Fall 2019 Nutrition Test 1

What percentage of an individual's total daily energy intake should come from carbohydrates? 15-25%. 15%. 45-65%. 35%.

45-65%.

type 1 diabetes

5-10% of people have this diabetes the body cannot produce enough insulin. When people with type 1 diabetes eat a meal and their blood glucose rises, the pancreas is unable to secrete insulin in response. Glucose therefore cannot move into body cells and remains in the bloodstream. The kidneys try to expel the excess blood glucose by excreting it in the urine. If blood glucose levels are not controlled, a person with type 1 diabetes will become confused and lethargic and have trouble breathing. This is because the brain cells are not getting enough glucose to function properly. As discussed earlier, uncontrolled diabetes can lead to ketoacidosis; left untreated, the ultimate result is coma and death. Type 1 diabetes is classified as an autoimmune disease. This means that the body's immune system attacks and destroys its own tissues—in this case, the beta cells of the pancreas The only treatment for type 1 diabetes is the administration of insulin by injection or pump several times daily. Insulin is a hormone composed of protein, so it would be digested in the intestine if taken as a pill.

Home fitness programs such as P90X come with a nutrition plan. Very often, the amounts of nutrients are given in metric units of grams per kilogram of body weight. Men and women who want to follow the plan must convert their body weight into kilograms to plan their meals. Can you calculate the weight in kilograms of a 184-pound man?

83.6 Divide weight by 2.2

Which factor below differentiates complex carbohydrates from simple carbohydrates? complex carbohydrates are made of one or two saccharides complex carbohydrates are only found in plants complex carbohydrates only contain long chains of fructose molecules joined together complex carbohydrates only contain long chains of glucose molecules joined together

complex carbohydrates only contain long chains of glucose molecules joined together

6 groups of nutrients

Carbohydrates Lipids (including fats and oils) Proteins Vitamins Minerals Water

enzymes

compounds—usually proteins—that act as catalysts; that is, they induce chemical changes in other substances to speed up bodily processes Various amylases assist in the digestion of carbohydrates, lipases are involved with lipid digestion, and proteases help digest proteins.

The small intestine is the longest portion of the GI tract, with a lining uniquely suited to absorption. Choose the statement below that correctly describes the small intestine.

Microvilli are hairlike projections whose structure helps in the absorption of nutrients.

Sam is reading the label of a box of mac-n-cheese and sees that the %DV for calcium is 30%. This means

Sam would get approximately 1/3 of his daily need for calcium in one serving of mac and cheese.

Which statement about enzymes is true?

Some enzymes require a coenzyme to be active.Enzymes are specific to specific chemical reactions.The shape of the enzyme's active site determines its activity.

pre-diabetes

Some health professionals refer to this condition as pre-diabetes, because people with impaired fasting glucose are more likely to get type 2 diabetes than are people with normal fasting glucose levels.

Which of the following statements regarding absorption of monosaccharides is true? Monosaccharides do not require a protein carrier for transport into the blood. Some monosaccharides are absorbed via a form of passive transport, namely facilitated diffusion. All monosaccharides are absorbed via facilitated diffusion. All monosaccharides require energy for absorption; therefore, they require active transport.

Some monosaccharides are absorbed via a form of passive transport, namely facilitated diffusion.

• Sugar - sources in the American diet

Some sugar comes from healthful food sources, such as fruit and milk. Some comes from foods made with refined grains, such as soft white breads, saltine crackers, and pastries. Most come from added sugars. The most common source of added sugars in the U.S. diet is sweetened soft drinks; we drink an average of 40 gallons per person each year. Even many non-dessert items, such as peanut butter, yogurt, flavored rice mixes, and even salad dressing, contain added sugars.

The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)

conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics and the CDC. The NHANES tracks the food and nutrient consumption of Americans. Nutrition and other health information is gathered from interviews and physical examinations.

two forms of starch

amylose and amylopectin Amylose is a straight chain of glucose molecules, whereas amylopectin is highly branched. Both forms of starch are found in starch-containing foods. The more open-branched structure of amylopectin increases its surface area and thus its exposure to digestive enzymes; as a result, it is more rapidly digested than amylose. In turn, amylopectin raises blood glucose more quickly than amylose.

placebo

an imitation treatment that has no effect on participants; for instance, a sugar pill may be given in place of a vitamin supplement. Studies like this are referred to as placebo-controlled double-blind randomized clinical trials.

Which of the following treatments would be appropriate for treating a peptic ulcer?

antibiotics

Which of the following is a role of hydrochloric acid in the stomach?

killing bacteria or germs that enter the body

Health conditions that affect the body's ability to absorb and/or use carbohydrates include

diabetes, hypoglycemia, and lactose intolerance

three fiber distinctions

dietary fiber, functional fiber, and total fiber

It takes more than 8 hours for ingested carbohydrate to be digested, absorbed, and circulated in the cells.

false

HYPOGLYCEMIA

fasting blood glucose falls to lower-than-normal levels. One cause of hypoglycemia is excessive production of insulin, which lowers blood glucose too far.

Vitamins are classified as two types

fat soluble vitamins and water soluble vitamins

Where is the hypothalamus located?

just above the brain stem

gluconeogenesis

involves breaking down the proteins in blood and tissues into amino acids, then converting them to glucose.

ribose

is a five-carbon monosaccharide. Very little ribose is found in our diet; our bodies produce ribose from the foods we eat, and ribose is contained in ribonucleic acid (RNA), a component of the genetic material of our cells.

hunger

is a physiologic drive for food that occurs when the body senses that we need to eat. The drive is nonspecific; when you're hungry, a variety of foods could satisfy you.

three most common disaccharides found in foods

lactose, maltose, and sucrose

Good sources of fiber include legumes and other vegetables, fruits, whole grains, and nuts and seeds. potatoes and other starchy vegetables, fruit juices, grains, and dairy foods. meat, fish, poultry, and tofu. rice and pasta, peanut butter, eggs, and yogurt and other fermented dairy foods.

legumes and other vegetables, fruits, whole grains, and nuts and seeds.

Examples of insoluble fibers:

lignins, cellulose, hemicelluloses

Which of the following is NOT required to be listed on the Nutrition Facts Panel?

list of ingredients

After polysaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides and disaccharides and are absorbed, they are converted into glucose in the _____. pancreas mouth brain liver

liver

Which organ (the largest digestive organ) has a crucial function to receive matter from the portal vein?

liver

Bile is produced by the __________ and stored by the __________.

liver; gallbladder

The acute condition of diverticulitis often requires a low fiber diet until the lining of the colon heals. False True

true

MyPlate recommends

varying the proteins you eat to include beans, nuts, and seeds

fat soluble vitamins

vitamins that are not soluble in water but are soluble in fat; these include Vitamins A, D, E and K

water soluble vitamins

vitamins that are soluble in water. These include vitamin C and B-vitamins.

RECAP

lternative sweeteners can be used in place of sugar to sweeten foods. Most of these products do not promote tooth decay and contribute little or no energy. The alternative sweeteners approved for use in the United States are considered safe when consumed in amounts less than the acceptable daily intake. The role of artificial sweeteners in weight loss and maintenance of healthy body weight is unclear.

trace minerals

minerals we need to consume in amounts less than 100 mg per day and of which the total amount in our body is less than 5 g (5,000 mg).

major minerals

minerals we need to consume in amounts of at least 100 mg per day and of which the total amount in our body is at least 5g (5,000 mg).

micronutrients

nutrients needed in relatively small amounts to support normal health and body functions. Vitamins and minerals are micronutrients.

macronutrients

nutrients that the body requires in relatively large amounts to support normal function and healthy. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and water are macronutrients. Macro means "large"; thus, macronutrients are those nutrients needed in relatively large amounts to support normal function and health.

• Macronutrient (carbohydrates, protein, lipids) calories per gram. Applying these to calculate total calories and % calories of a macronutrient in a diet o Please bring a BASIC, simple calculator

nutrients that the body requires in relatively large amounts to support normal function and healthy. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and water are macronutrients. Macro means "large"; thus, macronutrients are those nutrients needed in relatively large amounts to support normal function and health. (continued on next flash card)

three primary types of studies conducted with humans are:

observational studies, case-control studies, and clinical trials.

secondary deficiency

occurs when a person cannot absorb enough of a nutrient in his or her body, when too much of a nutrient is excreted from the body, or when a nutrient is not utilized efficiently by the body. Thus, a secondary deficiency is secondary to, or a consequence of, some other disorder. Nutrient deficiencies are further classified as primary or secondary:

overnutrition

occurs when a person consumes too much energy or too much of a given nutrient over time, causing conditions such as obesity, heart disease, or nutrient toxicity. Overnutrition is further classified as overweight or obesity

primary deficiency

occurs when a person does not consume enough of a nutrient in the diet; thus, the deficiency occurs as a direct consequence of an inadequate intake. Nutrient deficiencies are further classified as primary or secondary:

Chemical digestion __________.

occurs when enzymes break apart large molecules into smaller molecules

stomach

a J-shaped organ. Its size varies with different individuals; in general, its volume is about 6 fluid ounces (¾ cup) when it is empty.

Dietary Guidelines for Americans

a set of principles developed by the USDA and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) to promote health, reduce the risk for chronic diseases, and reduce the prevalence of overweight and obesity among Americans through improved nutrition and physical activity. updated appx every 5 years

epidemiological studies

examine patterns of health and disease conditions in defined populations Epidemiological studies commonly report the prevalence and incidence of disease.

One of the monosaccharides is _____. fructose lactose sucrose cellulose

fructose

levulose

fructose is also called levulose; fruit sugar

excellent sources of fiber, vitamin C, potassium, and magnesium

fruits and veggies

Research evidence supports an association between sugar consumption and hyperactivity in children. a high-sugar diet and obesity. consumption of high-fructose corn syrup and increased sensitivity of body cells to insulin. exceeding the Institute of Medicine's upper tolerable intake limit for sugar and an increased risk for heart disease.

high-sugar diet and obesity.

large intestine

holds food until it is excreted a thick, tubelike structure that frames the small intestine on three and one-half sides (Figure 3.12). It begins with a tissue sac called the cecum, which explains the name of the sphincter—the ileocecal valve—which connects it to the ileum of the small intestine. From the cecum, the large intestine continues up along the right side of the small intestine as the ascending colon. The transverse colon runs across the top of the small intestine, and then the descending colon comes down on the left. These regions of the colon are characterized by haustra, regular, saclike segmentations that contract to move food toward the sigmoid colon, which extends from the bottom left corner to the rectum. The last segment of the large intestine is the anal canal, which is about 1½ inches long. No other digestion occurs in the large intestine. Instead, it stores the digestive mass for 12 to 24 hours, absorbing water, lipid breakdown products, and electrolytes and leaving a semisolid mass called feces. Peristalsis occurs weakly to move the feces through the colon, except for one or more stronger waves of peristalsis each day that force the feces more powerfully toward the rectum for elimination.

• Hunger vs appetite

hunger - is a physiologic drive for food that occurs when the body senses that we need to eat. The drive is nonspecific; when you're hungry, a variety of foods could satisfy you. appetite - a psychological desire to consume specific foods. It is aroused when environmental cues—such as the sight of chocolate cake or the smell of coffee—stimulate our senses, prompting pleasant emotions and often memories.

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend which of the following? choosing and preparing sodium-free foods consuming two alcoholic beverages per day increasing your intake of fruits and vegetables following the Mediterranean diet

increasing your intake of fruits and vegetables

Type 2 diabetes is characterized by __________. overconsumption of foods and beverages made with alternative sweeteners autoimmune destruction of the insulin-producing cells of the pancreas insulin resistance an inadequate amount of glucose in the bloodstream

insulin resistance

A diet high in _____________ is thought to increase the risk for colorectal cancer.

red meat

conflict of interest

refers to a situation in which a person is in a position to derive personal benefit and unfair advantage from actions or decisions made in their official capacity.

malnutrition

refers to a situation in which a person's nutritional status is out of balance; the individual is either getting too much or too little of a particular nutrient or energy over a significant period of time.

undernutrition

refers to a situation in which someone consumes too little energy or too few nutrients over time, causing significant weight loss, nutrient deficiency, or a nutrient-deficiency disease.

moderation

refers to eating any foods in moderate amounts—not too much and not too little.

glycemic index

refers to the potential of foods to raise blood glucose levels.

incidence

refers to the rate of new (or newly diagnosed) cases of a disease within a period of time

pyloric sphincter

regulates the release of chyme

Four types of digestion occur in the small intestine: passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport, and endocytosis. Choose the phrase that correctly completes the statement about facilitated diffusion. Facilitated diffusion ____________.

requires a carrier protein

Accessory organs of digestion include the gallbladder, pancreas, and liver, each of which has a specific role in the chemical digestion of food. Complete the statement about the pancreas. The pancreas ____________.

secretes bicarbonate

6 food groups

starch/bread, meat and meat substitutes, vegetables, fruits, milk, and fat

KETONES

substances produced during the breakdown of fat when carbohydrate intake is insufficient to meet energy needs. they provide an alternative energy source for the brain when glucose levels are low

The most common source of added sugars in the American diet is __________. sweetened soft drinks fruits (fresh and canned) candy packaged cakes and cookies

sweetened soft drinks

olfaction

taste depends significantly on the sense of smell To achieve olfaction, odorants dissolved in mucus bind to chemoreceptors in the nasal cavity called olfactory receptor cells. These cells then transmit their data to the olfactory bulb of the brain.

hyperglycemia

term referring to higher-than-normal levels of blood glucose

The Nutrition Facts panel identifies which of the following? all of the nutrients and Calories in the package of food the Recommended Dietary Allowance for each nutrient found in the package of food a footnote identifying the Tolerable Upper Intake Level for each nutrient found in the package of food the %Daily Values of selected nutrients in a serving of the packaged food

the %Daily Values of selected nutrients in a serving of the packaged food

kilocalorie

the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram (about 2.2 lb) of water by 1 degree Celsius. We can say that the energy found in 1 gram of carbohydrate is equal to 4 kcal. The energy in foods is measured in units called kilocalories (kcal) kilo = 1,000 1 kilocalorie is equal to 1,000 calories A kilocalorie is also sometimes referred to as a large calorie or as a Calorie, written with a capital C. We use the term kilocalories (kcal) when discussing units of energy. We use the term Calories with a capital "C" when presenting information about foods and food labels.

fermentation

the anaerobic process in which an agent, such as yeast, causes an organic substance to break down into simpler substances and results in the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Maltose is formed during the anaerobic breakdown of sugar in grains and other foods into alcohol. Contrary to popular belief, very little maltose remains in alcoholic beverages after the fermentation process is complete; thus, alcoholic beverages are not good sources of carbohydrate.

Four Types of Absorption Occur in the Small Intestine

(a) In passive diffusion, nutrients at a higher concentration outside the cells diffuse along their concentration gradient into the enterocytes without the use of a carrier protein or the requirement of energy. (b) In facilitated diffusion, nutrients are shuttled across the enterocytes with the help of a carrier protein without the use of energy. (c) In active transport, energy is used along with a carrier protein to transport nutrients against their concentration gradient. (d) In endocytosis, a small amount of the intestinal contents is engulfed by the cell membrane of the enterocyte and released into the interior of the cell.

How fiber might help decrease blood cholesterol levels.

(a) When we eat a high-fiber diet, fiber binds to the bile that is produced from cholesterol, resulting in relatively more cholesterol being excreted in the feces. (b) When a lower-fiber diet is consumed, less fiber (and thus cholesterol) is bound to bile and excreted in the feces.

maltose

(also called malt sugar) consists of two molecules of glucose. It does not generally occur by itself in foods but rather is bound together with other molecules. As our bodies break down these larger molecules, maltose results as a by-product. Maltose is also the sugar that results from fermentation during the production of beer and other alcoholic beverages.

lactose

(also called milk sugar) consists of one glucose molecule and one galactose molecule. Interestingly, human breast milk has a higher amount of lactose than cow's milk, which makes human breast milk taste sweeter.

endocytosis

(also called pinocytosis) is a form of active transport by which a small amount of the intestinal contents is engulfed by the enterocyte's cell membrane and incorporated into the cell

• Strategies for eating out healthy

--One way to reduce the Calorie content of a restaurant meal is to order an appetizer instead of an entrée. Avoid all-you-can-eat buffet-style restaurants. Avoid appetizers that are breaded, fried, or filled with cheese or meat, or skip the appetizer altogether. Order a healthful appetizer instead of a larger meal as your entrée. Order your meal from the children's menu. Share an entrée with a friend. Order broth-based soups instead of cream-based soups. If you order meat, select a lean cut and ask that it be grilled or broiled rather than fried or breaded. Instead of a beef burger, order a chicken burger, fish burger, or veggie burger. Order a meatless dish filled with vegetables and whole grains. Avoid dishes with cream sauces and a lot of cheese. Order a salad with low-fat or nonfat dressing served on the side. Order steamed vegetables on the side instead of potatoes or rice. If you order potatoes, make sure you get a baked potato (with very little butter or sour cream on the side). Order beverages with few or no Calories, such as water, tea, or diet drinks. Avoid coffee drinks made with syrups, as well as those made with cream, whipping cream, or whole milk. Don't feel you have to eat everything you're served. If you feel full, take the rest home for another meal. Skip dessert or share one dessert with a lot of friends, or order fresh fruit for dessert. Watch out for those "yogurt parfaits" offered at some fast-food restaurants. Many are loaded with sugar, fat, and Calories.

