Positive emotions: Happiness* *First positive emotion = contentment* *HAPPINESS* - the descriptor of the positive emotion *Smiling = clear expression of happiness*: - early smiles - may be reflexive - 3 to 8 weeks: external stimuli - 6 weeks: social smiles (smiles tend to be a little bigger, a little brighter when they see a human, in contrast to when they see an inanimate object. *Social Smile*: A smile evoked by a human face, normally first evident in infants about 6 weeks after birth. *Negative emotions* *First negative emotion = generalized distress* (cries but doesn't really know what it needs) *Fear Emerges*: - 4 months - wary of unfamiliar objects and events - 6-7 months - clear fear; fearful of unfamiliar people - *Stranger wariness *: An infant's expression of concern--a quiet stare while clinging to a familiar person, or a look of fear--when a stranger appears. - 7 months- other fears (e.g., fear of loud noises) *The Self-Conscious Emotions* *Self-awareness*: A person's realization that he/he is a distinct individual whose body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people. *Self-Conscious Emotions (related to sense of self; consciousness of others' reactions, social interactions): up until about 18 months of age, on average for the majority, we believe that children just see themselves as an extension of the world around them, not necessarily being independent & about 18 months, children develop this sense of they exist independent from the world around them. *Emerge during the second year of life*: - Pride - Embarrassment - Guilt - Shame *Guilt and Shame are not the same thing* *GUILT*: Associated with empathy for others, Involves feelings of remorse, regret, and the desire to make amends. *Separation Anxiety*: An infant's distress when a familiar caregiver leaves; most obvious between 9 and 14 months. (Distress experienced when separated, or expect to be separated, from special individuals) - Level of distress may vary by context - Tends to increase from 8 to 13 or 15 months and then begins to decline. *This pattern is observed across many cultures.* - Considered to be adaptive - around 8, 9, 10 months of age, children are starting to gain mobility, but not great at it - they don't have the ability to fully communicate with their caregivers. So, they have figured out is that there's this special person or people in their lives that essentially meet all their needs and they want to be with this person at all times to ensure needs are met. *Anger and Sadness* *ANGER*: - Distinct negative emotions: 4-8 months - Shown by 12-months; often at other people - Later...➡️Angry when control is taken away or when frustrated. *SADNESS*: - Can appear in the first months and indicates withdrawal *SHAME*: Unrelated to concern of others; focus on self (feel exposed and feel like hiding) *Shame and guild can be distinguished fairly early.*

Six Stages of Sensorimotor Intelligence

*Primary Circular Reactions* The first two stages involve the infant's responses to his/her own body. *STAGE ONE (substage 1) (birth to 1 month)*: Reflexes: sucking, grasping, staring, listening Example: sucking anything that touches the lips or cheek (Reflexes; adapted to the environment) *STAGE TWO (substage 2) (1-4 months)*: The first acquired adaptations: accommodating and coordination of reflexes Example: sucking a pacifier differently from a nipple, attempting to hold bottle to suck it. (Non-reflexive schemas; body focused schemas; accidental, but continued if pleasurable) *Secondary Circular Reactions* The next two stages involve the infant's responses to objects and people. *STAGE THREE (substage 3) (4-8 months)*: Making interesting sights last: responding to people and objects. Example: clapping hands when mother says "patty-cake". (Outwardly focused schemas; accidental, but continued if pleasurable) *STAGE FOUR (substage 4) (8-12 months)*: New adaptation and anticipation: becoming more deliberate and purposeful in responding to people and objects. Example: putting mother's hands together in order to make her start playing patty-cake. (Combined actions; goal-directed behavior starts; "doing before think" *Tertiary Circular Reactions* The last two stages are the most creative, first with action and then with ideas. *STAGE FIVE (substage 5) (12-18 months)*: New means through active experimentation: experimentation and creativity in the actions of the "little scientist". Example: putting a teddy bear in the toilet and flushing it (Experimentation; active curiosity) *STAGE SIX (substage 6) (18-24 months)*: New means through mental combinations: thinking before doing; new ways of achieving a goal without resorting to trial and error. Example: before flushing the teddy bear again, hesitating because of the memory of the toilet overflowing and mother's anger (Symbolic thought; "think before doing") *Little Scientist*: The stage-five toddler (age 12 to 18 months) who experiments without anticipating the results, using trial and error in active and creative exploration.

