Face-Negotiation Theory: Chapter 32

What separates Ting-Toomey's theory of conflict management from a mere listing of national characteristics?

Her grouping of national cultures within the collectivistic and individualistic categories

The independent self values

I-identity and is more self-face oriented, so this concept of self is prevalent within individualistic cultures like the U.S.

Why is third-party help a collectivist conflict-management style?

In these societies, parties in conflict voluntarily go to someone they greatly admire who has a good relationship with both of them. In order to "give face" to this wise elder or high-status person, they may be willing to follow his or her advice and in the process honor each other's image as well.

Passive aggressive

Making indirect accusations, showing resentment, procrastination, and other behaviors aimed at thwarting another's resolution of conflict. "Without actually accusing anyone of being lazy, I'd try to make him or her feel guilty."

Type of theory and tradition it follows

Objective theory that follows the socio-psychological tradition

Self-construal

Self-image; the degree to which people conceive of themselves as relatively autonomous from, or connected to, others.

Obliging

accommodating or giving in to the wishes of another in a conflict situation. "I would give in to the wishes of the group member."

Why are avoiding and obliging collectivistic conflict-management styles instead of individualistic styles?

in U.S. conflict management literature, obliging and avoiding conflict styles often take on a Western slant of being negatively disengaged from the conflict scene. However, collectivists do not per- ceive obliging and avoiding conflict styles as negative. These two styles are typically employed to maintain mutual-face interests and relational network interests.

Face concern

regard for self-face, other-face, or mutual-face

In one multiethnic study, Ting-Toomey and Oetzel identified some people whose self-image embraced both interdependence and independence. Researchers now believe that these

"biconstrual" individuals possess a wider repertoire of behavioral options to use in different conflict situations. Face-negotiation theory predicts that regardless of his or her culture of origin, "the biconstrual type is associated positively with compromising/integrating conflict style." Ting-Toomey suggests that collectivists who adopt this interpersonal style focus on relational-level collaboration, whereas individualists concentrate on solving the task in a way that brings closure. Ting-Toomey says that power-distance values affect responses to conflict.

Third-party help

A method of conflict management in which disputing parties seek the aid of a mediator, arbitrator, or respected neutral party to help them resolve their differences. "I would enlist the professor to aid us in solving the conflict."

Techniques of third-party mediation

(1) Assure Impartiality: "Since neither of you has met me before, I have no stake in what you decide." (2) Guarantee confidentiality: "What you say today is strictly between us. I'll rip up my notes before you go." (3) Display disputant equality: "Nate, thanks for not interrupting while Beth was telling her story. Now it's your turn. What do you want to tell me?" (4) Avoid "why" questions: Harmful—"Why did you do that?" Helpful—"What would you like to see happen?" (5) Acknowledge emotions while defusing their force: "I can understand that you were bothered when you found the bike was broken." (6) Summarize frequently: "I'd like to tell you what I've heard you say. If I don't get it right, fill me in." (7) Hold individual private conferences: "I wanted to meet privately with you to see if there's anything you want to tell me in confidence that you didn't feel you could say with Beth in the room." (8) Reframe issues of "right" and "wrong" into interests: "Beth, I'm not sure I understand. Tell me, how will Nate's going to jail give you what you need?" (9) Brainstorm: "Let's see how many different solutions you can think of that might solve the problem. Just throw out any ideas you have and we'll sort through them later." (10) Perform a reality check: "Have you checked to see if the bike can be put back in mint condition?" (11) Consider the alternative: "What are you going to do if you don't reach an agreement today?" (12) Move toward agreement: "You've already agreed on a number of important issues. I'm going to begin to write them down."

What does Ting-Toomey believe are the three requirements for effectively communicating across cultures?

(1) cultural knowledge, (2) mindfulness, (3) facework interaction skill

Using an ethnically diverse sample, Ting-Toomey and Oetzel have identified three additional styles of conflict management that American, individualistic-based scholarship has missed:

(1) emotional expression, (2) passive aggressive, (3) third-party help

Popular Western wisdom regards face as an

Asian preoccupation but Ting-Toomey and other relational researchers find it to be a universal concern because face is an extension of self-concept: a vulnerable, identity-based resource. Overall view of face as public self-image is consistent with Mead's concept of the generalized other

Exceptions to the small power / large power clusters

Costa Rica is a country that combines small power distance with collectivistic values, as do feminist subcultures and the Kibbutz movement in Israel. Conversely, Italy and France are individualistic countries where great differences in power are accepted if they are earned. The United States and Great Britain share some of this status-through-achievement appreciation

Face negotiation model pattern

Culture (individualistic/collectivistic) --> self construal (independent/interdependent) --> face-concern (self face, mutual face, other face) --> conflict style

Mindfulness

Recognizing that things are not always what they seem, and therefore seeking multiple perspectives in conflict situations. When you are mindful, you mentally switch off automatic pilot and process the situation and conversation through the central route of the mind.

Face-giving

The other-concerned facework strategy used to defend and support another person's need for inclusion. It means taking care not to embarrass or humiliate the other in public. Face strategy across collectivistic cultures

Complicating factor: perceived threat

Ting-Toomey also says that specific face threats can affect your face concern and the type of facework you do. She lists seven additive factors that increase the level of threat you perceive. The more.... a. central the violated-facework rule is in your culture, b. cultural difference causes mistrust between you, c. important the topic under dispute is to you, d. power the other has over you, e. harm that will be done when the threat is carried out, f. you view the other as responsible for initiating the conflict, g. you regard the other as an out-group member ... the more severe the treat to your face will seem. When a threat looms large, almost everyone uses a face-defending strategy. Those raised in individualistic cultures usually turn aggressive; collectivists typically opt for avoidance.