Taylor knows that she needs to consume about 1 gram of protein per kilogram of body weight because she is very athletic and exercises vigorously almost every day. But her bathroom scale has no metric units and shows her weight only in pounds. Taylor weighs 113.3 pounds. What is her weight in kilograms?

51.5

type 2 diabetes

90-95% of people have this type of diabetes body cells become resistant (less responsive) to insulin. This type of diabetes develops progressively, meaning that the biological changes resulting in the disease occur over a long period of time. In short, in type 2 diabetes, blood glucose levels may be elevated because (1) the person has developed insulin insensitivity, (2) the pancreas can no longer secrete enough insulin, or (3) the pancreas has entirely stopped insulin production. Obesity is the most common trigger for a cascade of changes that eventually results in the disorder. It is estimated that 80% to 90% of the people with type 2 diabetes are overweight or obese. One factor linking obesity to diabetes is the inappropriate accumulation of lipids in muscle, the liver, and beta cells, which reduces the ability of body cells to respond to insulin. As a result, the cells of many obese people begin to exhibit a condition called insulin insensitivity (insulin resistance). The pancreas attempts to compensate for this insensitivity by secreting more insulin. At first, the increased secretion of insulin is sufficient to maintain normal blood glucose levels. However, over time, a person who is insulin insensitive will have to circulate very high levels of insulin to use glucose for energy. Eventually, this excessive production becomes insufficient for preventing a rise in fasting blood glucose. The resulting condition is referred to as impaired fasting glucose, meaning glucose levels are higher than normal but not high enough to indicate a diagnosis of type 2 diabetes. Some health professionals refer to this condition as pre-diabetes, because people with impaired fasting glucose are more likely to get type 2 diabetes than are people with normal fasting glucose levels. Ultimately, the pancreas becomes incapable of secreting these excessive amounts of insulin and stops producing the hormone altogether.

subclinical deficiency

A deficiency in its early stages, when few or no symptoms are observed The signs of a subclinical deficiency are typically covert

Diet Records

A diet record is a list of all foods and beverages consumed over a specified time period, usually 3 to 7 days. The days selected for recording the person's diet should be representative of typical dietary and activity patterns.

double blind experiment

A double-blind experiment is one in which neither researchers nor participants know which group is really getting the treatment. Double blinding helps prevent the researcher from seeing only the results he or she wants to see, even if these results do not actually occur.

glycemic load

A food's glycemic load is the number of grams of carbohydrate it contains multiplied by the glycemic index of that carbohydrate. They may also reduce the risk for heart disease, because they generally contain more fiber, and fiber helps decrease fat levels in the blood. A recent systematic review has shown that eating a lower glycemic index diet decreases total blood cholesterol and low-density lipoproteins, or LDL (a blood lipid associated with increased risk for heart disease)

licensed dietician

A licensed dietitian is a dietitian meeting the credentialing requirement of a given state in the United States to engage in the practice of dietetics.6 Each state has its own laws regulating dietitians. These laws specify which types of licensure or registration a nutrition professional must obtain in order to provide nutrition services or advice to individuals. Individuals who practice nutrition and dietetics without the required license or registration can be prosecuted for breaking the law.

Which of the following statements about serving sizes in the USDA Food Guide is true?

A serving size in the USDA Food Guide might not be equal to a serving size as defined on a food label.

single blind experiement

A single-blind experiment is one in which the participants are unaware of or blinded to the treatment they are receiving, but the researchers know which group is getting the treatment and which group is not.

five components required on food labels

A statement of identity The net contents of the package: Information may be listed as weight (such as grams), volume (fluid ounces), or numerical count (4 each). Ingredient List: The ingredients must be listed by their common names, in descending order by weight. The name and address of the food manufacturer, packer, or distributor Nutrition information

• Nutrition fact panel how to read and apply the label information

A statement of identity The net contents of the package: Information may be listed as weight (such as grams), volume (fluid ounces), or numerical count (4 each). Ingredient List: The ingredients must be listed by their common names, in descending order by weight. The name and address of the food manufacturer, packer, or distributor Nutrition information

theory

A theory represents a scientific consensus (agreement) as to why a particular phenomenon occurs.

epiglottis

A tiny flap of tissue called the epiglottis acts as a trapdoor covering the entrance to the trachea (windpipe). The epiglottis is normally open, allowing us to breathe freely even while chewing (Figure 3.6a). As our bite of sandwich moves toward the pharynx, the brain is sent a signal to temporarily raise the soft palate and close the openings to the nasal passages, preventing aspiration of food or liquid into the sinuses. The brain also signals the epiglottis to close during swallowing, so that food and liquid cannot enter the trachea

• The differences between adequacy, variety, moderation

Adequate Diet - A diet that provides enough of the energy, nutrients, and fiber to maintain a person's health. Adequate Intake (AI) - A recommended average daily nutrient intake level based on observed or experimentally determined estimates of nutrient intake by a group of healthy people. Variety - Eating a lot of different foods each day. Moderation - Eating any foods in moderate amounts—not too much and not too little.

water

Adequate water intake ensures the proper balance of fluid both inside and outside our cells and assists in the regulation of nerve impulses and body temperature, muscle contractions, nutrient transport, and excretion of waste products

LO5 SUMMARY

All cells can use glucose for energy. The red blood cells, brain, and central nervous system prefer to use glucose exclusively. Using glucose for energy helps spare body proteins, and glucose is an important fuel for the body during exercise. Fiber helps us maintain the healthy elimination of waste products. Eating adequate fiber may reduce the risk for constipation, hemorrhoids, and diverticulosis, as well as colon cancer, heart disease, and type 2 diabetes. A high-fiber diet may also prevent excessive weight gain.

LO9 SUMMARY

Alternative sweeteners are added to some foods because they sweeten foods without promoting tooth decay and add little or no Calories to foods. All alternative sweeteners approved for use in the United States are believed to be safe when consumed at levels at or below the Acceptable Daily Intake levels defined by the FDA. Non-nutritive sweeteners provide little or no energy to the diet. They include saccharin, acesulfame-K, aspartame, and sucralose, as well as relatively newer sweeteners such as neotame, stevia, and advantame. The role of artificial sweeteners in weight loss and maintenance of healthy body weight is unclear. What is clear, however, is that many foods marketed as sugar free nevertheless contain significant Calories.

• Artificial Sweeteners (identify examples)

Alternative sweeteners can be used in place of sugar to sweeten foods. Most of these products do not promote tooth decay and contribute little or no energy. The alternative sweeteners approved for use in the United States are considered safe when consumed in amounts less than the acceptable daily intake. The role of artificial sweeteners in weight loss and maintenance of healthy body weight is unclear. Examples: saccharin, acesulfame-K (Sunette and Sweet One), aspartame (Equal), sucralose (Splenda), Neotame, Stevia, and Advantame --saccharin is about 300 times sweeter than sucrose; No ADI has been set for saccharin, and it is used in foods and beverages and as a tabletop sweetener. It is sold as Sweet 'n Low (also known as "the pink packet") in the United States. --Acesulfame-K (acesulfame potassium) is marketed under the names Sunette and Sweet One. It is a calorie-free sweetener that is 200 times sweeter than sugar. The taste of acesulfame-K does not change when it is heated, so it can be used in cooking. The body does not metabolize acesulfame-K, so it is excreted unchanged by the kidneys. --Aspartame, also called Equal ("the blue packet") and NutraSweet, is one of the most popular alternative sweeteners currently in use. Heat destroys the dipeptide bonds that bind the two amino acids in aspartame so cannot be used in cooking. *Some people should not consume aspartame at all: those with the disease phenylketonuria (PKU). This is a genetic disorder that prevents the breakdown of the amino acid phenylalanine. Because a person with PKU cannot metabolize phenylalanine, it builds up to toxic levels in the tissues of the body and causes irreversible brain damage.* --Sucralose is marketed under the brand name Splenda and is known as "the yellow packet." Can be used in cooking. 600 times sweeter than sucrose --Neotame is an alternative sweetener that is 7,000 times sweeter than sugar. --Stevia was approved as an alternative sweetener by the FDA in 2008. --Advantame was approved as an alternative sweetener in 2014. It is Calorie-free and 20,000 times sweeter than sugar.

haustration

As each haustrum fills with chyme, its distention stimulates sluggish contractions that move wastes into the next haustrum and toward the sigmoid colon. However, two or more times each day, a much stronger and more sustained mass movement of the colon occurs, pushing wastes forcibly toward the rectum. The contractions of haustra are slow, occurring at a rate of about two per hour.

nutritive sweeteners

Because sweeteners such as sucrose, fructose, honey, and brown sugar contribute energy, they are called nutritive sweeteners Other nutritive sweeteners include the sugar alcohols, such as mannitol, sorbitol, isomalt, and xylitol. Popular in sugar-free gums, mints, and diabetic candies, sugar alcohols are less sweet than sucrose. Foods with sugar alcohols have health benefits that foods made with sugars do not have, such as a reduced glycemic response and decreased risk for dental caries. Also, because sugar alcohols are absorbed slowly and incompletely from the intestine, they provide less energy than sugar, usually 2 to 3 kcal of energy per gram. However, because they are not completely absorbed from the intestine, they can attract water into the large intestine and cause diarrhea.

• Types of diabetes, general information for each

Because uncontrolled diabetes impairs carbohydrate metabolism, the body begins to break down stored fat, producing ketones for fuel. A build-up of excessive ketones can lead to ketoacidosis, a condition in which the brain cells do not get enough glucose to function properly. The person will become confused and lethargic and have trouble breathing. If left unchecked, ketoacidosis may result in coma and death. Indeed, as a result of cardiovascular disease, kidney failure, ketoacidosis, and other complications, diabetes is the seventh leading cause of death in the United States

glucose

Between meals, our bodies draw on liver glycogen reserves to maintain blood glucose levels and support the needs of our cells, including those of our brain, spinal cord, and red blood cells

saliva contains:

Bicarbonate, which helps neutralize acids Mucus, which moistens the food and the oral cavity, ensuring that food easily travels down the esophagus Antibodies, proteins that defend against bacteria entering the mouth Lysozyme, an enzyme that inhibits bacterial growth in the mouth and may assist in preventing tooth decay

Empty Calories are defined as the extra amount of energy a person can consume each day after meeting all essential needs through eating nutrient-dense foods. Calories from the water content of foods and beverages. Calories from solid fats and added sugars that provide few or no nutrients. Calories in any portion of food larger than the serving size indicated on the packaging.

Calories from solid fats and added sugars that provide few or no nutrients.

empty calories

Calories from solid fats and/or added sugars that provide few or no nutrients

eating too much fiber

Can you eat too much fiber? Excessive fiber consumption can lead to problems such as intestinal gas, bloating, and constipation. Also, because fiber causes the body to eliminate more water in the feces, a very-high-fiber diet could result in dehydration. Fiber also binds certain vitamins and minerals: a diet with too much fiber can reduce our absorption of iron, zinc, calcium, and vitamin D. In children, some elderly, the chronically ill, and other at-risk populations, extreme fiber intake can even lead to malnutrition—they feel full before they have eaten enough to provide adequate energy and nutrients. Although some societies are accustomed to a very-high-fiber diet, most people in the United States find it difficult to tolerate more than 50 g of fiber per day.

carbohydrate digestion begins:

Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth when the starch in the foods you eat mixes with your saliva during chewing Disaccharides are not digested in the mouth. The majority of carbohydrate digestion occurs in the small intestine.

RECAP

Carbohydrate digestion starts in the mouth and continues in the small intestine. Glucose and other monosaccharides are absorbed into the bloodstream and travel to the liver, where non-glucose monosaccharides are converted to glucose. Glucose is used by the cells for energy, converted to glycogen and stored in the liver and muscles for later use, or converted to fat and stored in adipose tissue. Various hormones are involved in regulating blood glucose. Insulin lowers blood glucose levels by facilitating the entry of glucose into cells. Glucagon, epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol, and growth hormone raise blood glucose levels by a variety of mechanisms.

L04 SUMMARY

Carbohydrate digestion starts in the mouth, where chewing and an enzyme called salivary amylase start breaking down the carbohydrates in food. Digestion continues in the small intestine. Specific enzymes are secreted to break starches into smaller mono- and disaccharides. As disaccharides pass through the intestinal cells, they are digested into monosaccharides. Glucose and other monosaccharides are absorbed into the bloodstream and travel to the liver, where all non-glucose molecules are converted to glucose. Glucose is transported in the bloodstream to the cells, where it is used for energy, stored in the liver or muscle as glycogen, or converted to fat and stored in adipose tissue. Insulin is secreted when blood glucose increases sufficiently, and it assists with the transport of glucose into cells. Glucagon, epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol, and growth hormone are secreted when blood glucose levels are low, and they assist with the conversion of glycogen to glucose, with gluconeogenesis, and with reducing the use of glucose by muscles and other organs. The glycemic index and the glycemic load are values that indicate how much a food increases glucose levels.

L01 SUMMARY

Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Plants make the carbohydrate glucose during photosynthesis. Simple sugars include mono- and disaccharides. The three primary monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and galactose. Two monosaccharides joined together are called disaccharides. Glucose and fructose join to make sucrose; glucose and glucose join to make maltose; and glucose and galactose join to make lactose. Oligosaccharides are complex carbohydrates that contain 3 to 10 monosaccharides. Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates that typically contain hundreds to thousands of monosaccharides. The three types of polysaccharides are starches, glycogen, and fiber. Starches are the storage form of glucose in plants. Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in humans. Glycogen is stored in the liver and in muscles.

RECAP

Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Simple carbohydrates include monosaccharides and disaccharides. Glucose, fructose, galactose, and ribose are monosaccharides; lactose, maltose, and sucrose are disaccharides. In disaccharides, two monosaccharides are linked together with either an alpha bond or a beta bond. Alpha bonds are easily digestible by humans, whereas beta bonds are not easily digestible.

• Carbohydrate family categories, digestive process, recommended amounts to consume

Carbohydrates provide energy *Carbohydrate family categories* Simple carbohydrates - Simple carbohydrates contain either one or two molecules; include monosaccharides and disaccharides Complex carbohydrates - the second major classification of carbohydrate, generally consist of long chains of glucose molecules. Technically, any carbohydrates with three or more monosaccharides are considered complex carbohydrates. Includes: Oligosaccharides and Polysaccharides Starch Is a Polysaccharide Stored in Plants Glycogen Is a Polysaccharide Stored by Animals *Digestive process* *Recommended amounts to consume* RDA - 130 g of carbs per day AMDR - 45 - 65 % of total energy intake As recommended in the USDA Food Patterns, eating at least half your grains as whole grains and eating the suggested amounts of fruits and vegetables each day will ensure that you get enough fiber-rich carbohydrates in your diet.

only nutrients in foods that provide energy

Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins By this we mean that these nutrients break down and reassemble into a fuel that the body uses to support physical activity and basic physiologic functioning

• Nutrient characteristics & satiety

Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins By this we mean that these nutrients break down and reassemble into a fuel that the body uses to support physical activity and basic physiologic functioning nutrient-dense food - Foods that provide the highest level of nutrients for the least amount of energy (calories) nutrient density - the relative amount of nutrients per amount of energy (number of calories) satiety center - In contrast, signals from a cluster of cells called the satiety center (satiety means fullness) inhibit the feeding center cells. This prompts us to stop eating. The feeding and satiety centers work together to regulate food intake by integrating signals from three sources: nerve cells in the gastrointestinal system, chemical messenger molecules called hormones, and the amount and type of food we eat.

What's the story on alternative sweeteners?