The Genetic Code: BEYOND THE GENES

*RNA* (ribonucleic acid): RNA surrounds each gene. - *Methylation*: the process in which this RNA enhances, transcribes, connects, empowers, silences, and alters genetic instructions. - Influences gene expression from conception to death *Epigenetics*: The study of *how*, *why*, and *when* genes change form and expression. ➡️Events and circumstances surrounding a gene determine whether the gene is expressed or not. (is really looking at the intersection of your genetic level & the environmental influences that ultimately create who we are as human beings)

The Genetic Code (cont.)

*Same and Different* *Similar (examples)*: - Number of body parts - Ability to communicate - Capacity to love *Different*: Biases to notice differences - *ALLELE* - any gene that varies in the precise sequence of the billions of base pairs. ➡️ Can cause small or large differences

Research Methods

*Scientific Observation*: a method of testing a hypothesis by systematically watching and recording participants' behavior, in a natural setting, in a laboratory, or in archival data. *The Experiment*: a research method in which the researcher seeks to discover what causes what. One variable (called the *independent variable*) is added. Then the scientist observes and records the effect on the other variable (called the *dependent variable*). *Independent variable*: In an experiment, the variable that is introduced to see what effect it has on the dependent variable (Also called *experimental variable*). *Dependent variable*: In an experiment, the variable that may change as a result of whatever new condition or situation the experimenter adds. In other words, the dependent variable *depends* on the independent variable. *The Survey*: a research method in which information is collected from a large number of people by interviews, written questionnaires, or some other means. *Meta-analysis*: combining the results of many studies, each of which may have small, and limited samples, to reach a general conclusion. *Cross-sectional research*: research that compares people who differ in age but are similar in other important characteristics. *Longitudinal research*: research in which the same individuals are followed over time, as their development is repeatedly assessed. *Correlation*: a number between +1.0 and -1.0 that indicates the relationship between two variables, expressed in terms of the likelihood that one variable will (or will not) change when the other variable does (or does not). A correlation indicates that two variables are somehow related, NOT that one variable causes the other to occur. *Quantitative research*: research that provides data that can be expressed with numbers, such as ranks or scales. *Qualitative research*: research that considers qualities instead of quantities, and hence includes narratives and other aspects of development that express individuality. *Ethics*: set of moral principles

Primary attachment classifications: Secure and insecure (anxious-resistant [insecure-resistant/ambivalent]; anxious-avoidant [insecure-avoidant], disorganized/disoriented)

*Secure attachment (Type B)*: A relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his/her caregiver. - Infants with secure attachment feel comfortable and confident. The caregiver is a *base for exploration* providing assurance and enabling discovery. *Insecure-avoidant attachment (Type A)*: A pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presence, departure, or return. - some children play independently without seeking contact. *insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment (Type C)*: A pattern of attachment in which an infant's anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when the infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion. - these types cling to their caregivers and are angry at being left. *Disorganized attachment (Type D)*: A type of attachment that is marked by an infant's inconsistent reactions to the caregiver's departure and return. - infants may suddenly switch from hitting to kissing their mothers, from staring blankly to crying hysterically, from pinching themselves to freezing in place. Among the population..... - 2/3 of infants are secure (Type B) - 1/3 are insecure, either indifferent (Type A) or unduly anxious (Type C) - 5-10% are disorganized (Type D) *attachment parenting*: (some people advocate for this) prioritizes the mother-infant relationship during the first three years of life. This mandates that mothers should always be near their infants (co-sleeping, "wearing" the baby in a wrap or sling, breast-feeding on demand).

Social construction and difference-equals-deficit error (pg. 11)

*Social construction*: an idea that is built on shared perceptions, not on objective reality. Many age-related terms (such as childhood, adolescence, yuppie, and senior citizen) are social constructions, connected to biological traits but strongly influenced by social assumptions. *Difference-equals-deficit error*: the mistaken belief that unusual behavior or conditions are necessarily inferior. (the belief that people unlike us [different] are inferior [deficit])