Results of mediation

Used artfully, the techniques work well. The majority of the negotiations end in freely signed and mutually kept agreements. The number of people of Asian origin seeking conflict mediation is disproportionately small - they're more embarrassed than angry and if they do reach agreement, they seem more relieved that the conversation is over than pleased with the solution.

Collectivistic culture cont.

Value collective needs and goals over individual needs and goals. They assume that in the long run, each individual decision affects everyone in the group. A person's behavior is controlled by the norms of the group. Leads them to view others in us-them categories. More important to identify an outsider's background and group affiliation than the person's attitudes of feelings because unique individual differences seem less important. During mediation, the open discussion of conflict, the encouragement to voice specific needs and interests, and the explicit language used to document any agreement all make the process quite uncomfortable for people raised in a high-context culture.

Individualistic culture cont.

Values individualistic needs and goals. Behavior is governed by the personal rules of a freewheeling self that's concerned with individual rights. Filled with questions about the interior life of visitors from other cultures. Americans assume that every person is unique, and they reduce uncertainty by asking questions to the point of cross-examination. Mediation approach offers a safe place where no one need feel embarrassed.

Collectivistic culture

Wherein people identify with a larger group that is responsible for providing care in exchange for group loyalty; we-identity; a high-context culture. More than two-thirds of the world's people are born into collectivistic cultures. Includes Japan, most countries in Asia, Africa, the Middle East, and Latin America

Individualistic culture

Wherein people look out for themselves and their immediate families; I- identity; a low-context culture. Less than one-third of the population lives in individualistic cultures. Includes the U.S., Australia, Germany, Switzerland, and one of the Scandinavian societies

Ting-Toomey bases her face negotiation theory on the distinction between

collectivism and individualism. The most extensive differentiation between the two types of cultures has been made by Harry Triandis. He says that the three important distinctions between the two are the different ways members perceive self, goals, and duty

Dominating

competing to win when people's interests conflict. "I would be firm in pursuing my side of the issue."

Compromising

conflict management by negotiating or bargaining; seeking a middle way. "I would use give-and-take so that a compromise could be made."

Stella Ting-Toomey's face negotiation theory helps explain

cultural differences in responses to conflict. She assumes that people of every culture are always negotiating "face." The theory postulates that the "facework" of people from individualistic cultures like the U.S. or Germany will be different from the facework of people from collectivistic cultures like Japan or China. The theory suggests that face maintenance is the crucial intervening variable that ties culture to people's way of handling conflict.

Mutual-face concern

equal concern for both parties' images, as well as the public image of their relationship. People who have this would answer the Whose face...? question with ours.

Culture is an overall framework for

face concern, but individuals within a culture have different images of self as well as varied views on the degree to which they give others face or restore their own face in conflict situations.

Based on the work of M. Afzalur Rahim, Ting-Toomey initially identified

five distinct responses to situations where there is an incompatibility of needs, interests, or goals. These include (1) avoiding (withdrawing), (2) obliging (giving in), (3) compromising (negotiating), (4) dominating (competing), and (5) integrating (problem solving). These are styles of conflict management.

Cultural knowledge

is the most important dimension of facework competence. It's hard to be culturally sensitive unless you have some idea of the ways you might differ from your classmate.

Issues concerning face

it means different things to different people, depending first on their culture, and second on how they construe their personal identities

Emotional expression

managing conflict by disclosure or venting of feelings. "Whatever my 'gut' and my 'heart' tell me, I would let these feelings show."

Collectivistic conflict-management styles

obliging, avoiding, compromising, third-party help, integrating

People in collectivistic cultures pay more attention to maintained the face of the

other party. Their answer to the face-concern question about whose face are you trying to save? would be an altruistic yours

Individualistic conflict-management styles

passive aggressive, emotional expression, dominating

Ting-Toomey built her theory on the foundational idea that

people from collectivistic/high-context cultures are noticeably different in the way they manage face and conflict situations than people from individualistic/low-context cultures. Yet more recently, Ting-Toomey and John Oetzel have discovered that "self-construal is a better predictor of conflict styles than ethnic/cultural back- ground."

Integrating

problem solving through open discussion; collaborating for a win-win resolution of conflict. I would exchange accurate information with the group mem- ber to solve the problem together."

Ting-Toomey emphasizes that people within a culture differ on the

relative emphasis they place on individual self-sufficiency or group solidarity. She uses the terms independent and interdependent self to refer to "the degree to which people con- ceive of themselves as relatively autonomous from, or connected to, others." Hazel Markus and Shinobu Kitayama call this "self construal" or "self-image"

Avoiding

responding to conflict by withdrawing from open discussion. "I would avoid discussing my differences with the group member."

Facework

specific verbal and nonverbal messages that help to maintain and restore face loss, and to uphold and honor face gain

Face

the projected image of one's self in a relational situation. A metaphor for our public self-image, the way we want others to see us and treat us

Face-restoration

the self-concerned facework strategy used to stake out a unique place in life, preserve autonomy, and defend against loss of personal freedom. Typical face strategy across individualistic cultures

Complicating factor: Power distance

the way a culture deals with status differences and social hierarchies; the degree to which low-power members accept unequal power as natural. Large power-distance cultures tend to accept unequal power as natural; small power-distance cultures value equality and regard most differences based on status as unjust. Individualistic values and small power distance usually go together. Collectivistic values and the acceptance of large power distance usually go together.

The interdependent self values

we-identity and emphasizes relational connectedness, and is therefore closely aligned with collectivism

Interaction skill

your ability to communicate appropriately, effectively, and adaptively in a given situation.