Check the center of each label to locate the amount of total carbohydrate. For the sweetened cereal, the total carbohydrate is ______ g. For the whole-grain cereal, the total carbohydrate is ______ g for a smaller serving size. Look at the information listed as subgroups under Total Carbohydrate. The label for the sweetened cereal lists all types of carbohydrates in the cereal: dietary fiber, sugars, and other carbohydrate (which refers to starches). Notice that this cereal contains 13 g of sugar—half of its total carbohydrates. How many grams of dietary fiber does the sweetened cereal contain? ______ The label for the whole-grain cereal lists only 1 g of sugar, which is 4% of its total carbohydrates. How many grams of dietary fiber does the whole-grain cereal contain? ______ To calculate the percentage of Calories that comes from carbohydrate, do the following: Calculate the Calories in the cereal that come from carbohydrate. Multiply the total grams of carbohydrate per serving by the energy value of carbohydrate: 26 g of carbohydrate×4 kcal/g=104 kcal fromcarbohydrate26 g of carbohydrate×4 kcal/g=104 kcal fromcarbohydrate Calculate the percentage of Calories in the cereal that comes from carbohydrate. Divide the kcal from carbohydrate by the total Calories for each serving: (104 kcal/120 kcal)×100=87% Caloriesfrom carbohydrate(104 kcal/120 kcal)×100=87% Caloriesfrom carbohydrate Which cereal should you choose to increase your fiber intake? Check the ingredients for the sweetened cereal. Remember that they're listed in order from highest to lowest amount. The second and third ingredients listed are sugar and brown sugar, and the corn and oat flours are not whole-grain. Now look at the ingredients for the other cereal—it contains whole-grain oats. Although the sweetened product is enriched with more B vitamins, iron, and zinc, the whole-grain cereal packs 4 g of fiber per serving, not to mention 5 g of protein, and it contains no added sugars. Overall, it is a more healthful choice.

Various hormones regulate the release of digestive enzymes into the gastrointestinal tract where they chemically digest foods. Each enzyme acts in a specific area of the gastrointestinal tract to digest a specific substance. Choose the correct statement about chemical digestion.

Cholecystokinin stimulates gallbladder contraction.

four food-safety principles emphasized in the Dietary Guidelines are:

Clean your hands, food contact surfaces, and vegetables and fruits. Separate raw, cooked, and ready-to-eat foods while shopping, storing, and preparing foods. Cook foods to a safe temperature. Chill (refrigerate) perishable foods promptly.

RECAP

Complex carbohydrates include oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. The three types of polysaccharides are starch, glycogen, and fiber. Starch is the storage form of glucose in plants, whereas glycogen is the storage form of glucose in animals. Fiber forms the support structures of plants. Soluble fibers dissolve in water, are viscous, and can be digested by bacteria in the colon, whereas insoluble fibers do not dissolve in water, are not viscous, and cannot be digested. Fiber-rich carbohydrates are known to contribute to good health.

cancer

Consuming resistant starch may be beneficial: some research suggests that butyrate reduces the risk for cancer Legumes contain more resistant starch than do other types of vegetables, fruits, or grains. This quality, plus their high protein and fiber content, makes legumes a healthful food.

• DRIs what they are and be able to define each (EAR, UL, RDA, etc)

DRI - a set of nutritional reference values (mainly vitamins and minerals) for the United States and Canada that applies to healthy peopleThe DRIs are dietary standards for healthy people only; they do not apply to people with diseases or those who are suffering from nutrient deficiencies. EAR (estimated average requirement) - the average daily nutrient intake level estimated to meet the requirement of half of the healthy individuals in a particular life stage or gender group UL (tolerable upper intake level) - is the highest average daily nutrient intake level likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects to almost all individuals in a particular life stage and gender group. This does not mean that we should consume this intake level or that we will benefit from meeting or exceeding the UL recommended dietary allowance (RDA) - the average daily nutrient intake level that meets the nutrient requirements of 97% to 98% of healthy individuals in a particular life stage and gender group *scientists use the EAR to establish the RDA. In fact, if an EAR cannot be determined for a nutrient, then this nutrient cannot have an RDA. When this occurs, an Adequate Intake (AI) value is determined.*

Health-history questionnaires

Demographic information, including name, age, contact information, and self-reported height and body weight Current medication status, potential drug allergies, and history of drug use Family history of disease Personal history of illnesses, injuries, and surgeries History of menstrual function (for females) Exercise history Socioeconomic factors, such as education level, access to shopping and cooking facilities, marital status, and racial/ethnic background In addition, a trained nutrition professional can administer one of a number of specific questionnaires to assess a person's nutrient and energy intakes. Examples include a diet history, 24-hour dietary recalls, food-frequency questionnaires, and diet records.

mucous neck cells and mucous surface cells

Despite the acidity of gastric juice, the stomach itself is not eroded because mucous neck cells in gastric glands and mucous surface cells in the stomach lining secrete a protective layer of mucus Any disruption of this mucus barrier can cause gastritis (inflammation of the stomach lining) or an ulcer (a condition that is discussed later in this chapter). Other lining cells secrete bicarbonate, a base, which neutralizes acid near the surface of the stomach's lining.

RECAP

Diabetes is a disease that results in dangerously high levels of blood glucose. Type 1 diabetes typically appears at a young age; the pancreas cannot secrete sufficient insulin, so insulin injections are required. Type 2 diabetes develops over time and may be triggered by obesity: body cells become insensitive to the effects of insulin or the pancreas no longer secretes sufficient insulin for bodily needs. Supplemental insulin may or may not be needed to treat type 2 diabetes. Diabetes increases the risk for dangerous complications, such as heart disease, blindness, kidney disease, and amputations. Many cases of type 2 diabetes could be prevented or delayed by eating a balanced diet, getting regular exercise, and achieving and/or maintaining a healthful body weight.

L10 SUMMARY

Diabetes is caused by insufficient insulin or by the cells becoming resistant or insensitive to insulin. It causes dangerously high blood glucose levels. The two primary types of diabetes are type 1 and type 2. Type 1 diabetes is a disorder in which the pancreas can no longer produce sufficient insulin to meet body needs. It is classified as an autoimmune disorder and typically arises in adolescence. Type 2 diabetes is a progressive disorder in which body cells become less responsive to insulin. Obesity is a common trigger. Although the great majority of cases arise in adulthood, children are increasingly being diagnosed with type 2 diabetes. A lower-than-normal blood glucose level is defined as hypoglycemia. There are two types: reactive and fasting. Reactive hypoglycemia occurs when too much insulin is secreted after a high-carbohydrate meal; fasting hypoglycemia occurs when blood glucose drops because the body continues to produce too much insulin, even though no food has been eaten. Lactose intolerance results from an insufficient amount of the enzyme lactase. Symptoms include intestinal gas, bloating, cramping, diarrhea, and discomfort following consumption of dairy products.

The full set of values identifying daily nutrient needs are called

Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs)

Which of the following statements regarding fiber is TRUE? Bile from the gallbladder can assist in the absorption of fiber. The pancreas produces enzymes to digest carbohydrates, and fiber is a carbohydrate. Dietary fiber cannot be digested in the human digestive tract. The mucous in the stomach can break down fiber.

Dietary fiber cannot be digested in the human digestive tract.

L03 SUMMARY

Dietary fiber is the nondigestible parts of plants, whereas functional fiber is a nondigestible form of carbohydrate extracted from plants or manufactured in the laboratory. Fiber may reduce the risk for certain diseases. Soluble fibers dissolve in water, are viscous, and are fermentable by bacteria residing in the colon. They are associated with a reduced risk for cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. Insoluble fibers do not typically dissolve in water, are not viscous, and are usually not fermentable by colonic bacteria. They are associated with a reduced risk for constipation and diverticulosis. Fiber-rich carbohydrates are a group of foods containing either simple or complex carbohydrates that are rich in dietary fiber. These foods, which include most fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, are typically fresh or moderately processed.

Which of the following statements is not true about carbohydrate digestion? The enzyme secreted in the mouth to begin chemical digestion of carbohydrates is not active in the stomach. Carbohydrate digestion breaks polysaccharides into smaller units. There is an enzyme in saliva that begins the chemical digestion of carbohydrates. Disaccharides like sucrose do not need to be further broken down before being absorbed.

Disaccharides like sucrose do not need to be further broken down before being absorbed.

Which component of the DRI reflects the requirement of a nutrient for 50 percent of healthy Americans and Canadians in a specific life stage and gender?

EAR (Estimated Average Requirement)

Which components of the DRI identify the quantities of various nutrients a person requires to optimize health, prevent deficiency diseases, and avoid consuming too much of any nutrient?

EAR, RDA, AI, and UL

The average number of calories needed each day to maintain current body weight is called the

EER (Estimated Energy Requirement)

• Nutrient vs. Energy density vs Empty calories

Empty calories - Calories from solid fats and/or added sugars that provide few or no nutrients Nutrient density - the relative amount of nutrients per amount of energy (number of calories) Nutrient dense food - Foods that provide the highest level of nutrients for the least amount of energy (calories) Energy density - 'Energy density' is the amount of energy (or calories) per gram of food.

Which of the following statements about enzymes is FALSE?

Enzymes are secreted by the endocrine glands.

recap

Enzymes speed up the digestion of food through hydrolysis. Hormones act as chemical messengers to regulate digestion. The digestive accessory organs include the gallbladder, pancreas, and liver. The gallbladder stores bile, which is produced by the liver. Bile emulsifies lipids into droplets that are more easily accessed by digestive enzymes. The pancreas synthesizes and secretes digestive enzymes, the hormones insulin and glucagon, and bicarbonate. The liver synthesizes bile, processes nutrients absorbed from the small intestine, regulates blood glucose levels, and stores glucose as glycogen.

Carbohydrates are fattening.

FALSE

Diets high in sugar cause hyperactivity in children.

FALSE

Type 2 diabetes is typically seen only in adults.

FALSE

True or false? One strategy for eating out more healthfully would be to order pasta with a cheese sauce instead of a tomato sauce.

False

True or false? Structure-function claims on food labels must be approved by the FDA.

False

True or false? The USDA has written a standardized definition for a serving size for most foods.

False

LO8 SUMMARY

Fiber-rich carbohydrates include whole grains and cereals, fruits, and legumes and other vegetables. Eating 6 to 11 servings of breads/grains and 5 to 9 servings of fruits and vegetables helps ensure that you meet your fiber-rich carbohydrate goals. Many nuts and seeds are also good sources of fiber.

• Fiber what it is, different types

Fiber: Like starch, fiber is composed of long polysaccharide chains; however, the body does not easily break down the beta bonds that connect fiber molecules. This means that most fibers pass through the digestive system without being digested and absorbed, so they contribute no energy to our diet. However, fiber offers many other health benefits *Different types*: dietary fiber- is the nondigestible parts of plants that form the support structures of leaves, stems, and seeds. In a sense, you can think of dietary fiber as the plant's "skeleton." functional fiber- consists of nondigestible forms of carbohydrates that are extracted from plants or manufactured in a laboratory and have known health benefits. Functional fiber is added to foods and is the form found in fiber supplements. Examples of functional fiber sources you might see on nutrition labels include cellulose, guar gum, pectin, inulin, and psyllium. total fiber- is the sum of dietary fiber and functional fiber. soluble fibers dissolve in water; are viscous. are fermentable; that is, they are easily digested by bacteria in the colon. Soluble fibers are typically found in citrus fruits, berries, oat products, and beans. Research suggests that regular consumption of soluble fibers reduces the risks for cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes by lowering blood cholesterol and blood glucose levels. Include: gums, pectins, fructans, mucilages, insoluble fibers do not dissolve; are not viscous, cannot be fermented by bacteria in the colon. includes: found in whole grains, such as wheat, rye, and brown rice, as well as in many vegetables and some fruits - not associated with reducing cholesterol levels but are known for promoting regular bowel movements

flatus

Flatus is a mixture of many gases, including nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, methane, and carbon dioxide. Interestingly, all of these are odorless. It is only when flatus contains sulfur that it causes the embarrassing odor associated with flatulence.

key recommendations for the Dietary Guidelines for Americans

Follow a healthful eating pattern across the lifespan. Focus on variety, nutrient density, and amount. Limit Calories from added sugars and saturated fats and reduce sodium intake. Shift to healthier food and beverage choices. Support healthful eating patterns for all.

Food-Frequency Questionnaires

Food-frequency questionnaires can assist in determining a person's typical dietary pattern over a predefined period of time, such as 1 month, 6 months, or 1 year. These questionnaires include lists of foods with questions regarding the number of times these foods are eaten during the specified time period.

nutrient dense food

Foods that provide the highest level of nutrients for the least amount of energy (calories)

What does it mean to choose foods for their nutrient density? Dense foods, such as peanut butter or chicken, are more nutritious choices than transparent foods, such as fruit juice or candy, which should be limited. Foods with a lot of nutrients per Calorie, such as fish, are more nutritious choices than foods with fewer nutrients per Calorie, such as candy, which should be limited. Foods darker in color, such as whole-grain bread, should be chosen and lighter colored foods, such as white sandwich bread, should be avoided. Fat makes foods dense, and thus foods high in fat should be avoided.

Foods with a lot of nutrients per Calorie, such as fish, are more nutritious choices than foods with fewer nutrients per Calorie, such as candy, which should be limited.

healthy tips

For a mid-morning snack, stir 1-2 tablespoons of whole ground flaxseed meal (4 grams of fiber) into a cup of low-fat or nonfat yogurt. Or choose an apple or a pear, with the skin left on (approximately 5 grams of fiber). Eat legumes frequently, every day if possible (approximately 6-8 grams of fiber per serving). Canned or fresh beans, peas, and lentils are excellent sources of fiber-rich carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. Have them as your main dish, as a side, or in soups, chili, and other dishes.

Digestion, absorption, and elimination are complex and integrative processes. Each organ of the gastrointestinal tract, as well as accessory organs (salivary glands, liver, gallbladder and pancreas) plays an important role. From the list below, choose all the correct statements about digestive organs.

GI flora slow the growth of harmful bacteria, ferment fiber, and produce certain vitamins. The majority of digestion and absorption takes place in the small intestine.The sphincter at the end of the esophagus that relaxes to allow the passage of food into the stomach is known as the gastroesophageal sphincter.The large intestine absorbs salts, water, and certain vitamins

• Overall functions of digestive organs, accessory organs, enzymes

Gastrointestinal System (GI) - the body system responsible for digestion of food, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of wastes GI tract begins at the mouth and ends at the anus. It is a long, continuous tube composed of several distinct organs, including the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine.The purposes of the muscles of the GI tract are to mix food, ensure efficient digestion and optimal absorption of nutrients, and move the intestinal contents from the mouth toward the anus. *accessory organs* the salivary glands, liver, pancreas, and gallbladder, each of which has a specific role in the digestion and absorption of nutrients. *enzymes* compounds—usually proteins—that act as catalysts; that is, they induce chemical changes in other substances to speed up bodily processes Various amylases assist in the digestion of carbohydrates, lipases are involved with lipid digestion, and proteases help digest proteins.

What is the role of the hormone glucagon in regulating blood glucose? Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis, the breakdown of glycogen, to increase blood glucose concentrations. The liver stores glucagon to maintain blood glucose levels. Insulin encourages the release of glucagon, which lowers blood glucose concentration. Glucagon inhibits gluconeogenesis, which increases blood glucose.

Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis, the breakdown of glycogen, to increase blood glucose concentrations.

Which of the following statements regarding glucose absorption is true? Glucose is digested in the small intestine. Glucose is absorbed mostly in the stomach. Glucose is absorbed solely through the lining of the mouth: the oral mucosa. Glucose is absorbed mostly through the lining of the small intestine

Glucose is absorbed mostly through the lining of the small intestine.

carbohydrate digestion

Glucose is the form of sugar that our bodies use for energy, and the primary goal of carbohydrate digestion is to break down polysaccharides and disaccharides into monosaccharides, which can then be converted to glucose.

three most common monosaccharides

Glucose, fructose, and galactose

• Disorders of carbohydrate metabolism

Health conditions that affect the body's ability to absorb and/or use carbohydrates include *diabetes, hypoglycemia, and lactose intolerance*.

L07 SUMMARY

High sugar intake can cause tooth decay, elevate triglyceride and low-density lipoprotein levels in the blood, and contribute to type 2 diabetes and obesity. It does not appear to cause hyperactivity in children.

is the physiologic drive for food.

Hunger

The parietal cells secrete the following:

Hydrochloric acid (HCl), which keeps the stomach interior very acidic. To be precise, the pH of HCl is 1.0, which means that it is ten times more acidic than pure lemon juice and a hundred times more acidic than vinegar! The acidic environment of the stomach interior kills any bacteria and/or germs that may have entered the body with the sandwich. HCl is also extremely important for digestion because it starts to denature proteins, which means it breaks the bonds that maintain their structure. This is an essential preliminary step in protein digestion. Intrinsic factor, a protein critical to the absorption of vitamin B12 Vitamin B12 is present in animal-based foods, such as the turkey in your sandwich.