Temperament

*Temperament*: Inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation. It is measured by the person's typical responses to the environment. - defined as the "biologically based core of individual differences in style of approach and response to the environment that is stable across time and situations". *"Biologically based"* means temperament begins with genes. *Dimensions of Temperament* Summary of research reports a general agreement among scientists that three distinct aspects of temperament are apparent in infants: 1. Effortful control (regulating attention and emotion, self-soothing) 2. Negative mood (fearful, angry, unhappy) 3. Exuberance (active, social, not shy) Temperament is *not* the same as personality although may lead to personality differences. Together, they make us "who we are". Generally, personality traits (e.g., honesty and humility) are learned, whereas temperament traits (e.g., shyness and aggression) are genetic. Nature and Nurture always interact. For both, temperament and personality, family influences are powerful: While parents affect their children in temperament and personality, children also affect their parents. In general, infants with difficult temperaments are more likely than other babies to develop emotional problems, especially if their mothers had a difficult pregnancy, and were depressed or anxious caregivers. *Temperament Over the Years* - in early childhood, change was most likely for the inhibited, fearful infants and least likely for the exuberant ones. When fearful children grew up, about half were still fearful. The half that overcame their anxiety had more activation in another part of the brain (the anterior cingulate cortex), which signals safety. Perhaps if fearful infants were quickly reassured by their caregivers, a neurological link formed between fear and comfort. Then, when anxiety rose later in life, the brain automatically counteracted it. Research found unexpected gender difference. As teenagers, formerly inhibited boys had relatively high rates of drug use, but the opposite was found for inhibited girls. A likely explanation is cultural: Shy boys use drugs to mask their social anxiety, but shy girls may be more accepted as they are. Other research also find that shyness is more stable in girls than boys. *Brain Variations*: brain maturation is crucial for emotional development, particularly for emotions that response to other people. Experience connects the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex, teaching infants to align their own feelings with those of their caregivers. Joy, fear, and excitement become shared, mutual experiences. - connections between innate emotional impulses from the amygdala and experience-based learning shows "dramatic age-dependent improvement," with genes, prenatal influences, and early caregiving all affecting brain growth. - Infant experience leads to adult reactions: If you know someone who cries, laughs, or angers quickly, ask about their first two years of life. - all social emotions, particularly sadness and fear, affect the hormones, and hence the brain. - Sad and angry infants who mothers are depressed become fearful toddlers and depressed children. - Abuse and unpredictable responses from caregivers are likely among the "early adverse influences [that] have lasting effects on developing neurobiological systems in the brain." - lack of any social responses: That leads to significant brain shrinkage.

Sensing and Perceiving: Vision

*Visual Acuity*: vision is the *least* mature of all senses. - 20/600 at birth - 20/300 at 2 weeks - 20/100 at 5 months - 20/20 at 7-8 months *Color Vision* - Birth - differentiate white from shades of color - 2-3 months - differentiate colors from each other - 4-months - differentiate shades of the same color *Binocular Vision*: coordinating both eyes to see one image (cannot develop in the womb) - so many newborns use their two eyes independently, momentarily appearing wall-eyed or cross-eyed. (the ability to focus the two eyes in a coordinated manner in order to see one image.) *Depth perception: Can babies perceive depth & are they born with an innate fear of heights? Visual cliff: To cross or not to cross? Progression of findings: 1. Crawling babies perceive depth 2. Even younger infants perceive depth 3. Experience are necessary to fear depth - If infants cross the deep side - it suggests that perhaps they don't perceive the depth and/or they're not afraid of it. - If they stay on the shallow side - it suggests that perhaps they perceive the depth and/or they're afraid of it. - In terms of depth perception: it is innate➡️born with it, but the fear of depth or height is something that develops over time.

Ch. 6 - Piaget's definition of intelligence; assimilation; accommodating

*What is intelligence?* - "A basic life function that helps the organism adapt to its environment." *Assimilation*: new experiences are reinterpreted to fit, or assimilate, into old ideas. (includes repeating old patterns) *Accommodation*: old ideas are restructured to include, or accommodate, new experiences. Cognitive adaptation = intelligence

Down Syndrome

*most common chromosome abnormality* - Trisomy-21: Extra chromosome on the 21st chromosome - many embryos with this condition die & miscarriage. *Characteristics*: - over 300 distinct characteristics - common: thick tongue; round face; slanted eyes; distinctive hands, feet, and fingerprints - many: hearing problems, heart abnormalities, muscle weakness, short stature. - lower cognitive functioning (but there is a range of CF) - many have warm temperaments - age faster than their counterparts *average age just shy of 60*

multidirectional development

*the study of change* Development is dynamic, not static Dynamic = continual change

