Fallacies

Quoting Out of Context

Alias: Abstraction, Accent (not to be confused with Aristotle's fallacy of Accent); Type: Ambiguity; To quote out of context is to remove a passage from its surrounding matter in such a way as to distort its meaning. Examples: Dave and Kintaro are arguing about Stalin's reign in the Soviet Union. Dave has been arguing that Stalin was a great leader while Kintaro disagrees with him. Kintaro: "I don't see how you can consider Stalin to be a great leader. He killed millions of his own people, he crippled the Soviet economy, kept most of the people in fear and laid the foundations for the violence that is occuring in much of Eastern Europe." Dave: "Yeah, well you say that. However, I have a book at home that says that Stalin was acting in the best interest of the people. The millions that were killed were vicious enemies of the state and they had to be killed to protect the rest of the peaceful citizens. This book lays it all out, so it has to be true." See Straw Man & Appeal to Authority

Personal Attack

Alias: Ad Hominem Abusive; A personal attack is committed when a person substitutes abusive remarks for evidence when attacking another person's claim or claims. Examples: -In a school debate, Bill claims that the President's economic plan is unrealistic. His opponent, a professor, retorts by saying "the freshman has his facts wrong." -"This theory about a potential cure for cancer has been introduced by a doctor who is a known lesbian feminist. I don't see why we should extend an invitation for her to speak at the World Conference on Cancer." -"Bill says that we should give tax breaks to companies. But he is untrustworthy, so it must be wrong to do that." -"That claim cannot be true. Dave believes it, and we know how morally repulsive he is." -"Bill claims that Jane would be a good treasurer. However I find Bill's behavior offensive, so I'm not going to vote for Jill."

Appeal to Consequences of a Belief

Alias: Appeal to Consequences of a Belief Argumentum ad Consequentiam Translation: Argument to the consequences (Latin) Type: Red Herring an argument that concludes a premise (typically a belief) to be either true or false based on whether the premise leads to desirable or undesirable consequences. Arguing that a proposition is true because belief in it has good consequences, or that it is false because belief in it has bad consequences is often an irrelevancy. Since the irrelevancy of belief to truth-value is intuitively obvious, it is often suppressed in fallacious Arguments to the Consequences. However, one can tell that the fallacy is being committed because the supposed consequences do not follow from the proposition itself, but only from belief in it.

Guilt by Association

Alias: Bad Company Fallacy, The Company that You Keep Fallacy; Type: Red Herring; Fallacy in which a person rejects a claim simply because it is pointed out that people she dislikes accept the claim. Examples: Will and Kiteena are arguing over socialism. Kiteena is a pacifist and hates violence and violent people. Kiteena: "I think that the United States should continue to adopt socialist programs. For example, I think that the government should take control of vital industries." Will: "So, you are for state ownership of industry." Kiteena: "Certainly. It is a great idea and will help make the world a less violent place." Will: "Well, you know Stalin also endorsed state ownership on industry. At last count he wiped out millions of his own people. Pol Pot of Cambodia was also for state ownership of industry. He also killed millions of his own people. The leadership of China is for state owned industry. They killed their own people in that square. So, are you still for state ownership of industry?" Kiteena: "Oh, no! I don't want to be associated with those butchers!"

Appeal to Popularity

Alias: Bandwagon; fallacy in which a threat of rejection by one's peers (or peer pressure) is substituted for evidence in an "argument." -Everyone is selfish; everyone is doing what he believes will make himself happier. The recognition of that can take most of the sting out of accusations that you're being "selfish." Why should you feel guilty for seeking your own happiness when that's what everyone else is doing, too? "I read the other day that most people really like the new gun control laws. I was sort of suspicious of them, but I guess if most people like them, then they must be okay."

Biased Sample

Alias: Biased Sample; Type: Weak Analogy This fallacy is committed when a person draws a conclusion about a population based on a sample that is biased or prejudiced in some manner. Examples: -Bill is assigned by his editor to determine what most Americans think about a new law that will place a federal tax on all modems and computers purchased. The revenues from the tax will be used to enforce new online decency laws. Bill, being technically inclined, decides to use an email poll. In his poll, 95% of those surveyed opposed the tax. Bill was quite surprised when 65% of all Americans voted for the taxes. -The United Pacifists of America decide to run a poll to determine what Americans think about guns and gun control. Jane is assigned the task of setting up the study. To save mailing costs, she includes the survey form in the group's newsletter mailing. She is very pleased to find out that 95% of those surveyed favor gun control laws and she tells her friends that the vast majority of Americans favor gun control laws. -Large scale polls were taken in Florida, California, and Maine and it was found that an average of 55% of those polled spent at least fourteen days a year near the ocean. So, it can be safely concluded that 55% of all Americans spend at least fourteen days near the ocean each year. Sub-fallacy - Spotlight