RECAP

Hypoglycemia refers to lower-than-normal blood glucose levels. It results from overproduction of insulin. Lactose intolerance is an inability to digest lactose because of insufficient production of the enzyme lactase.

randomized trials

Ideally, researchers should randomly assign research participants to intervention groups (who get the treatment) and control groups (who do not get the treatment). Randomizing participants is like flipping a coin or drawing names from a hat; it reduces the possibility of showing favoritism toward any participants and ensures that the groups are similar on the factors or characteristics being measured in the study.

ketoacidosis

If inadequate carbohydrate intake continues for an extended period of time, the body will produce excessive amounts of ketones. Because many ketones are acids, high ketone levels cause the blood to become very acidic, leading to a condition called ketoacidosis. The high acidity of the blood interferes with basic body functions, causes the loss of lean body mass, and damages many body tissues. People with untreated diabetes are at high risk for ketoacidosis, which can lead to coma and even death.

structure-function claims

In addition to nutrient and health claims, labels may also contain structure-function claims, generic statements about a food's impact on the body's structure and function. Structure-function claims cannot refer to a specific disease or symptom. Examples of structure-function claims include "Builds stronger bones," "Improves memory," "Slows signs of aging," and "Boosts your immune system." These claims can be made without approval from the FDA, and require no proof; thus, there are no guarantees that any benefits identified in structure-function claims are true about that particular food. Example: Helps Strengthen Your Body's Defenses!

non-nutritive sweeteners

In addition to nutritive sweeteners, a number of other products have been developed to sweeten foods without promoting tooth decay and weight gain. Because these products provide little or no energy, they are called non-nutritive

satiety center

In contrast, signals from a cluster of cells called the satiety center (satiety means fullness) inhibit the feeding center cells. This prompts us to stop eating.

neuromuscular system

Its two components, nerves and muscles, partner to coordinate and regulate the digestion and absorption of food and the elimination of waste.

lactase

Lactose is broken down into glucose and galactose by the enzyme lactase

• Macro and Micronutrients define, characteristics of each

Macronutrient: nutrients that the body requires in relatively large amounts to support normal function and healthy. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and water are macronutrients. Macro means "large"; thus, macronutrients are those nutrients needed in relatively large amounts to support normal function and health. Characteristics of macronutrients: -- Micronutrient: nutrients needed in relatively small amounts to support normal health and body functions. Vitamins and minerals are micronutrients. Characteristics of Micronutrients: --

• Differences between malnutrition, undernutrition, overnutrition

Malnutrition - refers to a situation in which a person's nutritional status is out of balance; the individual is either getting too much or too little of a particular nutrient or energy over a significant period of time. Undernutrition - refers to a situation in which someone consumes too little energy or too few nutrients over time, causing significant weight loss, nutrient deficiency, or a nutrient-deficiency disease. Overnutrition - occurs when a person consumes too much energy or too much of a given nutrient over time, causing conditions such as obesity, heart disease, or nutrient toxicity. Overnutrition is further classified as overweight or obesity

maltase

Maltose is broken down into glucose by the enzyme maltase

professional with an advanced degree

Many individuals hold an advanced degree in nutrition and have years of experience in a nutrition-related career. For instance, they may teach at community colleges or universities or work in fitness or healthcare settings. Unless these individuals are licensed or registered dietitians, they are not certified to provide clinical dietary counseling or treatment for individuals with disease. However, they are reliable sources of information about nutritionand health.

L02 SUMMARY

Monosaccharides are attached by a bond between oxygen and one carbon on each of the monosaccharides. There are two forms of this bond: alpha bonds are easily digestible by humans, whereas beta bonds are very difficult to digest. The monosaccharides in the disaccharide lactose and many forms of fiber are linked with beta bonds. Lactose is difficult to digest in people who lack adequate levels of the enzyme lactase. Many types of fiber are not digestible.

An online tool that allows Americans to analyze their current diet and physical activity and create personalized healthy eating and physical activity plans is the NuVal System. the exchange system MyPlate Supertracker MyDietAnalysis.

MyPlate Supertracker

overt

Once the signs and symptoms of a nutrient deficiency become obvious

nerve cells

One important hunger-regulating signal comes from nerve cells lining the stomach and small intestine that detect changes in pressure according to whether the organ is empty or distended with food.

Which of the following statements about eating out is true? It is not possible to eat healthfully while eating out. Calorie-labeling on restaurant menus has been shown to increase the likelihood that patrons will make more healthful, lower-Calorie menu choices. When ordering meat, it is more healthful to ask that it be fried or breaded rather than grilled or broiled. One way to reduce the Calorie content of a restaurant meal is to order an appetizer instead of an entrée.

One way to reduce the Calorie content of a restaurant meal is to order an appetizer instead of an entrée.

Cholecystokinin

Opposite in action to ghrelin is the hormone cholecystokinin (CCK), which is produced in the small intestine in response to food entry. CCK causes stimulation of the satiety center.

The chief cells secrete the following:

Pepsinogen, an inactive enzyme, which HCl converts into the active enzyme pepsin. Like other protein-digesting enzymes, pepsin must be secreted in an inactive form, or it would begin to digest the cells that produced it. Once activated, pepsin begins the digestion of protein. It in turn activates many other GI enzymes that contribute to digesting your sandwich. Gastric lipase, an enzyme active in lipid digestion. Although lingual lipase in the mouth and gastric lipase in the stomach begin to break apart the lipids in the turkey and mayonnaise in your sandwich, only minimal digestion of lipids occurs until they reach the small intestine.

recap

RECAP Carbohydrates are an important energy source at rest and during exercise, and they provide 4 kcal of energy per gram. Carbohydrates are necessary in the diet to spare body protein and prevent ketosis. Dietary helps prevent hemorrhoids, constipation, and diverticulosis; may reduce the risk for colon cancer, heart disease, and type 2 diabetes; and may assist with weight loss.

RECAP

RECAP The RDA for carbohydrate is 130 g per day; this amount is sufficient only to supply adequate glucose to the brain. The AMDR for carbohydrate is 45% to 65% of total energy intake. Added sugars are sugars and syrups added to foods during processing or preparation. Sugar causes tooth decay but does not appear to cause hyperactivity in children. High intakes of sugars are associated with increases in unhealthful blood lipids and increased risks for heart disease, diabetes, and obesity.

RECAP

RECAP The glycemic index is a value that indicates the potential of foods to raise blood glucose and insulin levels. The glycemic load is the amount of carbohydrate in a food multiplied by the glycemic index of the carbohydrate in that food. Foods with a high glycemic index/load cause sudden surges in blood glucose and insulin, whereas foods with a low glycemic index/load cause low to moderate fluctuations in blood glucose. Diets with a low glycemic index/load are associated with a reduced risk for cardiovascular disease, but some researchers feel that the evidence supporting their health benefits is weak.

• Who are the nutrition experts

Registered Dietician - requires, minimally, a bachelor's degree, completion of a supervised clinical experience, a passing grade on a national examination, and maintenance of registration with the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (formerly the American Dietetic Association). There is now an optional change to the RD designation—RD/Nutritionist. This designation indicates that anyone who has earned an RD is also a qualified nutritionist, but not all nutritionists are RDs For a reliable list of RDs in your community, contact the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics Licensed dietitian: A licensed dietitian is a dietitian meeting the credentialing requirement of a given state in the United States to engage in the practice of dietetics.6 Each state has its own laws regulating dietitians. These laws specify which types of licensure or registration a nutrition professional must obtain in order to provide nutrition services or advice to individuals. Individuals who practice nutrition and dietetics without the required license or registration can be prosecuted for breaking the law. Professional with an advanced degree (a master's degree [MA or MS] or doctoral degree [PhD]) in nutrition: Many individuals hold an advanced degree in nutrition and have years of experience in a nutrition-related career. For instance, they may teach at community colleges or universities or work in fitness or healthcare settings. Unless these individuals are licensed or registered dietitians, they are not certified to provide clinical dietary counseling or treatment for individuals with disease. However, they are reliable sources of information about nutrition and health. **Government Sources of Information Are Usually Trustworthy

• The different types of research study designs

Scientific Method: 1. The researcher makes an observation and description of a phenomenon. 2. The researcher proposes a hypothesis, or educated guess, to explain why the phenomenon occurs. 3. The researcher develops an experimental design that will test the hypothesis. 4. The researcher collects and analyzes data that will either support or reject the hypothesis. 5. If the data do not support the original hypothesis, then an alternative hypothesis is proposed and tested. 6. If the data support the original hypothesis, then a conclusion is drawn. 7. The experiment must be repeatable, so that other researchers can obtain similar results. 8. Finally, a theory is proposed offering a conclusion drawn from repeated experiments that have supported the hypothesis time and time again. Animal Studies Can Inform Human Studies: In many cases, studies involving animals provide preliminary information that assists scientists in designing human studies. Animal studies also are used to conduct research that cannot be done with humans. For instance, researchers can cause a nutrient deficiency in an animal and study its adverse health effects over the animal's life span, but this type of experiment with humans is not acceptable. Drawbacks of animal studies include ethical concerns and the fact that the results may not apply directly to humans. The three primary types of studies conducted with humans: 1. Observational 2. Case Control Studies 3. Clinical Trials

segmentation

Segmentation, accomplished by the rhythmic contraction of circular muscles in the intestinal wall, squeezes the chyme, mixes it, and enhances its contact with digestive enzymes and enterocytes.

Nutrition Facts Panel

Serving size and servings per container: Calories and Calories from fat per serving: Percent daily values (%DVs): This section has been reorganized to list the %DV on the left, followed by the nutrient name and the grams of the nutrient in the food. The %DV tells you how much a serving of food contributes to your overall intake of nutrients listed on the label. Footnote (lower part of panel): tells you that the %DVs are based on a 2,000-Calorie diet and that your needs may be higher or lower. The remainder of the footnote includes a table with values that illustrate the differences in recommendations between a 2,000-Calorie and 2,500-Calorie diet Excellent = 20% or more Good = 10-19% Poor < 10%

What causes an individual to feel hungry?

Stimulation of hypothalamic cells by signals from nerve cells and hormones.

sucrase

Sucrose is broken down into glucose and fructose by the enzyme sucrase

Which of the following statements about sugar is FALSE? Sugar causes hyperactivity in children. Sugar consumption is correlated with obesity. Sugar causes tooth decay. Sugar consumption is linked with unhealthful changes in blood lipids.

Sugar causes hyperactivity in children.

The Obesity Society (TOS)

TOS is the leading scientific society dedicated to the study of obesity. It is committed to improving the lives of people with obesity, nurturing careers of obesity scientists and healthcare providers, and promoting interdisciplinary obesity research, management, and education. The official TOS journal is Obesity Journal.

Alternative sweeteners, such as aspartame, are safe to consume.

TRUE

Twenty-Four-Hour Dietary

The 24-hour dietary recall is used to assess recent food intake. A trained nutrition professional interviews the person and records his or her responses. The person recalls all of the foods and beverages consumed in the previous 24-hour period.

The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM)

The ACSM is the leading sports medicine and exercise science organization in the world. The mission of the ACSM is to advance and integrate scientific research to provide educational and practical applications of exercise science and sports medicine. Many members are nutrition professionals who combine their nutrition and exercise expertise to promote health and athletic performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise is the professional journal of the ACSM.

Which of the following statements about the DRIs for carbohydrates is true? The current AI for fiber adults 19 years of age and older is 130 g per day. The AMDR for carbohydrates is 45% to 65% of total energy intake. The RDA for carbohydrates covers the amount of carbohydrate needed to support daily activities. A key DRI for carbohydrates is to make half of your grain choices whole grains.

The AMDR for carbohydrates is 45% to 65% of total energy intake.

The American Society for Nutrition (ASN)

The ASN is the premier research society dedicated to improving quality of life through the science of nutrition. The ASN fulfills its mission by fostering, enhancing, and disseminating nutrition-related research and professional education activities. The ASN publishes a professional journal called the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.

L06 SUMMARY

The Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range for carbohydrate is 45% to 65% of total energy intake. The Adequate Intake for fiber is 25 g per day for women and 38 g per day for men, or 14 g of fiber for every 1,000 kcal of energy consumed.

recap

The Adequate Intake for fiber is 25 g per day for women and 38 g per day for men. Most Americans eat only half of the fiber they need each day. Foods high in fiber include whole grains and cereals, fruits, and vegetables. The more processed the food, the less fiber it is likely to contain.

1.4 Recap

The DRIs are standards for nutrients established for healthy people in a particular life stage or gender group. The EAR represents the nutrient intake level that meets the requirement of half of the healthy individuals in a group. The RDA represents the level that meets the requirements of 97% to 98% of healthy individuals in a group. The AI is based on estimates of nutrient intake by a group of healthy people when there is not enough information to set an RDA. The UL is the highest daily nutrient intake level that likely poses no health risk. The EER is the average daily energy intake that is predicted to maintain energy balance in a healthy adult. The AMDR is a range of intakes associated with reduced risk of chronic disease and adequate intakes of essential nutrients.

GI flora

The GI tract hosts a population of trillions of bacterial cells, more than the number of cells making up the human body. Collectively called the GI flora, most of these live in the large intestine, where they perform several beneficial functions. First, they finish digesting some of the nutrients remaining in food residues. The by-products of this bacterial digestion are reabsorbed into the body, where they return to the liver and are either stored or used as needed. In addition, the GI flora ferment fibrous wastes, producing certain vitamins that are absorbed by the large intestine. The GI flora are also thought to stimulate the immune system, inhibit the growth of harmful bacteria, and reduce the risk for diarrhea. In fact, these bacteria are so helpful that they are referred to as probiotics, meaning "for life. **if taking antibiotics, to replenish good bacteria that may have been eliminated, eat yogurt, etc.

The Society for Nutrition Education (SNE)

The SNE is dedicated to promoting healthy, sustainable food choices in communities through nutrition research and education. The primary goals of the SNE are to educate individuals, communities, and professionals about nutrition education and to influence policy makers about nutrition, food, and health. The professional journal of the SNE is the Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior.

What occurs when blood glucose levels rise following the ingestion of a glucose-rich meal? What occurs when blood glucose levels rise following the ingestion of a glucose-rich meal?The beta cells of the pancreas release glucagon.The alpha cells of the pancreas release glucagon.The alpha cells of the pancreas release insulin.The beta cells of the pancreas release insulin.

The beta cells of the pancreas release insulin.

RECAP

The coordination and regulation of digestion are directed by the neuromuscular system. Voluntary muscles assist us with chewing and swallowing. Once food is swallowed, involuntary muscles of the GI tract function together, so that materials are processed in a coordinated manner. Involuntary movements include the mixing and churning of chyme by muscles in the stomach wall, as well as peristalsis, segmentation, haustration, and mass movement. The enteric nerves of the GI tract work with the rest of the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system to achieve the digestion, absorption, and elimination of food.

The small intestine is composed of three sections:

The duodenum is the section of the small intestine that is connected via the pyloric sphincter to the stomach. The jejunum is the middle portion, and the last portion is the ileum. It connects to the large intestine at another sphincter, called the ileocecal valve. Most digestion and absorption take place in the small intestine. Here, the carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins in your turkey sandwich are broken down into their smallest components, molecules that the body can then absorb into the circulation.

The contractions and secretions of the gastrointestinal tract are controlled by three types of nerves:

The enteric nervous system (ENS), which is localized in the wall of the GI tract, and is part of the autonomic nervous system, the division of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that regulates many internal functions Other branches of the autonomic nervous system outside the GI tract The central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord

peristalsis

The esophagus then transports the food to the stomach (Figure 3.7). A muscular tube, the esophagus propels food along its length by contracting two sets of muscles: inner sheets of circular muscle squeeze the food, while outer sheets of longitudinal muscle push food along the length of the tube. Together, these rhythmic waves of squeezing and pushing are called peristalsis

RECAP

The folded mucosal membrane of the small intestine contains multiple villi and microvilli that significantly increase absorptive capacity. Nutrients are absorbed through one of four mechanisms: passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport, and endocytosis. Most nutrients and waste products are absorbed into capillaries and transported throughout the body in the bloodstream, whereas lipids and fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed into lacteals and transported through lymph, which is eventually released into the cardiovascular system.

What impact does the added sugar and solid fat (in a donut) have on the grouping of a food on into the MyPlate?