Grand Theories, Minitheories, and new theories

*three Grand Theories*: psychodynamic, behaviorism, and cognitive. *Grand Theories*: 1. A theory provides general principles to guide research and to explain observations. Each of the three grand theories--psychodynamic, behaviorist, and cognitive--interprets human development from a distinct perspective, providing a framework for understanding human emotions, experiences, and actions. 2. Psychodynamic theory emphasizes that adult actions and thoughts originate from unconscious impulses and childhood conflicts. Freud theorized that sexual urges arise during three stages of childhood--oral, anal, and phallic--and continue, after latency, in the genital stage. 3. Erickson described eight successive stages of development, each involving a crisis to be resolved. The early stages are crucial, with lifelong effects, but the emphasis is on social, not just sexual needs. Erickson stressed that societies, cultures, and families shape development. 4. Behaviorists, or learning theorists, believe that scientists should study observable and measurable behavior. Behaviorism emphasizes conditioning--a lifelong learning process in which an association between one stimulus and another (classical conditioning) or the consequences of reinforcement and punishment (operant conditioning) guide behavior. 5. Social learning theory recognizes that people learn by observing others, even if they themselves have not been reinforced or punished. Children are particularly susceptible to social learning, but all humans are affected by what they notice in other people. 6. Cognitive theorists believe that thoughts and beliefs powerfully affect attitudes, actions, and perceptions, which in turn affect behavior. Piaget proposed four age-related periods of cognition, each propelled by an active search for cognitive equilibrium. 7. Information processing focuses on each aspect of cognition--input, processing, and output. This perspective has benefited from technology--first from understanding computer functioning and more recently by the many ways neuroscientists monitor the brain and body. *NEWER THEORIES* 8. *Sociocultural theory* emphasizes the guidance, support, and structure provided by each social group through culture and mentoring. Vygotsky described how learning occurs through social interactions; mentors guide learners through their zone of proximal development. 9. Sociocultural learning is also encouraged by the examples and tools that each society provides. These are social constructions, which guide everyone but which also can change. 10. Evolutionary theory contends that contemporary humans have genes and customs that have fostered survival and reproduction for tens of thousands of years. Through selective adaptation, certain fears, impulses, and reactions that were useful millennia ago continue. Sometimes they are now more destructive than beneficial. *What theories contribute* *Psychodynamic theories* make us aware of the impact of early-childhood experiences, remembered or not, on subsequent development. *Behaviorism* shows the effect that immediate responses, associations, and examples have on. learning, moment by moment and over time. *Cognitive theories* bring an understanding of intellectual processes, that thoughts and beliefs affect every aspect of our development. *Sociocultural theories* remind us that development is embedded in a rich and multifaceted cultural context, evident in every social interaction. *Evolutionary theories* suggest that human impulses need to be recognized before they can be guided. 11. Many other theories focus specifically on adult development and are discussed later. All theories, however, can provide hypotheses for researchers and insights for us all. 12. Psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, sociocultural, and evolutionary theories have aided our understanding of human development. Each is also criticized for being too narrow to describe the full complexity of human life. 13. Since no single theory captures the diversity of contemporary human experience, most developmentalists are eclectic, drawing on many theories. Minitheories - much more prevalent focus on very specific developmental concept for a very specific population.

Sensing and Perceiving: Taste & Smell

- well developed at birth (& before!) - taste buds developed before birth - Can distinguish different smells: Tested in "stabilometer" *Babies prefer*: - sweet over sour (like salt too) - the way their own mother smells - taste of their pregnant mothers' diet, spices and all, which they swallowed as amniotic fluid (part of preparing the lungs to function)

Chapter 3: Three lessons about genes

1. Genes affect everything 2. Nurture always matters 3. Whether or not a gene is expressed depends on the social context.

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

1. sensorimotor: Birth to 2 years - Infants use senses and motor abilities to understand the world. Learning is active, without reflection. 2. preoperational: 2-6 years - Children think symbolically, with language, yet children are *egocentric*, perceiving from their own perspective. 3. concrete operational: 6-11 years - Children understand and apply logic. Thinking is limited by direct experience. 4. formal operational: 12 years-adulthood - Adolescents and adults use abstract and hypothetical concepts. They can use anaylsis, not only emotion.

psychoanalytic theory

A theory developed by Freud that attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior *Biological maturation (internal)* *Human development* - Influence by drives and motives (often unconscious) - unfolds in stages - a specific developmental task as each stage *Sigmund Freud's: Psychosexual* - symptoms = unconscious feelings of guilt, anxiety, or fear. - many emotional problems originated in childhood. *Universal development stages*: - Psychic energy (basic drives)➡️different erogenous zones➡️conflicts➡️need to be appropriately satisfied (if not, can impact later development) - Oral stage, Anal stage, Phallic stage, Latency stage, Genital stage.

Dynamic-systems approach

A view of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial influences. This approach recognizes that development is never static.

