EXAM1 Bio

Chromosomes duplicate during the?

"S" stage

Asexual Reproduction

A mode of reproduction by which offspring arise from a single organism, and inherit the genes of that parent only; it is reproduction which almost never involves ploidy or reduction. The offspring will be exact genetic copies of the parent, except in the specific case of automixis.

Cell Membrane

Cell membranes protect and organize cells. All cells have an outer plasma membrane that regulates not only what enters the cell, but also how much of any given substance comes in. Unlike prokaryotes, eukaryotic cells also possess internal membranes that encase their organelles and control the exchange of essential cell components. Both types of membranes have a specialized structure that facilitates their gatekeeping function.

G1

Cells are synthesis of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. Slowly dividing cells. Growth of cells.

Embryonic Stem Cells

Cells from an embryo, but created in the lab.

S

Cells replicate its entire genome- results in centromere. protein synthesis, form mitotic spindle, microtubules form centriole near nucleus.

Anaphase

Centromeres part and chromatids separate. Homologous chromosomes seperates.

Non Sister Chromatids

Either of the two chromatids of any of the paired (homologous) chromosomes. Non-sister (homologous) chromatids form chiasma(ta) to exchange genetic material during meiosis (i.e. Prophase I).

Nucleus

Eukaroyotes; RNA< DNA, Organelles, Seperates DNA with cells

Cytoplasm

Everything the nucleus, organelles, and cell membrane.

Meiosis

Two Division; four daughter cells per cycle; daughter cells genetically different, chromosomes number of daughter cells half that of parents cell (1n) Haploids gametes. In human, completes after sexual maturity; used for sexual reproduction, producing new gene combination. Human cells have 23 chromosomes.

Zygote

Two gametes joined together during sexual reproduction in multi-cellular organism (46 Chromosomes divide to 23 pairs of chromosomes); earliest developmental stage of embryo.

Sister Chromatids

Two identical copies of single chromosomes that are connected by a centromere. In Anaphase of mitosis _ separate and begin moving to opposite ends of the cell. Once the paired sister chromatids separate from one another, each is considered a full chromosome.

Embryo

Unborn offspring in the processes of development.

Fetus

Unborn offspring.

Autosomal Recessive Disease

affects both sex and skips a generation.

spermatogenesis

The process in which spermatozoa are produced from male primordial germ cells by way of mitosis and meiosis. The initial cells in this pathway are called spermatogonia, which yield primary spermatocytes by mitosis.

Telaphase

The spindle disassembles and the nuclei envelope is re-form.

Mitosis

There are two kinds of cell division in eukaryotes (2 diploid cells). Mitosis is division involved in development of an adult organism from a single fertilized egg, in growth and repair of tissues, in regeneration of body parts, and in asexual reproduction. In mitosis, the parent cell produces two "daughter cells" that are genetically identical. (The term "daughter cell" is conventional, but does not indicate the sex of the offspring cell.) Mitosis can occur in both diploid (2n) and haploid (n) cells. Prophase-Metaphase- Anaphase- Telophase

Human Life Cycle

begins at fertilization, when an egg cell inside a woman and a sperm cell from a man fuse to form a one-celled zygote . Over the next few days, the single, large cell divides many times to form a hollow ball of smaller cells. On the sixth day after fertilization, this hollow ball burrows into the wall of the mother's uterus, or womb. The cells then form three layers that fold and bend into the more complex shape of an early embryo. Gradually, the cells begin to become different from one another, forming, for example, the nervous system and the circulatory system.

Genes that are located in the same chromosomes are?

linked genes

spermatogenesis.

male form of gametogenesis.

Sperm Cells

male gamete

Mitochondria genes are passed from ____ to _____

mother to child

Gametes

sex cells; sperm and oocytes; mix genetic material from past generation.

Phenotype Describe

the outward expression of alleles combination.

Three sexual Variation.

1.Meiosis - crossing over and independent assortment of chromosomes 2.Random fertilization 3.Random mating.

Human sperm cells have?

23 Chromosomes

Somatic Human cells have?

46 chromosomes

Autosomal Dominant HD

Affects both sex and appears every generation.

Prokaryotes

Archaea and Bacteria singled cells; no nucleus structure that contains DNA, no organelle, cytoplasm. Always unicellular.

In incomplete dominance, the heterozygote phenotype is?

Bb

Mitochondria

Burns glucose to produce energy from nutrients; participates in cell death.

Metaphase

Chromosomes attaches to the spindle at their centromeres and align along the center of the cell equator; pulled with equal force on both sides.

General Concept Meiosis

Chromosomes number is halved because the DNA replicates once, but cells divide twice.

Eukaryotes

Contains a nucleus and organelles, mitochondria, cytoplasm, multi-cellular. RNA and Protein (DNA) - Ribosomes .

Prophase

DNA coils tightly, chromosomes becomes shorter and thicker, forms spindles, nuclear envelope disappears, centrioles appears.

Genotype

Describes the organism alleles

Spindle

During Mitosis and Meiosis separates the chromosomes during metaphase.

Karyokinesis

During the process known as karyokinesis, the nucleus divides. Nuclear division includes several subphases, which we will study in detail later. Karyokinesis is usually followed by cytokinesis.