The food would be grouped on MyPlate based on key nutrients content in it. The kilocalories from added sugar and solid fat would count toward empty kilocalories.

gallbladder

The gallbladder is located beneath the liver (see Focus Figure 3.3) and stores a greenish fluid, bile, produced by the liver. Contraction of the gallbladder sends bile through the common bile duct into the duodenum. Bile then emulsifies the lipids; that is, it breaks the lipids into smaller globules and disperses them, so that they are more accessible to digestive enzymes. Cholecystokinin (CCK), which is released in the small intestine in response to the presence of proteins and lipids signals the gallbladder to contract.

leptin

The hormones we've discussed so far act in short-term regulation of food intake. But our body produces other hormones that regulate food intake over time. One of the most important of these is leptin, a protein produced by our adipose cells (fat cells). When we consume more Calories than we burn, the extra Calories are converted to fat and stored in adipose tissue. The more adipose tissue our body carries, the more leptin we produce. Leptin acts on the hypothalamus to suppress hunger. Unfortunately, obese people appear to be leptin-resistant.

The need and desire to eat are influenced by a variety of factors, including our nerve cells, hormones, and environmental cues. Choose the statement below that correctly describes hunger, satiation, and/or appetite.

The hypothalamus is a region of the brain that signals hunger and satiation to the body.

mucosal membrane

The lining of the small intestine is especially well suited for absorption. heavily folded: This feature increases the surface area of the small intestine, allowing it to absorb more nutrients than if it were smooth.

The stomach's acidic environment kills bacteria and allows protein digestion to begin. Choose the correct statement about the stomach.

The low pH of the stomach denatures proteins, a preliminary step in protein digestion.

bolus

The mass of food that has been chewed and moistened in the mouth

microvilli

The microvilli look like tiny brushes and are sometimes collectively referred to as the brush border. These intricate folds increase the surface area of the small intestine tremendously, increasing its absorptive capacity as well.

Kernels of different grains all share a similar design and consist of three parts

The outermost covering, called the bran, is very high in fiber and contains most of the grain's vitamins and minerals. The endosperm is the grain's midsection and contains most of the grain's carbohydrates and protein. The germ sits deep in the base of the kernel, surrounded by the endosperm, and is rich in healthful fats and some vitamins.

lymph

The oxygen we inhale into our lungs is carried by our red blood cells. This oxygen-rich blood then travels to the heart, where it is pumped out to the body. Blood travels to all of our tissues to deliver oxygen, nutrients, and other materials and to pick up carbon dioxide and other waste products. In the enterocytes, blood in the capillaries picks up water and water-soluble nutrients, and lymph in the lacteals picks up most lipids and fat-soluble vitamins, as well as any fluids that have escaped from the blood capillaries. Lymph nodes are clusters of immune cells that filter microbes and other harmful agents from the lymph fluid (see Figure 3.16). The lymph eventually returns to the bloodstream in an area near the heart where the lymphatic and blood vessels join together.

Which of the following statement(s) regarding digestion is/are correct?

The presence of chyme in the duodenum stimulates the gallbladder and the pancreas to release bile and pancreatic juice. The gallbladder secretes bile, which emulsifies the fat, breaking it into smaller particles. Mechanical digestion in the stomach mixes and churns the bolus until it becomes a liquid called chyme.

Hypothalamus

The region of brain tissue that is responsible for prompting us to seek food. The hypothalamus contains a cluster of nerve cells known collectively as the feeding center.

scientific method

The researcher makes an observation and description of a phenomenon. The researcher proposes a hypothesis, or educated guess, to explain why the phenomenon occurs. The researcher develops an experimental design that will test the hypothesis. The researcher collects and analyzes data that will either support or reject the hypothesis. If the data do not support the original hypothesis, then an alternative hypothesis is proposed and tested. If the data support the original hypothesis, then a conclusion is drawn. The experiment must be repeatable, so that other researchers can obtain similar results. Finally, a theory is proposed offering a conclusion drawn from repeated experiments that have supported the hypothesis time and time again.

1.3 Recap

The six essential nutrient groups found in foods are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water. Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins are energy nutrients. Carbohydrates are the primary energy source; lipids provide fat-soluble vitamins and essential fatty acids and act as energy-storage molecules; and proteins support tissue growth, repair, and maintenance. Vitamins are organic compounds that assist with regulating a multitude of body processes. Minerals are inorganic elements that have critical roles in virtually all aspects of human health and function. Water is essential for survival and supports all body functions.

chyme

The stomach also plays a role in mechanical digestion, by mixing and churning the food with the gastric juice until it becomes a liquid called chyme. This mechanical digestion facilitates chemical digestion, because enzymes can access the liquid chyme more easily than solid forms of food.

rugae

The stomach wall contains four layers, the innermost of which is crinkled into large folds called rugae, which flatten progressively to accommodate food. This allows the stomach to expand to hold about 1 gallon of food and liquid. As food is released into the small intestine, the rugae reform, and the stomach gradually contracts in size again.

physician

The term physician encompasses a variety of healthcare professionals. A medical doctor (MD) is educated, trained, and licensed to practice medicine in the United States. However, MDs typically have very limited experience and training in the area of nutrition.

enterocytes

The villi are composed of numerous specialized absorptive cells Inside each villus are capillaries and a lacteal, which is a small lymphatic vessel.

• Circulatory system vs lymphatic system in absorption

The villi are composed of numerous specialized absorptive cells called enterocytes. Inside each villus are capillaries and a lacteal, which is a small lymphatic vessel. The capillaries and lacteals absorb some of the end products of digestion. Water-soluble nutrients are absorbed directly into the bloodstream, whereas fat-soluble nutrients are absorbed into lymph. Each enterocyte of each villus has hairlike projections called microvilli. The microvilli look like tiny brushes and are sometimes collectively referred to as the brush border. These intricate folds increase the surface area of the small intestine tremendously, increasing its absorptive capacity as well. *Two circulating fluids transport nutrients and waste products throughout the body: blood travels through the cardiovascular system, and lymph travels through the lymphatic system* ******

functional foods

These are foods that may have biologically active ingredients with the potential to provide health benefits beyond providing energy and nutrients necessary to sustain life. Also called nutraceuticals functional foods include whole foods, such as nuts, oats, and blueberries, as well as processed foods, including fortified, enriched, or enhanced foods. Examples of processed functional foods include orange juice with added calcium and vitamin D, or bread enriched with folate.

Insulin and Glucagon

These hormones are produced in the pancreas and are responsible for maintaining blood glucose levels.

Epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol, and growth hormone are additional hormones that work to increase blood glucose.

These two hormones are also responsible for our "fight-or-flight" reaction to danger; they are released when we need a burst of energy to respond quickly.

The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics:

This is the largest organization of food and nutritionprofessionals in the world. The mission of this organization is to promote nutrition, health, and well-being. (The Canadian equivalent is Dietitians of Canada.) The Academy of Nutritionand Dietetics publishes a professional journal called the Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (formerly the Journal of the American Dietetic Association).

DASH DIET Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension

This low-sodium diet is similar to MyPlate and the Mediterranean Diet in its emphasis on fruits, vegetables, and whole grains.

portal venous system

This specialized group of veins drains blood from parts of the stomach, spleen, pancreas, and small and large intestines into a large, central vein, the hepatic portal vein (hepatic refers to the liver). This allows absorbed nutrients to be transported to the liver for processing before the blood delivers them into the general circulation. After the liver removes the digestion products from the bloodstream, it can process them for storage or release back into the bloodstream those that are needed elsewhere in the body.

Calculating the Energy Contribution of Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Protein

To begin, you need to know how much total energy someone consumes each day, as well as how many grams of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. You also need to know the kilocalorie (kcal) value of each of these nutrients: the energy value for carbohydrates and proteins is 4 kcal per gram, the energy value for alcohol is 7 kcal per gram, and the energy value for lipids is 9 kcal per gram. Working along with the following example will help you perform the calculations: Let's say you have completed a personal diet analysis for your mother, and she consumes 2,500 kcal per day. From your diet analysis you also find that she consumes 300 g of carbohydrates, 90 g of lipids, and 123 g of proteins. To calculate her percentage of total energy that comes from carbohydrates, you must do two things: Multiply her total grams of carbohydrate by the energy value for carbohydrate to determine how many kilocalories of carbohydrate she has consumed. 300g of carbohydrate×4kcal/g=1,200kcal of carbohydrate 300g of carbohydrate×4kcal/g=1,200kcalof carbohydrate Take the kilocalories of carbohydrate she has consumed, divide this number by the total number of kilocalories she has consumed, and multiply by 100. This will give you the percentage of total energy that comes from carbohydrate. (1,200kcal/2,500kcal)=48%of total energy from carbohydrate(1,200kcal/2,500kcal)=48%of total energy from carbohydrate To calculate her percentage of total energy that comes from lipids, you follow the same steps but incorporate the energy value for lipids: Multiply her total grams of lipids by the energy value for lipids to find the kilocalories of lipids consumed. 90 g of fats×9 kcal/g=810 kcal of lipids90 g of fats×9 kcal/g=810 kcal of lipids Take the kilocalories of lipids she has consumed, divide this number by the total number of kilocalories she consumed, and multiply by 100 to get the percentage of total energy from lipids. (810kcal/2,500kcal)×100=32.4%oftotal energy from lipids(810kcal/2,500kcal)×100=32.4%of total energy from lipids Now try these steps to calculate the percentage of the total energy she has consumed that comes from proteins.

To determine the % of Calories from fat in the chicken sandwich

To determine the % of Calories from fat in the chicken sandwich, Theo does the following calculations: Multiply the total fat (g) in the sandwich by 9 Calories (kcal)/g = 29 g × 9 Calories/g = 261 Calories from fat. Divide the Calories from fat by the total Calories in the sandwich and multiply by 100 = (261 Calories ÷ 620 Calories) × 100 = 42% of total Calories comes from fat in the sandwich. Multiply the saturated fat (g) in the sandwich by 9 Calories/g = 15 g × 9 Calories/g = 135 Calories from saturated fat. Divide the Calories from saturated fat by total Calories in the sandwich = (135 Calories ÷ 620 Calories) = 21.8% of total Calories comes from saturated fat in the sandwich.

Hannah goes to a sandwich shop near the university at least once a week to buy what she considers a healthy lunch, which includes a chicken breast sandwich, garden salad (with Ranch dressing), and a diet cola. Recently, the shop started posting the Calorie and fat content of its menu items. Hannah discovers the following about the Calorie and fat content of the items in her "healthy lunch": Chicken sandwich—317 Calories, 4 g fat Garden salad—49 Calories, 1 g fat Ranch dressing (1 packet)—280 Calories, 28 g fat Diet cola—0 Calories, 0 g fat Based on this information, what is the total Calorie and fat content of Hannah's lunch? What is the percentage of Calories from fat for this lunch? Which food item is contributing the highest amount of fat to Hannah's lunch, and what can she do to make a healthier change to this lunch?

Total Calories = 646; Total fat content = 33 g; Percentage of Calories from fat = 46%; item contributing the highest amount of fat to the lunch = ranch salad dressing. Hannah can skip the salad dressing or ask for a low-fat dressing, if available, to make a healthier change to this lunch.

Enzymes are proteins, which catalyze chemical reactions.

True

Fiber is not digested by the human digestive tract. true false

True

True or false? A food label must include a list of ingredients in descending order by weight.

True

True or false? The USDA Food Patterns classify beans, peas, and lentils in both the vegetables group and the protein foods group.

True

• Government agencies and that play a role in the regulation of the food supply and food labels.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-Approved Nutrient-Related Terms and Definitions Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) of the US Department of Agriculture (USDA); the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

KETOSIS

When we do not eat enough carbohydrates, the body seeks an alternative source of fuel for the brain and begins to break down stored fat. produces an alternative fuel called ketones Ketosis is an important mechanism for providing energy to the brain during situations of fasting, low carbohydrate intake, or vigorous exercise. However, ketones also suppress appetite and cause dehydration and acetone breath (the breath smells like nail polish remover).

glucagon

When you have not eaten for a period of time, your blood glucose level declines. This decrease in blood glucose stimulates the alpha cells of the pancreas to secrete another hormone, glucagon

whole grains

Whole grains are kernels that retain all three of these parts.

villi

Within these larger folds, you would notice even smaller, finger-like projections called villi, whose constant movement helps them encounter and trap nutrient molecules.

saliva function

Without saliva, we could not taste the foods we eat. That's because taste occurs when chemicals dissolved in saliva bind to chemoreceptors called taste receptors located in structures called taste buds on the surface of the tongue.

disaccharide

a carbohydrate compound consisting of two-monosaccharide molecules joined together di=2

diabetes

a chronic disease in which the body can no longer regulate glucose within normal limits, and blood glucose levels become dangerously high

lipids

a diverse group of organic substances that are largely insoluble in water they are found in solid fats and liquid oils. Lipids include triglycerides, phospholipids, and sterols. Like carbohydrates, lipids are composed mainly of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (and in phospholipids, phosphorus and sometimes nitrogen); however, they contain proportionately much less oxygen and water than do carbohydrates. This quality partly explains why they yield more energy per gram than either carbohydrates or proteins.

control group

a group of people who are as much like the treated group as possible except with respect to the condition being tested.

simple carbohydrate

a monosaccharide or disaccharide, such as glucose; commonly called sugar

appetite

a psychological desire to consume specific foods. It is aroused when environmental cues—such as the sight of chocolate cake or the smell of coffee—stimulate our senses, prompting pleasant emotions and often memories.

adequate intake (AI)

a recommended average daily nutrient intake level based on observed or experimentally determined estimates of nutrient intake by a group of healthy people

Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI's)

a set of nutritional reference values (mainly vitamins and minerals) for the United States and Canada that applies to healthy people The DRIs are dietary standards for healthy people only; they do not apply to people with diseases or those who are suffering from nutrient deficiencies.

glucose

a simple sugar, is the body's most readily available fuel supply. It's not surprising, then, that its level in our blood is an important signal regulating hunger. When we have not eaten for a while, our blood glucose levels fall, prompting a decrease in the level of insulin and an increase in glucagon. This chemical message is relayed to the hypothalamus, which then prompts us to eat in order to supply our bodies with more glucose.

organic

a substance or nutrient that contains the elements carbon and hyrdogen, which are essential components of all living organisms Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and vitamins are organic

inorganic

a substance or nutrient that does not contain carbon and hydrogen minerals and water are inorganic

liver

a triangular-shaped organ of about 3 lb of tissue that rests almost entirely within the protection of the rib cage on the right side of the body It is the largest digestive organ; it is also one of the most important organs in the body, performing more than 500 discrete functions. One important job of the liver is to synthesize many of the chemicals the body uses in carrying out metabolic processes. Another important function of the liver is to receive the products of digestion. Lipids and fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed from the GI tract into a tissue fluid called lymph, which is drained by lymphatic vessels that eventually release into the bloodstream.

beta bond

a type of chemical bond that cannot be easily digested by enzymes found in the human intestine Ex: lactose is produced by a beta bond joining a glucose molecule and a galactose molecule

alpha bond

a type of chemical bondt hat can be digested by enzymes found in the human intestine Ex: sucrose is produced by an alpha bond joining a glucose molecule and a fructose molecule. The disaccharide maltose is also produced by an alpha bond. Alpha bonds are easily digestible by humans, whereas beta bonds are very difficult to digest and may even be nondigestible.

high fructose corn syrup

a type of corn syrup in which part of the sucrose is converted to fructose, making it sweeter than sucrose or regular corn syrup; most high-fructose corn syrup contains 42% to 55% fructose This syrup is made from corn and is used to sweeten soft drinks, desserts, candies, and jellies.

A healthful diet should be

adequate, moderate, and balanced

Which of the following statements is CORRECT in regard to the role of insulin in blood glucose regulation? All of these statements are correct. Insulin is released when blood glucose levels rise. Glucose requires insulin to cross cell membranes. Insulin stimulates the storage of glucose as glycogen in the liver and muscles.

all are correct

Beta bonds are found linking monosaccharides within lactose. resistant starches. cellulose. all of the above.

all of the abov

proteins

also contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but they differ from carbohydrates and lipids in that they contain the element nitrogen Although proteins can provide energy, they are not usually a primary energy source. Proteins play a major role in building new cells and tissues, maintaining the structure and strength of bone, repairing damaged structures, and assisting in regulating metabolism and fluid balance.

hypothesis

also sometimes referred to as a research question

observational studies

are a type of epidemiological study used to assess dietary habits, disease trends, and other health phenomena of large populations and determining the factors that may influence these phenomena. However, these studies can only indicate relationships between factors; they do not prove or suggest that the data are linked by cause and effect. For example, smoking and low vegetable intake appear to be related in some studies, but this does not mean that smoking cigarettes causes people to eat fewer vegetables or that eating fewer vegetables causes people to smoke.

oligosaccarides

are carbohydrates that contain 3 to 10 monosaccharides (oligo, meaning "few") RFO's Because humans do not possess the enzyme needed to break down these RFOs, they pass into the large intestine undigested. Once they reach the large intestine, they are fermented by bacteria that produce gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and hydrogen. The product Beano® contains the enzyme alpha-galactosidase; this is the enzyme needed to break down the RFOs in the intestinal tract. Thus, this product can help to reduce the intestinal gas caused by eating beans and various vegetables.