The Genetic Code

All living things are composed of cells containing chromosomes. - The nucleus of each human cell contains *46 chromosomes* - 23 pairs, one member coming from each parent The instructions in the 46 chromosomes are organized into genes. Humans have about *20,000 genes* - Genes are a unique segment of DNA (deoxyribonucleic aid; made up of base pairs) that codes for a specific protein. *Genome* - The entire packet of information to make a living organism. - It is estimated that more than 99% of any person's genes are identical to those of any other person. 1% of genes that create the difference.

POLYGENIC + MULTIFACTORIAL TRAITS

Almost every trait is: *POLYGENIC* (affected by many genes) and *MULTIFACTORIAL* (influenced by many factors) - even if a genotype is known, there is no completely accurate prediction of the phenotype.

What is attachment?

An emotional connection with a specific person that is enduring across space and time.

Sensing and Perceiving: Hearing

At birth/shortly after.... - Locate noise in space - Prefer the human voice: "infant-directed speech" - Can distinguish phonemes: Sound categories, Ba/Pa study

Attachment theories (examples): learning theory, ethological theory

Attachment Theories: *Learning theory*: Harlow and Zimmerman (1959): Seeking Food and Contact Comfort *Ethological theory*: Promotes survival and development - Lorenz (1937) and imprinting - Preadapted characteristics: babies are "cute" (kewpie) and have enduring characteristics. - Adults respond to babies.

Chromosomal and genetic abnormalities

Chromosomal abnormalities are positively correlated with maternal age (and fathers'): One estimate for a fetus with Down Syndrome: - 20-year-old women = 1 in 800 change - 39-year-old women = 1 in 67 chance - 44-year-old women = 1 in 16 chance - Formation of Gamete (sex cells): all cells may have abnormal chromosome counts. ➡️common pattern, but if it happens may zygotes do not develop - Potential pattern after formed zygote - Cell duplication does not occur correctly. Some more or less than 46 chromosomes. - Infant survival - 1 in 200 children survive with a few less or more (45, 47, or rarely 48, 49 chromosomes) *Chromosomal and Genetic Problems*: 1. Often a gamete has fewer or more than 23 chromosomes, which may create a zygote with 45, 47, 48 chromosomes. Usually such zygotes do not duplicate, implant, or grow. 2. Infants may survive if they have three chromosomes at the 21st site (down syndrome). These individuals may have fulfilling lives, although, they are vulnerable to heart and lung problems, and, in midlife, to Alzheimer's disease. 3. Another possible problem is a missing or extra sex chromosome. Such people have intellectual disabilities or other problems, but they may also lead a fulfilling life. 4. Everyone is a carrier for genetic abnormalities. Usually these conditions are recessive, not apparent unless the mother and the father both carry the gene. Serious dominant disorders usually do not appear in midlife. 5. Serious recessive diseases can become common if carriers have a health advantage. This is true for sickle-cell disease, which protected carriers against malaria. 6. Genetic testing and counseling can help many couples. Testing provides information about possibilities, which are difficult for people to understand when their emotions are overwhelming. The final decision about what to do with the information rests with the client, not the counselor.

Ch. 4: What is prenatal development?

Development that occurs between conception and birth. - begins in fallopian tube when sperm penetrates ovum and forms a zygote. - takes about 266 days (about 38 weeks) for the one-celled zygote to become a fetus of 200 billion cells! Prenatal development is often divided into three main periods: *Germinal period*: The first two weeks of prenatal development after conception, characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation. -zygote differentiates and implants in uterine wall - inner layer (blastocyst) - Embryo - outer layer (trophoblast) - nutrition and support - placenta, umbilical cord, amnion. *Embryonic period (period of the embryo)*: The stage of prenatal development from approximately the third week through the eighth week after conception, during which the basic forms of all body structures, including internal organs, develop. - Important Embryonic development - *Organogensis* - formation of organs - Inner layer *(blastocyst)* becomes 3 different layers: - *Ectoderm (outer layer)* - nervous system, skin, hair, etc. - *Mesoderm (middle layer)* - muscles, bones, circulatory system, etc. - *Endoderm (inner layer)* - digestive system, lungs, urinary tract, etc. *(PRIMITIVE STREAK: A THIN LINE THAT APPEARS DOWN THE MIDDLE OF THE CELL MASS)* - SIZE: 1 INCH; 1/30 OF AN OUNCE - By eight weeks postconception, the developing embryo has all the organs and body parts of a human being, including elbows and knees. Development is *cephalocaudal* (literally, "head-to-tail") and *proximodistal* (literally, "near-to-far"), with the head forming first and the extremities last. This directional pattern continues until puberty, when it reverses. (feet first, brain last) *Fetal period (period of the fetus)*: The stage of prenatal development from the ninth week after conception until birth, during which the fetus gains about 7 pounds (more than 3,000 grams) and organs become more mature, gradually able to function on their own. *FETUS: the name for a developing human organism from the start of the ninth week after conception until birth.* - organ systems begin to function; organism grows. *Age of viability*: The age (about 22 weeks after conception) at which a fetus might survive outside the mother's uterus if specialized medical care is available. What is the average size of a newborn? *average weight of newborn is 7.5lbs and average # of inches is 20in. *THEMES OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT*: - increasingly complex structures develop out of initially limited resources. - development follows a predetermined schedule: *maturational blueprint (gene driven)*