Meiosis 2

Each of two cells from the first division divides again, yielding four cells from original one.

Homologous chromosomes

In diploid (2n) organisms, the genome is composed of homologous chromosomes. One chromosome of each homologous pair comes from the mother (called a maternal chromosome) and one comes from the father (paternal chromosome). Homologous chromosomes are similar but not identical. Each carries the same genes in the same order, but the alleles for each trait may not be the same. In garden peas, for example, the gene for pod color on the maternal chromosome might be the yellow allele; the gene on the homologous paternal chromosome might be the green allele.

Chromosomes

In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA molecule is packaged into thread-like structures called chromosomes. Each chromosome is made up of DNA tightly coiled many times around proteins called histones that support its structure. Chromosomes are not visible in the cell's nucleus—not even under a microscope—when the cell is not dividing. However, the DNA that makes up chromosomes becomes more tightly packed during cell division and is then visible under a microscope. Most of what researchers know about chromosomes was learned by observing chromosomes during cell division. Each chromosome has a constriction point called the centromere, which divides the chromosome into two sections, or "arms." The short arm of the chromosome is labeled the "p arm." The long arm of the chromosome is labeled the "q arm." The location of the centromere on each chromosome gives the chromosome its characteristic shape, and can be used to help describe the location of specific genes.

Meiosis 1

The number of replicated chromosomes is halved.

The two stages of the cell cycle are

Interphase and Mitosis

Gene

It is used extensively by the scientific community as a name given to some stretches of deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) and ribonucleic acids (RNA) that code for a polypeptide or for an RNA chain that has a function in the organism.

Testis

Male gonads.

Reduces the number of chromosomes in half

Meiosis

Produces 4 cells

Meiosis (Haploids )

Spindle forms

Meiosis and Mitosis

Gametes are produced by?

Meiosis; reproductive cells; sex cells; form new cell called zygote.

Independent Assortments

Mendel the law of _________ during gamete formation the segregation of the alleles of one allelic pair is independent of the segregation of the alleles of another allelic pair

Organelle

Mitochondria - cells digestive systems. Contained by the cell membrane. Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi appartus, Lysosome, Mitochondria, Nucleus, Ribosomes, Vesicles. Mutiple function.C

Produces Cells identical to the daughter cell

Mitosis

With the purpose of growth

Mitosis

Nuclear envelope disappears

Mitosis and Meiosis

Nuclear envelope disappears

Mitosis/Meiosis

The larger the distance between two genes, the _____ likely for a crossing over to occur.

More

Interphase

Most of the cell cycle is spent in interphase. During interphase the cell is growing and metabolic activity is very high. Toward the end of interphase, new DNA is synthesized and the chromosomes are replicated. Each chromosome of the homologous pair is then composed of two sister chromatids. S - G1- G2

Cytoplasm

Most of the important activities of the cell occur in the cytoplasm.__________ contains molecules such as enzymes which are responsible for breaking down waste and also aid in metabolic activity. ________ is responsible for giving a cell its shape. It helps to fill out the cell and keeps organelles in their place. Without cytoplasm, the cell would be deflated and materials would not be able to pass easily from one organelle to another.

Crossing Over

Occurs during Meiosis in during the Prophase 1 of Meiosis. A exchange of genetic materials between non-sister chromatids and homologous chromosomes. Crossing over allows reassortment to link genes

Haploid

One copy of genome N, no chromosome pairs. Cells used in sexual reproduction sperm cells and ova (Gametes). _____cells are a result of the process of meiosis (4), a type of cell division in which diploid cells divide to give rise to haploid germ cells. A haploid cell will merge with another haploid cell at fertilization.

G2

Phase Cell organelles replicate prior to genomic separation.

Gonad

Place where the sperm and oocyte (female eggs) are made.

Gametes

Produced by Meiosis; _____ sex cells; sperm and oocytes; mix genetic material from past generation.

Diploid

Skin cells, muscle, blood; 2N; twice the number of haploid chromosomes. Two sets of chromosomes are present, one from mom and the other from dad. Diploid cells reproduce by mitosis making daughter cells that are exact replicas. Somatic cells.

Centomere

The _________ is the part of a chromosome that links sister chromatids. During mitosis, spindle fibers attach to the ____.

Cytokenesis

The cytoplasm divides and two identical daughter cells are formed. Provides new genetic combinations.

Nuclear Envelope

The nuclear envelope (NE) is a highly regulated membrane barrier that separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells. It contains a large number of different proteins that have been implicated in chromatin organization and gene regulation. Although the nuclear membrane enables complex levels of gene expression, it also poses a challenge when it comes to cell division. To allow access of the mitotic spindle to chromatin, the nucleus of metazoans must completely disassemble during mitosis, generating the need to re-establish the nuclear compartment at the end of each cell division.

Polar body

When certain diploid cells in animals undergo cytokinesis after meiosis to produce egg cells, they sometimes divide unevenly. Most of the cytoplasm is segregated into one daughter cell, which becomes the egg or ovum. The other, smaller cells are called ________ bodies.

Gametogenesis

________ is a biological process by which diploid or haploid precursor cells undergo cell division and differentiation to form mature haploid gametes.

oogenesis

female form of gametogenesis

Ovum

female gamete

Ovary

female gonads