ENRICHED FOODS

are foods in which nutrients that were lost during processing have been added back, so the food meets a specified standard. However, enrichment replaces only a handful of nutrients and leaves the product low in fiber.

Insoluble fibers are viscous, forming a gel when wet. can be fermented by bacteria residing in the colon. are generally found in whole grains, as well as many vegetables and some fruits. include pectins, fructans, gums, and mucilages.

are generally found in whole grains, as well as many vegetables and some fruits.

hormones

are molecules, usually proteins or lipids, that are secreted into the bloodstream by one of the many endocrine glands of the body In the bloodstream, they act as chemical messengers, binding to and triggering a response in target cells far away from the gland in which they were produced. The relative levels of different hormones in the blood help regulate body functions.

case control studies

are more complex observational studies with additional design features that allow scientists to gain a better understanding of things that may influence disease. They involve comparing a group of individuals with a particular condition (for instance, 1,000 elderly people with high blood pressure) to a similar group without this condition (for instance, 1,000 elderly people with normal blood pressure).

lignins

are noncarbohydrate forms of fiber. Lignins are found in the woody parts of plant cell walls and in carrots and the seeds of fruits. Lignins are also found in brans (the outer husk of grains such as wheat, oats, and rye) and other whole grains.

mucilages

are similar to gums and contain galactose, mannose, and other monosaccharides. Two examples include psyllium and carrageenan. Psyllium is the husk of psyllium seeds, which are also known as plantago or flea seeds. Carrageenan comes from seaweed. Mucilages are used as food stabilizers.

Chronic diseases such as heart disease, cancer, and stroke:

are strongly associated with poor nutrition

insoluble fibers

are those that do not typically dissolve in water. These fibers are usually nonviscous and cannot be fermented by bacteria in the colon. They are generally found in whole grains, such as wheat, rye, and brown rice, as well as in many vegetables and some fruits. These fibers are not associated with reducing cholesterol levels but are known for promoting regular bowel movements, alleviating constipation, and reducing the risk for a bowel disorder called diverticulosis

clinical trials

are tightly controlled experiments in which an intervention is given to determine its effect on a certain disease or health condition. Interventions include medications, nutritional supplements, controlled diets, and exercise programs. In clinical trials, people in the experimental group are given the intervention, but people in the control group are not. Two important questions to consider when evaluating the quality of a clinical trial are whether the subjects were randomly chosen and whether the researchers and subjects were blinded:

Taste receptors are able to detect at least five distinct tastes:

bitter, sweet, salty, sour, and umami, a savory taste due to the presence of glutamic acid, an amino acid that occurs naturally in meats and other protein-rich foods.

Two circulating fluids transport nutrients and waste products throughout the body:

blood travels through the cardiovascular system, and lymph travels through the lymphatic system

Food that has been moistened with saliva and then swallowed through the esophagus is called __________.

bolus

calculating exercise versus calories eaten

calculate how much energy Judy expends if she walks for a full hour by multiplying her body weight by the energy cost of walking per hour = 1.2 kcal/lb body weight × 200 lb = 240 kcal. Next, you need to calculate how much energy she expends each minute she walks by dividing the energy cost of walking per hour by 60 minutes = 240 kcal/ hour ÷ 60 minutes/hour = 4 kcal/minute. To determine how many minutes she would need to walk to expend 515 kcal, divide the total amount of energy she needs to expend by the energy cost of walking per minute = 515 kcal ÷ 4 kcal/minute = 128.75 minutes. 1.2 kcal/lb × (your weight in pounds) = kcal/hour (If you walk at a brisk pace, use 2.4 kcal/lb.) kcal/hour ÷ 60 minutes/hour = kcal/minute 515 extra kcal in bagel and coffee ÷ kcal/minute = minutes

Glucose is the predominant energy source used by our bodies at rest. is obtained from the breakdown of muscle glycogen reserves maintains blood glucose levels between meals. can be released from the breakdown of ketones to meet body needs when carbohydrate intake is low. can be metabolized for energy very quickly either with or without oxygen.

can be metabolized for energy very quickly either with or without oxygen.

Carbohydrates are comprised of __________. hydrogen, phosphorous, and oxygen carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen nitrogen and water carbon and nitrogen

carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

Which of the following enzymes is mismatched?

carboxypeptidase: carbohydrates

hydrolysis reaction

chemical reactions that break down substances by the addition of water.

nutrients

chemicals found in foods that are critical to human growth and function

The hormone __________ stimulates the secretion of pancreatic digestive enzymes and stimulates gallbladder contraction.

cholecystokinin (CCK)

You have been put in charge of a study to determine whether or not a new nutritional supplement can help people lose weight. What would be the best kind of study to conduct? epidemiological model system clinical trial case control

clinical trial

Where is the majority of the gastrointestinal flora found?

colon

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

considered the leading federal agency in the United States that protects human health and safety Located in Atlanta, Georgia, the CDC works in the areas of health promotion, disease prevention and control, and environmental health. The CDC's mission is to promote health and quality of life by preventing and controlling disease, injury, and disability.

polysaccharides

consist of hundreds to thousands of glucose molecules (poly, meaning "many").6 The polysaccharides include starch, glycogen, and most fibers

functional fiber

consists of nondigestible forms of carbohydrates that are extracted from plants or manufactured in a laboratory and have known health benefits. Functional fiber is added to foods and is the form found in fiber supplements. Examples of functional fiber sources you might see on nutrition labels include cellulose, guar gum, pectin, inulin, and psyllium.

What is an appropriate suggestion to a friend who has developed diarrhea after being on antibiotics?

consume probiotic foods such as yogurt

fructans

contain chains of fructose molecules, and serve as important storage sites for polysaccharides in the stems of many vegetables and grasses, including artichokes, asparagus, leeks, onions, garlic, and wheat. One commonly isolated fructan is inulin, which is used to alter the texture and stability of foods and can be used to replace sugar, fat and flour.

gums

contain galactose, glucuronic acid, and other monosaccharides. Gums are a diverse group of polysaccharides that are viscous. They are typically isolated from seeds and are used as thickening, gelling, and stabilizing agents. Guar gum and gum arabic are common gums used as food additives.

hemicelluloses

contain glucose, mannose, galacturonic acid, and other monosaccharides. Hemicelluloses are found in plant cell walls and they surround cellulose. They are the primary component of cereal fibers and are found in whole grains and vegetables. Although many hemicelluloses are insoluble, some are also classified as soluble.

balanced diet

contains the combinations of foods that provide the proper proportions of nutrients

Which food would an individual with Celiac's disease be able to tolerate?

corn

• Basic understanding of Diabetes and the different types

diabetes can lead to blindness, seizures, stroke, kidney failure, nerve disease, and cardiovascular disease. Diabetes: Hyperglycemia is the term referring to higher-than-normal levels of blood glucose. Diabetes is a chronic disease in which the body can no longer regulate glucose within normal limits, and blood glucose levels become dangerously high. diabetes can lead to blindness, seizures, stroke, kidney failure, nerve disease, and cardiovascular disease. As the concentration of glucose in the blood increases, a shift in the body's chemical balance allows glucose to attach to certain body proteins, including ones that make up blood vessels. Glucose coats these proteins like a sticky glaze, causing damage and dysfunction. Damage to large blood vessels results in problems referred to as macrovascular complications. These include cardiovascular disease, which occurs because damage to artery walls allows fatty plaque to accumulate and narrow or block the vessel. Damage to small blood vessels results in problems referred to as microvascular complications. For example, the kidneys' microscopic blood vessels, which filter blood and produce urine, become thickened. This impairs their function and can lead to kidney failure. Blood vessels that serve the eyes can swell and leak, leading to blindness. When blood vessels that supply nutrients and oxygen to nerves are affected, neuropathy, damage to the nerves, can also occur. This condition leads to a loss of sensation, most commonly in the hands and feet. At the same time, circulation to the limbs is reduced overall. Together, these changes increase the risk of injury, infection, and tissue death (necrosis), leading to a greatly increased number of toe, foot, and lower leg amputations in people. with diabetes. Type 1: the most rare, cannot produce enough insulin, When people with type 1 diabetes eat a meal and their blood glucose rises, the pancreas is unable to secrete insulin in response. Glucose therefore cannot move into body cells and remains in the bloodstream. The kidneys try to expel the excess blood glucose by excreting it in the urine. If blood glucose levels are not controlled, a person with type 1 diabetes will become confused and lethargic and have trouble breathing. This is because the brain cells are not getting enough glucose to function properly. Frequent urination is a symptom. classified as an autoimmune disease. This means that the body's immune system attacks and destroys its own tissues—in this case, the beta cells of the pancreas Type 2: body cells become resistant (less responsive) to insulin. This type of diabetes develops progressively, meaning that the biological changes resulting in the disease occur over a long period of time. One factor linking obesity to diabetes is the inappropriate accumulation of lipids in muscle, the liver, and beta cells, which reduces the ability of body cells to respond to insulin. As a result, the cells of many obese people begin to exhibit a condition called insulin insensitivity (insulin resistance). The pancreas attempts to compensate for this insensitivity by secreting more insulin. At first, the increased secretion of insulin is sufficient to maintain normal blood glucose levels. However, over time, a person who is insulin insensitive will have to circulate very high levels of insulin to use glucose for energy. Eventually, this excessive production becomes insufficient for preventing a rise in fasting blood glucose. The resulting condition is referred to as impaired fasting glucose, meaning glucose levels are higher than normal but not high enough to indicate a diagnosis of type 2 diabetes. Some health professionals refer to this condition as pre-diabetes, because people with impaired fasting glucose are more likely to get type 2 diabetes than are people with normal fasting glucose levels. Ultimately, the pancreas becomes incapable of secreting these excessive amounts of insulin and stops producing the hormone altogether. *type 2 diabetes, blood glucose levels may be elevated because (1) the person has developed insulin insensitivity, (2) the pancreas can no longer secrete enough insulin, or (3) the pancreas has entirely stopped insulin production.*

Which of the following MyPlate food groups would provide a significant amount of vitamin A?

dairy

ounce-equivalent

defined as a serving size that is 1 ounce, or that is equivalent to an ounce, for the grains and meats and beans sections

Estimated Energy Requirement (EER)

defined as the average dietary energy intake that is predicted to maintain energy balance in a healthy individual This dietary intake is defined by a person's age, gender, weight, height, and level of PA that is consistent with good health.4 Thus, the EER for an active person is higher than the EER for an inactive person, even if all other factors (age, gender, and so forth) are the same.

chronic disease

diseases that come on slowly and can persist for years, often despite treatment. Chronic diseases of particular interest to nutrition researchers include obesity, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and various cancers. This new research has raised as many questions as it has answered, and we still have a great deal to learn about the relationship between nutrition and chronic disease.

soluble fibers

dissolve in water; also viscous; Soluble fibers are typically found in citrus fruits, berries, oat products, and beans.

MyPlate recommends eating red meat only monthly. recommends eating fish weekly. recommends eating legumes and nuts as daily sources of protein. does not make specific recommendations for protein food choices.

does not make specific recommendations for protein food choices.

galactose

does not occur alone in foods. It joins with glucose to create lactose, one of the three most common disaccharides.

The glycemic index rates the potential of foods to prompt the secretion of pancreatic amylase. the potential of foods to raise blood glucose and insulin levels. the ratio of insulin to cortisol in the blood following a carbohydrate-rich meal. the potential of a given diet for increasing the risk for diabetes.

e potential of foods to raise blood glucose and insulin levels.

MyPlate was NOT intended to help Americans

eat only a select number of kinds of foods

Calories from solid fats and/or added sugars that provide few or no nutrients are termed

empty calories

Sarah just ate carbohydrates and her stomach begins secreting juices in response. This reaction is controlled by the __________.

enteric nervous system

The cells found within the villi that are responsible for the absorption of nutrients are called

enterocytes

• Fiber containing foods, what to look for on food labels

fiber rich carbohydrates: fruits, vegetables, and whole grains Select breads and cereals that are made with whole grains, such as wheat, oats, barley, and rye (make sure the label says "whole" before the word grain). Two slices of whole-grain bread provide 4-6 grams of fiber. Switch from a low-fiber breakfast cereal to one that has at least 4 grams of fiber per serving. For a mid-morning snack, stir 1-2 tablespoons of whole ground flaxseed meal (4 grams of fiber) into a cup of low-fat or nonfat yogurt. Or choose an apple or a pear, with the skin left on (approximately 5 grams of fiber). Instead of potato chips with your lunchtime sandwich, have a side of carrot sticks or celery sticks (approximately 2 grams of fiber per serving). Eat legumes frequently, every day if possible (approximately 6-8 grams of fiber per serving). Canned or fresh beans, peas, and lentils are excellent sources of fiber-rich carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. Have them as your main dish, as a side, or in soups, chili, and other dishes. Don't forget the greens! A cup of cooked leafy greens provides about 4 grams of fiber, and a salad is rich in fiber. For dessert, try fresh, frozen, or dried fruit or a high-fiber granola with sweetened soy milk. When shopping, choose fresh fruits and vegetables whenever possible. Buy frozen vegetables and fruits when fresh produce is not available. Check frozen selections to make sure there is no sugar or salt added. Be careful when buying canned fruits, legumes, and other vegetables, as they may be high in added sugar or sodium. Select versions without added sugar or salt, or rinse before serving.

whole foods

foods in their natural state such as nuts, oats and blueberries taht can also be classified as functional foods

viscous

forming a gel when wet, and they are fermentable; that is, they are easily digested by bacteria in the colon.

fiber rich carbohydrates

fruits, vegetables, and whole grains fiber-rich carbohydrates are known to contribute to good health, but not all complex carbohydrate foods are fiber-rich For example, potatoes that have been processed into frozen hash browns retain very little of their original fiber. On the other hand, some foods rich in simple carbohydrates (such as fruits) are also rich in fiber. So when you're reading labels, it pays to check the grams of dietary fiber per serving. And if the food you're considering is fresh produce and there's no label to read, that almost guarantees it's fiber-rich.