Sensing and Perceiving: Touch

Infants touch with: - Hands - Fingers - Mouth - Tongue

Information Processing: Memory

Memory: brain's storage and retrieval What is needed to remember? - some experience - maturation Very young infants can remember *IF*.... - experimental conditions are similar to real life - motivation is high - special measures aid memory retrieval *The Mobile Studies (3-month-olds) - one group of studies: one-week memory; no two-week - second group of studies: reminder session facilitates memory retrieval. *MEMORY AT 6-MONTHS+* Memory for more complex sequences: children were able to recreate a sequence they had seen a week later Infants do remember some things better than others.

Chapter 2 - Five characteristics of the life span

Multidirectional - study of change Multicontextual - different context Multicultural - different culture Multidisciplinary - learn about human discipline Plasticity - capacity to change

The Development of Spoken Language in the First Two Years

Newborn - Reflexive communication - cries, movements, facial expressions. 2 months - A range of meaningful noises--cooing, fussing, crying, laughing. 3-6 months - New sounds, including squeals, growls, croons, trills, vowel sounds. 6-10 months - Babbling, including both consonant and vowel sounds repeated in syllables. 10-12 months - Comprehension of simple words; speechlike intonations; specific vocalizations that have meaning to those who who know the infant well. Deaf babies express their first signs; hearing babies also use specific gestures (e.g., pointing) to communicate. 12 months - First spoken words that are recognizably part of the native language. 13-18 months - Slow growth of vocabulary, up to about 50 words. 18 months - Naming explosion--three or more words learned per day. Much variation: Some toddlers do not yet speak. 21 months - First two-word sentence. 24 months - Multiword sentences. Half of the toddler's utterances are two or more words long.

Birth and Newborn's first minutes

Newborns are responsive social creatures in the first hours of life. They listen, stare, cry, stop crying, and cuddle. In the first day or two, a professional might administer the *Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)*, which records 46 behaviors, including 20 reflexes. *REFLEX*: an involuntary response to a particular stimulus. *Newborns have three sets of reflexes that aid survival*: - *Reflexes that maintain oxygen supply.* The *breathing reflex* begins even before the umbilical cord, with its supply of oxygen, is cut. Additional reflexes that maintain oxygen are reflexive *hiccups* and *sneezes*, as well as *thrashing* (moving the arms and legs about) to escape something that covers the face. - *Reflexes that maintain constant body temperature*: When infants are cold, they *cry*, *shiver*, and *tuck their legs* close to their bodies. When they are hot, they try to *push away* blankets and then stay still. - *Reflexes that manage feeding*: The *sucking reflex* causes newborns to suck anything that touches their lips--fingers, toes, blankets, and rattles, as well as natural and artificial nipples of various textures and shapes. In the *rooting reflex*, babies turn their mouths toward anything that brushes against their cheeks--a reflexive search for a nipple--and start to suck. *Swallowing* also aids feeding, as does *crying* when the stomach is empty and *spitting up* when too much is swallowed quickly. Other reflexes beyond these 13 promoted survival in ancient times but now signify brain and body maturation. Among them are: - *Babinski refles* When newborn's feet are stroked, the toes fan upward. - *Stepping reflex* When newborns are held upright, feet touching a flat surface, they move their legs as if to walk. - *Swimming reflex* When held horizontally on their stomachs, newborns stretch out their arms and legs. - *Palmar grasping reflex* When something touches newborns' palms, they grip it tightly. - *Moro reflex* When someone bangs on the table they are lying on, newborns fling their arms outward and then bring them together to their chests, crying with wide-open eyes.

Language Development: what's going on before children talk?

Newborns: prefer speech and cry 2 mos.: cooing vowel sounds ("ooo, eee") 4-6 mos.: repetitive babbling ("ba-ba-ba") 7 mos.: turn taking in conversation 8-10 mos.: gestures and nonverbal responses 1 year: intonation resembles native language (sequence of repetitive babble) 12-13 mos.: receptive>productive

Cells and Identity, stem cells, in vitro fertilization (IVF)

Nine months after conception, a newborn has about 26 billion cells, all influenced by nutrients, drugs, hormones, viruses, microbes, etc. from the pregnant woman. Almost every human cell carries a complete copy of the genetic instructions of the original cell. Half of those instructions came from each parent, but every zygote also has new mutations -- about 40 base pair variations that we were not inherited. -Adults have about 37 trillion cells, each with the same 46 chromosomes and the same thousands of genes of the original zygote. This explains why DNA testing of any body cell, even from a drop of saliva or a snip of hair, can identify "the real father," "the guilty criminal," "the long-lost brother." DNA lingers long after death. - the Y chromosome is passed down to every male descendant, and because the Y changes very little from one generation to the next, men today have the Y of their male ancestors who died thousands of years ago. - Female ancestors also live on. Each *zygote* has *mitochondria*, a biological material that provides energy for the cell. The mitochondria come from the mother, and her mother, and her mother, and thus each person carried evidence of maternal lineage. *STEM CELLS*: Cells from which any other specialized type of cell can form. *The cells that result from the early duplication and division are called STEM CELLS; they ca produce any other cell and thus become a complete person. After about the eight-cell stage, although duplication and division continue, a third process called DIFFERENTIATION begins.* In *differentiation*, cells specialize, taking different forms and reproducing at various rates depending on how they are located. For instance, some cells become part of an eye, others part of a finger, still others part of the brain. They are no longer stem cells. -Scientists have discovered several ways in the laboratory to reprogram cells, making them like stem cells again. This can control many genetic illnesses and conditions, but is not yet known how to use reprogrammed cells without risking serious harm to patients. - another method, called *CRISPR*, has been developed to edit genes, with the potential to control the mosquitos that spread malaria, Zika virus, and other diseases. *IN VITRO FERTILIZATION (IVF)*: Fertilization that takes place outside the woman's body (as in a glass laboratory dish). The procedure involves mixing sperm with ova that have been surgically removed from the woman's ovary. If a zygote is produced, it is inserted into a woman's uterus, where is may implant and develop into a baby. - zygotes that fail to duplicate properly are rejected, but several days after conception, one or more blastocysts are inserted into the uterus. - Another IVF miracle is that adults can have children who are not biologically theirs because others have donated the sperm, the ova, and/or the womb. (INV 30% effective)

Infant Cognition: Object knowledge

OBJEC KNOWLEDGE: early work suggests that infants are able to.... - Mentally represent objects and events (object permanence), but they may not search for things. - Think about the existence of objects and events: will search for objects that have vanished from sight due to darkness, seem to think about the size of objects. Majority of research.... - *Violation-of-expectancy procedure*: An impossible or inconsistent event (violates infant's knowledge) should receive a greater response. *Violation of Expectancy*: studies by Baillargeon and her colleagues - 3 1/2-month-olds looked at the impossible event than possible event - WHY? -- it was reasoned that the infants expected the box to stop the rotations ➡️had a mental representation of the box.

Ch. 5 First two years: Biosocial Development: Physical development pattern: cephalocadual and proximodistal & body size changes over the first two years of life

Physical Development: First 2 years: *Body Proportion*: CEPHALOCADUAL (head-down) - truck, legs PROXIMODISTAL (center-out) *Height and weight* - height from 18-22 to 32-35 inches - weight from 5.5-10 to 26 to 32lbs *Brain Growth Spurt* - Last 3 prenatal months through first two years: prenatal to postnatal growth: - the brain will be over 1/2 of its adult weight by age 2 *(adult brain weighs 3lbs)* - by age 4, adult size - by age 5, almost adult weight

sensorimotor stage of cognitive development

Piaget: - birth to 18 months - children exhibit poor verbal and cognitive development - children develop the idea of object performance (out of sight not out of mind) during this stage] *Sensorimotor intelligence*: Piaget's term for the way infants think--by using their senses and motor skills--during the first period of cognitive development *Primary circular reactions*: The first of three types of feedback loops in sensorimotor intelligence, this one involving the infant's own body. The infant sense motion, sucking, noise, and other stimuli and tries to understand them. *Sensorimotor* - birth-2 years - Infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions.