A muscle located at the end of the esophagus must relax before the bolus can enter the stomach. This muscle is called the

gastroesophageal or lower esophageal sphincter

• Common health issues of the digestive tract and their general treatments

gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) - *COMMON HEALTH ISSUE*: frequent heartburn is a symptom - a chronic disease in which episodes of GER cause heartburn or other symptoms more than twice per week. These other symptoms of GERD include chest pain, trouble swallowing, burning in the mouth, the feeling that food is stuck in the throat, wheezing, and hoarseness. The exact causes of GERD are unknown. Can lead to bleeding, ulcers and scar tissue in the esophagus, making it difficult to swallow. *Some people with GERD develop a condition called Barrett's esophagus, which can lead to cancer. Asthma can also be aggravated or even caused by GERD.* However, a number of factors may contribute, including the following: *A hiatal hernia, which occurs when the upper part of the stomach lies above the diaphragm muscle. Normally, the horizontal diaphragm muscle separates the stomach from the chest cavity and helps keep gastric juice from seeping into the esophagus. Gastric juice can more easily enter the esophagus in people with a hiatal hernia. *Cigarette smoking or inhaling secondhand smoke *Overweight and obesity *Pregnancy *Certain medications, including sedatives, pain relievers, antidepressants, asthma medications, and many antihistamines *TREATMENT*: One way to reduce the symptoms of GERD is to identify the types of foods or situations that trigger episodes, and then avoid them. Eating smaller meals also helps. After a meal, stay upright for at least 3 hours. This keeps the chest area elevated and minimizes the amount of acid that can back up into the esophagus. People with GERD who smoke should stop, and, if they are overweight, they should lose weight. Taking an antacid before a meal can help prevent symptoms, and many other over-the-counter and prescription medications are now available to treat GERD. heartburn- *COMMON HEALTH ISSUES*: caused by reflux of gastric juices - We noted earlier that, even as you're chewing your first bite of food, your stomach is beginning to secrete gastric juice to prepare for digestion. When you swallow, the food is propelled along the esophagus, and the gastroesophageal sphincter relaxes to permit it to enter the stomach. As this occurs, it's normal for a small amount of gastric juice to flow "backwards" into the lower esophagus for a moment. This phenomenon is technically known as gastroesophageal reflux, or GER. However, in some people, peristalsis in the esophagus is weak and the food exits too slowly, or the gastroesophageal sphincter is overly relaxed and stays partially open, allowing too much gastric juice to enter the esophagus. In either case, the result is that gastric juice isn't cleared from the lower esophagus quickly and completely. Although the stomach is protected from the highly acidic gastric juice by a thick coat of mucus, the esophagus does not have this coating. Thus, the gastric juice burns it *TREATMENT*: Many people take over-the-counter antacids to raise the pH of the gastric juice, thereby relieving the heartburn. A nondrug approach is to repeatedly swallow: this action causes any acid pooled in the esophagus to be swept down into the stomach, eventually relieving the symptoms. peptic ulcers - an erosion in the GI tract; an area of the GI tract that has been eroded away by a combination of hydrochloric acid and the enzyme pepsin - it is located in the stomach area (gastric ulcer) or the part of the duodenum closest to the stomach (duodenal ulcer). It causes a burning pain in the abdominal area, typically 1 to 3 hours after eating a meal. The bacterium Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) plays a key role in the development of most peptic ulcers.4 H. pylori infection is common in children, and appears to be a beneficial member of our GI flora, offering some protection against asthma and allergies, GERD, and even obesity;5,6 moreover, the great majority of people with H. pylori infection do not develop ulcers. For this reason, eradication of the bacterium in children is not advised *COMMON HEALTH ISSUES*: stomach obstruction, internal bleeding, or perforation of the ulcer through the GI tract wall and life-threatening infection *TREATMENT*: treatment includes antibiotics effective against the bacterium. In addition, antacids are used to buffer the acidity of gastric juice, and the same medications used to treat GERD can be used to treat peptic ulcers. Special diets are not recommended as often as they once were because they do not reduce acid secretion. In fact, we now know that ulcers are not caused by stress or spicy foods. food allergies- is a hypersensitivity reaction of the immune system to a particular component (usually a protein) in a food. This reaction causes the immune cells to release chemicals that cause either limited or systemic (whole-body) inflammation. Although much less common than food intolerances, food allergies can be far more serious. *COMMON HEALTH ISSUES*: You may have heard stories of people being allergic to foods as common as peanuts, shellfish, or eggs. In many such people, the allergic inflammatory reaction is localized, so the damage is limited; for instance, a person's mouth and throat might itch whenever he or she eats cantaloupe. Other localized reactions include swelling of the mouth or face, a skin rash, vomiting, and wheezing. But in some cases, consumption of the offending food can cause a severe, life-threatening reaction known as anaphylaxis. In anaphylaxis, the airways become constricted and clogged with mucus, leading to respiratory collapse. The throat may swell and cause suffocation. At the same time, blood vessels dilate and became more permeable, so that blood pressure plummets, leading to circulatory collapse. This state, called anaphylactic shock, can be fatal if not treated immediately. *TREATMENT*: epi pen food intolerance- is a cluster of GI symptoms (often gas, abdominal pain, and diarrhea) that occurs following consumption of a particular food. The immune system plays no role in intolerance, and although episodes are unpleasant, they are usually transient, resolving after the offending food has been eliminated from the body. celiac disease- also known as celiac sprue, is a disease that severely damages the lining of the small intestine and interferes with the absorption of nutrients. As in food allergy, the body's immune system causes the disorder. There is a strong genetic predisposition to celiac disease, with the risk now linked to specific gene markers. Approximately 1 in every 133 Americans is thought to have celiac disease, but among those with a close family member with the disease, the rate is 1 in 22. Whereas many foods prompt food allergies, in celiac disease the offending food component is always gliadin, a fraction of a protein called gluten that is found in wheat, rye, and barley. When people with celiac disease eat a food made with one of these grains, their immune system triggers an inflammatory response that erodes the villi of the small intestine. If the person is unaware of the disorder and continues to eat gluten, repeated immune reactions cause the villi to become greatly decreased, so that there is less absorptive surface area. In addition, the enzymes secreted at the brush border of the small intestine become reduced. As a result, the person becomes unable to absorb certain nutrients properly—a condition known as malabsorption. Over time, malabsorption can lead to malnutrition (poor nutrient status). Deficiencies of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K, as well as iron, folic acid, and calcium, are common in those suffering from celiac disease, as are inadequate intakes of protein and total energy *COMMON HEALTH ISSUES*: Symptoms of celiac disease often mimic those of other intestinal disturbances, such as irritable bowel syndrome (discussed ahead), so the condition is often misdiagnosed. Some of the symptoms of celiac disease include fatty stools (due to poor fat absorption) with an odd odor; abdominal bloating and cramping; diarrhea, constipation, or vomiting; and weight loss. However, other puzzling symptoms do not appear to involve the GI tract. These include an intensely itchy rash called dermatitis herpetiformis, unexplained anemia, fatigue, osteoporosis (poor bone density), arthritis, infertility, seizures, anxiety, irritability, and depression, among others *TREATMENT*: Diagnostic tests for celiac disease include a variety of blood tests that screen for the presence of antigliadin antibodies or for the genetic markers of the disease. Definitive diagnosis requires a biopsy of the small intestine showing atrophy of the villi. Because long-term complications of undiagnosed celiac disease include an increased risk for intestinal cancer, early diagnosis can be life-saving. Currently, there is no cure for celiac disease. Treatment is with a special diet that excludes all forms of wheat, rye, and barley. Oats are allowed, but they are often contaminated with wheat flour from processing, and even a microscopic amount of wheat can cause an immune response. vomiting- can be acute or chronic - is the involuntary expulsion of the contents of the stomach and duodenum from the mouth. The reflex is triggered when substances or sensations stimulate a cluster of cells in the brain stem to signal a strong wave of contractions that begin in the small intestine and surge upward. The sphincter muscles of the GI tract relax, allowing the chyme to pass. *COMMON HEALTH ISSUES*: One or two episodes of vomiting often accompany a gastrointestinal infection, typically with the norovirus, which is often spread via contaminated water or food. Vomiting triggered by infection is classified as one of the body's innate defenses, as it removes harmful agents before they are absorbed. Certain medical procedures, medications, illicit drugs, motion sickness, and even severe pain can also trigger acute vomiting. cyclic vomiting syndrome (CVS)- is a chronic condition characterized by recurring cycles of severe nausea and vomiting that can last for hours or days, alternating with symptom-free periods. The vomiting may be severe enough to cause dehydration, and the person may need to be hospitalized. *Anxiety, excitement, allergies, infections, and a variety of other disturbances may trigger CVS. These triggers are similar to those involved in migraine headaches, and the same medications used for migraines may be prescribed for CVS, along with antinausea and anti-emesis drugs* Chron's Disease - causes inflammation in the small intestine, usually the ileum, and affects the entire thickness of the wall. Experts speculate that the inflammation is caused by an inappropriate immune reaction to an otherwise harmless bacterium or virus *COMMON HEALTH ISSUES:*symptoms of Crohn's disease include diarrhea, abdominal pain, rectal bleeding, weight loss, and fever. If allowed to progress, Crohn's disease can cause blockage of the intestine and the development of ulcers that tunnel through the tissue layers and commonly require surgical treatment. Crohn's disease also results in deficiencies in protein, energy, and vitamins and is associated with arthritis, kidney stones, gallstones, and diseases of the liver. *TREATMENT*: Treatment may involve a combination of medications that suppress the immune response, as well as nutritional supplements. In some cases, a period of bowel rest—that is, intravenous feeding—helps the affected tissues to heal. Up to 20% of patients eventually require surgery to treat the disease Ulcerative Colitis- is a chronic disease characterized by inflammation and ulceration of the mucosa, or innermost lining, of the colon. Ulcers may bleed and produce pus and mucus. *COMMON HEALTH ISSUES*: diarrhea (which may be bloody), an urgent need to have a bowel movement, weight loss, anemia, nausea, fever, and fatigue. Most people have mild symptoms, but about 10% experience profuse bleeding, severe abdominal cramping, and fevers *TREATMENT*: variety of medications and sometimes surgery diarrhea- *COMMON HEALTH ISSUES*: cramping, abdominal pain, bloating, nausea, fever, and blood in the stools. Acute diarrhea is usually caused by an infection of the gastrointestinal tract, or use of medications such as antibiotics. Chronic diarrhea is more often due to an underlying disorder of the GI tract *TREATMENT*: irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)- *COMMON HEALTH ISSUES:* cramping, abdominal pain, bloating, nausea, fever, and blood in the stools. Acute diarrhea is usually caused by an infection of the gastrointestinal tract, or use of medications such as antibiotics. Chronic diarrhea is more often due to an underlying disorder of the GI tract *TREATMENT*: certain medications to treat diarrhea or constipation, stress management, and regular physical activity. Dietary modifications can also help. These include eating smaller meals, avoiding foods that exacerbate symptoms, eating a higher-fiber diet, and drinking at least six to eight glasses of water each day. Moreover, regular consumption of probiotic foods may help. inflammatory bowel diseases flatuous - *COMMON HEALTH ISSUES*: completely normal - Flatus is a mixture of many gases, including nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, methane, and carbon dioxide. Interestingly, all of these are odorless. It is only when flatus contains sulfur that it causes the embarrassing odor associated with flatulence. Because many of the foods that can cause flatus are healthful, it is important not to avoid them. Eating smaller portions can help reduce the amount of flatus produced and passed. GI Cancer - colorectal cancer—cancer affecting the colon or rectum, third most deadly. *COMMON HEALTH ISSUES*: persistent change in bowel habits, rectal bleeding, unexplained weight loss, and abdominal pain or discomfort. Symptoms typically arise, however, only when the cancer is advanced. *TREATMENT*: Screening options include an annual stool test that looks for occult blood (hidden blood) in a stool sample, and an internal imaging test called a colonoscopy that is performed every 5 to 10 years. Colonoscopy can detect both cancer and precancerous polyps—small masses of abnormal but noninvasive cells—and remove any polyps that are present. Malignant tumors require surgery, and possibly radiation and/or chemotherapy. functional gastrointestinal disorders **Whenever there is a problem with the GI tract, the absorption of nutrients can be affected. If absorption of a nutrient is less than optimal for a long period of time, malnutrition can result.

The most abundant form of carbohydrate found in plants is __________.

glucose

Carbohydrates are the primary fuel source for the brain and body tissues.

glucose is the preferred source of energy for the brain, and it is a very important source of energy for all cells.

Excellent food sources of starch

grains (wheat, rice, corn, oats, and barley), legumes (peas, beans, and lentils), and tubers (potatoes and yams)

If a food is described as "reduced/less sugar" on a food label, it

has at least 25% less sugar than its reference food

fortified foods

have nutrients added that did not originally exist in the food (or existed in insignificant amounts). For example, some breakfast cereals have been fortified with iron, a mineral that is not present in cereals naturally.

cephalic stage of digestion

hunger and appetite work together to prepare the GI tract to digest food The nervous system stimulates the release of digestive juices in preparation for food entering the GI tract, and sometimes we experience some involuntary movement commonly called "hunger pangs."

• Characteristics of the digestive organs, identify them and the important secretions from each

hunger and appetite work together to prepare the GI tract to digest food. The nervous system stimulates the release of digestive juices in preparation for food entering the GI tract, and sometimes we experience some involuntary movement commonly called "hunger pangs." salivary glands gallbladder- Location: The gallbladder is located beneath the liver. Stores bile (which is produced by the liver). Contraction of the gallbladder sends bile through the common bile duct into the duodenum. Bile then emulsifies the lipids; that is, it breaks the lipids into smaller globules and disperses them, so that they are more accessible to digestive enzymes. *Secretions*: Cholecystokinin (CCK), which is released in the small intestine in response to the presence of proteins and lipids, signals the gallbladder to contract. pancreas- manufactures, holds, and secretes digestive enzymes. The pancreas is also responsible for manufacturing insulin and glucagon, hormones mentioned earlier for their roles in hunger and satiety. Both hormones are important in regulating the amount of glucose in the blood. *Location*: It is located behind the stomach *Secretions*: Enzymes secreted by the pancreas include *pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipase, and proteases*, which catalyze the digestion of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. bicarbonate into the duodenum. As noted earlier, bicarbonate is a base, whereas chyme leaving the stomach is very acidic. The pancreatic bicarbonate neutralizes this acidic chyme. This allows the pancreatic enzymes to work effectively and ensures that the lining of the duodenum is not eroded. Various amylases assist in the digestion of carbohydrates, lipases are involved with lipid digestion, and proteases help digest proteins. pancreatic amylase - secreted by the pancreas into the small intestine that digest any remaining starch into maltose liver- is a triangular-shaped organ of about 3 lb of tissue. It is the largest digestive organ; it is also one of the most important organs in the body, performing more than 500 discrete functions. *Important Job*: One important job of the liver is to synthesize many of the chemicals the body uses in carrying out metabolic processes. For example, the liver synthesizes bile, which, as we just discussed, is then stored in the gallbladder until needed for the emulsification of lipids. Another important function of the liver is to receive the products of digestion. Lipids and fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed from the GI tract into a tissue fluid called lymph, which is drained by lymphatic vessels that eventually release into the bloodstream. Other nutrients are water-soluble and are absorbed into capillaries (microscopic blood vessels) that drain into the portal venous system. This specialized group of veins drains blood from parts of the stomach, spleen, pancreas, and small and large intestines into a large, central vein, the hepatic portal vein (hepatic refers to the liver). This allows absorbed nutrients to be transported to the liver for processing before the blood delivers them into the general circulation. After the liver removes the digestion products from the bloodstream, it can process them for storage or release back into the bloodstream those that are needed elsewhere in the body. *Location*: rests almost entirely within the protection of the rib cage on the right side of the body *Secretions*:

Gastric juice contains __________.

hydrochloric acid (HCl), gastric lipase, and intrinsic factor

acceptable macronutrient distribution range (AMDR)

identifies a range of intake for the three energy nutrients that is both adequate and associated with a reduced risk of chronic disease.4 The AMDR is expressed as a percentage of total energy (or total kcal). The AMDR also has a lower and upper boundary; if we consume nutrients above or below this range, there is a potential for increasing our risk for poor health In 2500 kcal: 45-65% - carbs 20-35% - fat 10-35% - proteins Determine AMDR % of total kcals 45% of 2500 kcals equals...0.45 x 2500 = 1125 kcals 65% of 2500 kcals equals...0.65 x 2500 = 1625 kcals Determine grams of carbohydrates 45% 1125 kcals / 4 cal/g = 281 65% 2625 / 4 = 406 grams Fat: 20% = 500 kcals = 55.6 35% = 875 kcals = 97.2 Protein: 10% = 250 = 62.5 35% = 875 = 13.67

processed foods

includes foods that are fortified, enriched or enhanced, such as orange juice with added calcium and vitamin D, or bread enriched with folate

experiment

is a scientific study that is conducted to test a hypothesis. A well-designed experiment should include several key elements: The sample size, or the number of people being studied, should be adequate to ensure that the results obtained are not due to chance alone. Would you be more likely to believe a study that tested 5 people or 500? Having a control group is essential for comparison between treated and untreated individuals. A control group is a group of people who are as much like the treated group as possible except with respect to the condition being tested. For instance, in your study, 45 minutes daily of aerobic exercise would be the condition; the experimental group would consist of people over age 65 with high blood pressure who perform the exercise, and the control group would consist of people of the same age with high blood pressure who do not perform the exercise. Using a control group helps a researcher judge if a particular treatment has worked or not. A good experimental design also attempts to control for other factors that may coincidentally influence the results. For example, what if someone in your study is on a diet, smokes, or takes blood pressure-lowering medication? Because any of these factors can affect the results, researchers try to design experiments that have as many constants as possible. In doing so, they increase the chance that their results will be valid. To use an old saying, you can think of validity as "comparing apples to apples."

passive diffusion

is a simple process in which nutrients cross into the enterocytes without the use of a carrier protein or the requirement of energy Passive diffusion can occur when the wall of the intestine is permeable to the nutrient and the concentration of the nutrient in the GI tract is higher than its concentration in the enterocytes. Thus, the nutrient is moving from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Lipids, water, vitamin C, and some minerals are absorbed via passive diffusion.

On a package of crackers, the phrase reduced fat is an example of an FDA-approved nutrient claim. is an example of a USDA-approved health claim. and low fat have the same meaning. guarantees that a food has less than 0.5 g of fat per serving.

is an example of an FDA-approved nutrient claim.