Chapter 1 - What does it mean to study life span development & four critical elements of life span research

Studying the Life Span - *"The scientific study of human development seeks to understand HOW and WHY-all kinds of people, everywhere-change or remain the same over time."* *Four Critical Elements*: The study of human development... - is based on science. - Focuses on the How and Why - Focuses on diversity - Focuses on change and stability over time (conception to death)

Three developmental stages of neuronal communnications

THREE DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF NEURONAL DEVELOPMENT: - *cell production* - *cell migration - *cell differentiation/unique functions*

The scientific Method & Nature and nuture

The scientific method - facts are often misinterpreted. To avoid unexplained opinions and to rein in personal biases, researchers follow five steps of the *scientific method* *1. Begin with curiosity.* On the basis of theory, prior research, or personal observation, pose a question. *2. Develop a hypothesis.* Shape the question into a *hypothesis*, a specific prediction that can be tested. *3. *Test the hypothesis.* Design and conduct research to gather *empirical evidence* (data) *4. Analyze the evidence.* Conclude whether the hypothesis is supported or not, and analyze any interesting nuances, such as age and gender differences. Interpret strong or weak results. *5. Report the results.* Share data, conclusions, and alternative explanations. *The Nature-Nurture Controversy* *Nature* refers to the influence of the genes that people inherit. *Nurture* refers to environmental influences, beginning with the health, diet, and stress of the future person's mother at conception and continuing lifelong, including experiences in the family, school, community, and nation.

Sensation and Perception

[sensation and perception] conversion of physical stimuli to neurological signals v. processing of sensory information *Sensation*: Stimuli detection by the sensory receptors (e.g., eyes, ears, tongue, nostrils, and skin) - Transmission of this information to the brain. *Perception*: Brain's interpretation of what is being sensed.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) + Fetal Alcohol Effects (FAE)

a medical condition in which body deformation or facial development or mental ability of a fetus is impaired because the mother drank alcohol while pregnant. *most severe* Greater associations = heavy drinking - Physical deformities: small head, limbs, joints, face malformations; smaller bodies - Low level intelligence - Adjustment problems as adults (e.g., depression, anxiety) *FETAL ALCOHOL EFFECTS (FAE)*: later in pregnancy, behavior can be affected. - Restricted physical growth; minor physical abnormalities; poor motor skills, etc.

What is a teratogen?

any disease, drug, or other environmental agent that can harm a developing fetus. - has the potential to harm. EFFECTS DEPEND ON: - Timing of exposure (sensitive period): *Embryonic* - structural/anatomical; *Fetal* - functionality or stunted growth. - Amount and length of exposure - Genetic susceptibility of the fetus - Quality of the prenatal environment - Quality of postnatal environment *TERATOGENS (EXAMPLES)* - Maternal diseases: Rubella, Toxoplamosis, Sexually transmitted diseases. - Drugs: Thalidomide, Non-prescription - caffeine, Psychoactive drugs - Environmental Hazards: Radiation, Chemicals, Hot tubs - Maternal Characteristics: Nutrition, Emotional states and stress, Maternal age - Paternal characteristics: Exposure to radiation, Psychoactive drug use, Paternal age

Skinner's Radical Behaviorism

emphasizes the influence of the environment on observable (overt) behavior, rejects the use of internal events to explain behavior, and views thoughts and feelings as behaviors that themselves need to be explained - Exclusive focus on observable, overt behaviors. - Environment shapes behavior - Behavior=learned associations between external stimuli and observable responses. (classical conditioning)

universal theories

humanism and evolutionary Humanism - the potential of all humans is good and all humans have the same basic needs. Evolutionary - many human impulses, needs, and behaviors evolved to help humans survive and thrive.

Periods of Development

prenatal (conception to birth), infancy (Birth to 18-24 months), early childhood (2-6 years), middle childhood (6-11 years), adolescence (10-12 to 18 years), emerging adulthood (18-25 years), adulthood (25 to 60s), late adulthood (60s-70s to death)

Critical & Sensitive Period

relatively brief time during which learning is most likely to occur The timing of losses and gain, impairments or improvements. Some changes are sudden and profound because of a *critical period*, which is either when something *must* occur to ensure normal development or the only time when an abnormality might occur. Life has few critical periods. Often, however, a particular development occurs more easily-but not exclusively- at a certain time. This is called *sensitive period*.

differential susceptibility

the idea that people vary in how sensitive they are to particular experiences