Type 1 diabetes typically arises in middle and older adulthood. is a progressive disorder in which body cells become less responsive to insulin. is characterized by autoimmune destruction of the beta cells of the pancreas. can be prevented by maintaining a healthful body weight.

is characterized by autoimmune destruction of the beta cells of the pancreas.

raffinose

is composed of galactose, glucose, and fructose. It is commonly found in beans, cabbage, brussels sprouts, broccoli, and whole grains.

sucrose

is composed of one glucose molecule and one fructose molecule. Because sucrose contains fructose, it is sweeter than lactose or maltose. Sucrose provides much of the sweet taste found in honey, maple syrup, fruits, and vegetables. Table sugar, brown sugar, powdered sugar, and many other products are made by refining the sucrose found in sugarcane and sugar beets.

stachyose

is composed of two galactose molecules, a glucose molecule, and a fructose molecule. It is found in many beans and other legumes.

ghrelin

is produced by the stomach. Immediately after a meal, ghrelin levels plummet. As time since our last meal elapses, ghrelin levels begin to rise. A fast-acting hormone, ghrelin triggers the hypothalamus to strongly induce us to eat. As you might suppose, when we dramatically restrict our food intake, ghrelin levels surge.

tolerable upper intake level (UL)

is the highest average daily nutrient intake level likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects to almost all individuals in a particular life stage and gender group This does not mean that we should consume this intake level or that we will benefit from meeting or exceeding the UL

cellulose

is the main structural component of plant cell walls. Cellulose is a chain of glucose units similar to amylose, but unlike amylose, cellulose contains beta bonds that are not digestible by humans. Cellulose is found in whole grains, fruits, and legumes and other vegetables. It can also be extracted from wood pulp or cotton, and it is added to foods as an agent for anti-caking, thickening, and texturizing.

dietary fiber

is the nondigestible parts of plants that form the support structures of leaves, stems, and seeds, plant's skeleton

glycogen

is the storage form of glucose for animals, including humans. After an animal is slaughtered, most of the glycogen is broken down by enzymes found in animal tissues. Thus, very little glycogen exists in meat.

total fiber

is the sum of dietary fiber and functional fiber.

National Institutes of Health (NIH)

is the world's leading medical research center, and it is the focal point for medical research in the United States. The NIH is one of the agencies of the Public Health Service, which is part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The mission of the NIH is to uncover new knowledge that leads to better health for everyone.

Disorders of the neuromuscular system, infections, allergies, genetics, and environmental factors can disturb gastrointestinal functioning. Common gastrointestinal disorders and diseases include gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), peptic ulcer, food allergies, celiac disease, vomiting, inflammatory bowel diseases, irritable bowel syndrome, diarrhea, and constipation. Complete the statement about celiac disease. Celiac disease ____________________.

is treated with a diet that eliminates wheat, rye, and barley

Soluble fiber __________. is viscous, and can be digested by colon bacteria has not been related to reduced risk of disease does not dissolve in water is not viscous, and cannot be digested

is viscous, and can be digested by colon bacteria

healthful diet's 4 attributes:

it is adequate, moderate, balanced, and varied

anorexia

it is possible to have a physiologic need for food yet have no appetite

The USDA Food Patterns recommend that you make half your grains whole; that is, make at least half of your grain choices whole grain foods. go lean with green; that is, make lean vegetable choices. vary your dairy; that is, choose milk, yogurt, and a variety of cheeses every day. drink at least two to three servings of fruit juice each day.

make half your grains whole; that is, make at least half of your grain choices whole grain foods.

pancreas

manufactures, holds, and secretes digestive enzymes. It is located behind the stomach secretes bicarbonate The pancreas stores these enzymes in their inactive forms, and they are activated in the small intestine; this is important because, if the enzymes were active in the pancreas, they would facilitate digestion of the pancreas. Enzymes secreted by the pancreas include pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipase, and proteases, which catalyze the digestion of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.

An advantage of eating a high-fiber diet is that __________. the risk of diarrhea is reduced it's not as filling as a regular diet it speeds the digestion and absorption of food meals high in fiber help to normalize blood sugar levels

meals high in fiber help to normalize blood sugar levels

impaired fasting glucose

meaning glucose levels are higher than normal but not high enough to indicate a diagnosis of type 2 diabetes

covert

meaning they are hidden and require laboratory tests or other invasive procedures to detect

Anthropometric assessments

measurements of human beings (anthropos is a Greek word meaning "human"). The most common anthropometric measurements are height and body weight. Other measurements that may be taken include head circumference in infants and circumference of limbs and the waist.

excellent sources of protein, iron, zinc, and copper

meat

Glucose, fructose, and galactose are monosaccharides. disaccharides. oligosaccharides. polysaccharides.

monosaccharides

The body absorbs which form of digested carbohydrates? polysaccharides oligosaccharides monosaccharides disaccharides

monosaccharides

Which of the following correctly lists the order through which food travels along the GI tract?

mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans advises individuals to balance calorie intake and output and choose

nutrient dense foods

• Different types of nutrient absorption

mucosal membrane, you would notice that it is heavily folded - increases the surface area of the small intestine, allowing it to absorb more nutrients than if it were smooth. Within these larger folds, you would notice even smaller, finger-like projections called villi, whose constant movement helps them encounter and trap nutrient molecules. The villi are composed of numerous specialized absorptive cells called enterocytes Inside each villus are capillaries and a lacteal, which is a small lymphatic vessel The capillaries and lacteals absorb some of the end products of digestion. Water-soluble nutrients are absorbed directly into the bloodstream, whereas fat-soluble nutrients are absorbed into lymph. Each enterocyte of each villus has hairlike projections called microvilli. The microvilli look like tiny brushes and are sometimes collectively referred to as the brush border. These intricate folds increase the surface area of the small intestine tremendously, increasing its absorptive capacity as well. *FOUR TYPES OF ABSORPTION IN SMALL INTESTINE* The four types of absorption that occur in the small intestine. (a) In passive diffusion, nutrients at a higher concentration outside the cells diffuse along their concentration gradient into the enterocytes without the use of a carrier protein or the requirement of energy. (b) In facilitated diffusion, nutrients are shuttled across the enterocytes with the help of a carrier protein without the use of energy. (c) In active transport, energy is used along with a carrier protein to transport nutrients against their concentration gradient. (d) In endocytosis, a small amount of the intestinal contents is engulfed by the cell membrane of the enterocyte and released into the interior of the cell.

The feeding and satiety centers work together to regulate food intake by integrating signals from three sources:

nerve cells in the gastrointestinal system, chemical messenger molecules called hormones, and the amount and type of food we eat.

• MyPlate, concepts, components of a healthy plate.

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• The components of a Product Label and Nutrition Fact panel

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• Dietary Guidelines for Americans, broad goals & what drives food choices in Americans

next cards what drives food choices in Americans: **********************************

According the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, drinking in moderation is defined as

no more than one alcoholic drink per day for women, and two alcoholic drinks per day for men

facilitated diffusion

occurs when nutrients are shuttled across the enterocytes with the help of a carrier protein This process is similar to passive diffusion in that it does not require energy and is driven by a concentration gradient. Fructose (a carbohydrate composed of a single sugar unit) is transported via facilitated diffusion.

fasting hypoglycemia

occurs when the body continues to produce too much insulin, even when someone has not eaten. This condition is usually secondary to another disorder, such as cancer; liver infection; alcohol-induced liver disease; or a tumor in the pancreas. Its symptoms are similar to those of reactive hypoglycemia but occur more than 4 hours after a meal.

lactose intolerance

occurs when the body continues to produce too much insulin, even when someone has not eaten. This condition is usually secondary to another disorder, such as cancer; liver infection; alcohol-induced liver disease; or a tumor in the pancreas. Its symptoms are similar to those of reactive hypoglycemia but occur more than 4 hours after a meal. Lactose intolerance should not be confused with a milk allergy. People who are allergic to milk experience an immune reaction to the proteins found in cow's milk.

reactive hypoglycemia

occurs when the pancreas secretes too much insulin after a high-carbohydrate meal. The symptoms of reactive hypoglycemia usually appear about 1 to 4 hours after the meal and include nervousness, shakiness, anxiety, sweating, irritability, headache, weakness, and rapid or irregular heartbeat.

abbreviation for the potential of hydrogen

pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution; that is, the potential of a substance to release to take up hydrogen ions in solution. Since an acid by definition is a compound that releases hydrogen ions, and a base is a compound that binds them, we can also say that pH is a measure of a compound's acidity or alkalinity. The precise measurements of pH range from 0 to 14, with 7.0 designated as pH neutral. Pure water is exactly neutral, and human blood is close to neutral, normally ranging from about 7.35 to 7.45.

One of the accessory organs of the gastrointestinal tract is _____.

pancreas

Gastric glands are lined with two important types of cells:

parietal cells and chief cells—which secrete the various components of gastric juice

At a birthday party, Sam eats a chocolate chip cookie with peanuts. Within minutes, he has trouble breathing, his blood pressure plummets, and he has to be rushed to the hospital for treatment. Which condition is the MOST likely cause of his symptoms?

peanut allergy

Which two enzymes are both produced by the stomach?

pepsin, gastric lipase

prevalance

percentage of the population that is affected with a particular disease at a particular time

The organs of the gastrointestinal tract _____.

perform digestion, absorption, and elimination

Aspartame should not be consumed by people who have phenylketonuria. type 1 diabetes. lactose intolerance. a milk allergy.

phenylketonuria

The primary function of carbohydrates is to __________. provide energy that fuels the brain, muscles, and other tissues in the body provide the building blocks to form ketones in the blood build and repair muscle tissue provide enzymes that aid in digestion and metabolism

provide energy that fuels the brain, muscles, and other tissues in the body

An adequate diet is defined as a diet that provides enough energy to meet minimum daily requirements. provides enough of the energy, nutrients, and fiber needed to maintain a person's health. provides a sufficient variety of nutrients to maintain a healthful weight and to optimize the body's metabolic processes. contains combinations of foods that provide healthful proportions of nutrients.

provides enough of the energy, nutrients, and fiber needed to maintain a person's health.

adequate diet

provides enough of the energy, nutrients, and fiber to maintain a person's health

Two of the most common oligosaccharides found in our diet:

raffinose and stachyose

active transport

requires the use of energy to transport nutrients in combination with a carrier protein The energy, which is derived from adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and the assistance of the carrier protein allow for the absorption of nutrients against their concentration gradient, meaning the nutrients can move from areas of low to high concentration. Glucose, amino acids, and certain minerals are among the nutrients absorbed via active transport. In addition to being absorbed via passive diffusion, vitamin C can be absorbed via active transport.

registered dietician

requires, minimally, a bachelor's degree, completion of a supervised clinical experience, a passing grade on a national examination, and maintenance of registration with the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (formerly the American Dietetic Association). There is now an optional change to the RD designation—RD/Nutritionist. This designation indicates that anyone who has earned an RD is also a qualified nutritionist, but not all nutritionists are RDs (see below). Individuals who complete the education, experience, exam, and registration are qualified to provide nutrition counseling in a variety of settings.

pancreatic amylase

s secreted by the pancreas into the small intestine that digest any remaining starch into maltose

• Definition of nutrition

scientific study of food and how it nourishes the body and influences health. It identifies the processes by which we consume, digest, metabolize, and store the nutrients in foods and how these nutrients affect our body. Nutrition also involves studying the factors that influence our eating patterns, making recommendations about the amount we should eat of each type of food, maintaining food safety, and addressing issues related to the production of food and the global food supply.

The Mediterranean diet includes

several portions of legumes and other vegetables each day

estimated average requirement (EAR)

the average daily nutrient intake level estimated to meet the requirement of half of the healthy individuals in a particular life stage or gender group

monosaccharide

simplest of carbohydrates; consists of one sugar molecule, the most common form of which is glucose mono = 1

Most digestion and absorption occurs in the __________.

small intestine

The majority of water is absorbed in the

small intestine

majority of nutrient absorption occurs in _____.

small intestine

longest portion of the GI tract

small intestine, accounting for about two-thirds of its length. However, at only an inch in diameter, it is comparatively narrow.

recommended dietary allowance (RDA)

the average daily nutrient intake level that meets the nutrient requirements of 97% to 98% of healthy individuals in a particular life stage and gender group **scientists use the EAR to establish the RDA. In fact, if an EAR cannot be determined for a nutrient, then this nutrient cannot have an RDA. When this occurs, an Adequate Intake (AI) value is determined.**

Gastrointestinal system (GI)

the body system responsible for digestion of food, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of wastes GI tract begins at the mouth and ends at the anus It is a long, continuous tube composed of several distinct organs, including the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. The purposes of the muscles of the GI tract are to mix food, ensure efficient digestion and optimal absorption of nutrients, and move the intestinal contents from the mouth toward the anus.

Glucose is __________. a digestive enzyme secreted by the beta cells of the pancreas the form of sugar that our bodies use for energy broken down by digestion into polysaccharides and disaccharides

the form of sugar that our bodies use for energy

Which statement is FALSE about the Dietary Guidelines for Americans?

the guidelines are updated every 5 years

digestion

the process by which foods are broken down into their component molecules, either mechanically or chemically.

elimination

the process by which the undigested portions of food and waste products are removed from the body.

absorption

the process in which these products of digestion move through the wall of the intestine

quackery

the promotion of an unproven remedy, usually by someone unlicensed and untrained, for financial gain

nutrient density

the relative amount of nutrients per amount of energy (number of calories)

accessory organs of digestion

the salivary glands, liver, pancreas, and gallbladder, each of which has a specific role in the digestion and absorption of nutrients.

complex carbohydrates

the second major classification of carbohydrate, generally consist of long chains of glucose molecules. Technically, any carbohydrates with three or more monosaccharides are considered complex carbohydrates.

carbohydrates

the starches and sugars present in foods are the primary source of fuel for the human body, particularly for neurologic functioning and physical exercise Carbo- refers to carbon, and -hydrate refers to water. You may remember that water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen. Thus, carbohydrates are composed of chains of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

fructose

the sweetest natural sugar, occurs in fruits and vegetables

myPlate

the visual representation of the USDA Food Patterns and an interactive, personalized guide to diet and physical activity MyPlate can help Americans: Eat in moderation to balance Calories. Eat a variety of foods. Consume the right proportion of each recommended food group. Personalize their eating plan. Increase their physical activity. Set goals for gradually improving their food choices and lifestyle. myPlate components: *************************

carbohydrates

they are an important energy source for the entire body and are the preferred energy source for nerve cells, including those of the brain. chemical abbreviation: CHO carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

gestational diabetes

third form of diabetes developed in pregnant women

who should not consume aspartame

those with the disease phenylketonuria (PKU) This is a genetic disorder that prevents the breakdown of the amino acid phenylalanine. Because a person with PKU cannot metabolize phenylalanine, it builds up to toxic levels in the tissues of the body and causes irreversible brain damage. Advantame was approved as an alternative sweetener in 2014. It is Calorie-free and 20,000 times sweeter than sugar. Although derived from aspartame, it is so much sweeter that very little is used; therefore, it is considered safe for people with phenylketonuria to consume.

The Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS)

was established by the CDC to track lifestyle behaviors that increase our risk for chronic disease. The world's largest telephone survey, the BRFSS gathers data at the state level at regular intervals. Although the BRFSS includes questions related to injuries and infectious diseases, it places a particularly strong focus on the health behaviors that increase our risk for some of the nation's leading killers: heart disease, stroke, cancer, and diabetes. These health behaviors include: Not consuming enough fruits and vegetables Being overweight Using tobacco and abusing alcohol Not getting medical care that is known to save lives, such as screening exams These behaviors are of particular interest because it is estimated that 50% to 60% of deaths in the United States can be attributed to smoking, alcohol misuse, lack of physical activity, and an unhealthful diet.

sphincter

which are tight rings of muscle that open when a nerve signal indicates that food is ready to pass into the next section. The flow of food between organs in GI is controlled by sphincters

salivary amylase

which breaks down starch into smaller particles and eventually into the disaccharide maltose.

pectins

which contain chains of galacturonic acid and other monosaccharides. Pectins are found in the cell walls and intracellular tissues of many fruits and berries. They can be isolated and used to thicken foods, such as jams and yogurts.

Which of the following foods naturally contain(s) insoluble fibers that increase the bulk of digestive material and draw water into the large intestine, keeping the stools soft and moist? whole grains, cereals, and fruit dairy products, including yogurt and cheese fish chicken

whole grains, cereals, and fruit