Black and White Fallacy

Alias: Bifurcation, Black-and-White Fallacy, Either/Or Fallacy, False Dilemma; Type: Informal Fallacy; limited number of options (usually two) is given, while in reality there are more options; illegitimate use of the "or" operator. Examples: -Gerda Reith is convinced that superstition can be a positive force. "It gives you a sense of control by making you think you can work out what's going to happen next," she says. "And it also makes you feel lucky. And to take a risk or to enter into a chancy situation, you really have to believe in your own luck. In that sense, it's a very useful way of thinking, because the alternative is fatalism, which is to say, 'Oh, there's nothing I can do.' At least superstition makes people do things." -"Look, you are going to have to make up your mind. Either you decide that you can afford this stereo, or you decide you are going to do without music for a while."

One-sidedness

Alias: Card Stacking, Ignoring the Counterevidence, One-Sided Assessment, Slanting, Suppressed Evidence;Type: Informal Fallacy; presents only evidence favoring its conclusion, and ignores or downplays the evidence against it. Examples: -•Most major American newspapers aspire to a reputation for objectivity, or fairness, on their news pages. For instance, they restrict partisan political commentary to the editorial and op-ed ("opposite the editorial") pages. News stories, of course, are not usually arguments, so it would be—strictly speaking—incorrect to accuse a biased story of committing the fallacy of One-sidedness. Since it isn't an argument at all, it isn't a fallacious argument. But slanting in a news story may lead the reader into drawing false conclusions, which means that the story is a boobytrap, and the reader's reasoning is fallacious, albeit inadvertently. •Scholars are expected to examine all of the evidence and come to a conclusion. Thus, a one-sided lack of objectivity is a cardinal scholarly sin. This is why scholars should listen to others in their field even when—in fact, especially when—they disagree. It is only when scholars have heard and weighed all of the evidence, and considered all of the arguments, that they can come to an objective conclusion

Begging the Question

Alias: Circular Argument, Circulus in Probando, Petitio Principii, Vicious Circle; fallacy in which the premises include the claim that the conclusion is true or (directly or indirectly) assume that the conclusion is true. Examples: -Bill: "God must exist." Jill: "How do you know." Bill: "Because the Bible says so." Jill: "Why should I believe the Bible?" Bill: "Because the Bible was written by God." -"If such actions were not illegal, then they would not be prohibited by the law." -"The belief in God is universal. After all, everyone believes in God."

Hasty Generalization

Alias: Converse Accident; Type: Unrepresentative Sample; This is the fallacy of generalizing about a population based upon a sample which is too small to be representative Examples: Of course your columnist Michele Slatalla was joking when she wrote about needing to talk with her 58-year-old mother about going into a nursing home. While I admire Slatalla's concern for her parents, and agree that as one approaches 60 it is wise to make some long-term plans, I hardly think that 58 is the right age at which to talk about a retirement home unless there are some serious health concerns. In this era, when people are living to a healthy and ripe old age, Slatalla is jumping the gun. My 85-year-old mother power-walks two miles each day, drives her car (safely), climbs stairs, does crosswords, reads the daily paper and could probably beat Slatalla at almost anything.

Weak Analogy

Alias: False Analogy, Faulty Analogy, Questionable Analogy; Type: Informal Fallacy; Some arguments from analogy are based on analogies that are so weak that the argument is too weak for the purpose to which it is put. Subfallacies: Question-Begging Analogy, Unrepresentative Sample Examples: Efforts to ban chlordane assailed WASHINGTON (AP)--The only exterminator in Congress told his colleagues Wednesday that it would be a short-sighted move to ban use of chlordane and related termiticides that cause cancer in laboratory animals. Supporters of the bill, however, claimed that the Environmental Protection Agency was "dragging its feet" on a chemical that could cause 300,000 cancers in the American population in 70 years. "This bill reminds me of legislation that ought to be introduced to outlaw automobiles" on the grounds that cars kill people, said Rep. Tom DeLay, R-Texas, who owns an exterminating business. EPA banned use of the chemicals on crops in 1974, but permitted use against termites because the agency did not believe humans were exposed. Chlordane does not kill termites but rather drives them away. Source: Associated Press, June 25th, 1987

Non Causa Pro Causa

Alias: False Cause, Translation: "Non-cause for cause", Latin; Type: Informal Fallacy; most general fallacy of reasoning to conclusions about causality; inferring that something is the cause of something else when it isn't Examples: -Researchers at the Aabo Akademi found that Finns who speak the language of their Nordic neighbors were up to 25 percent less likely to fall ill than those who do not. -Morality in this nation has worsened at the same time that adherence to traditional Christian beliefs has declined. Obviously, the latter has caused the former, so encouraging Christianity will ensure a return to traditional moral standards

Middle Ground

Alias: Golden Mean Fallacy, Fallacy of Moderation; committed when it is assumed that the middle position between two extremes must be correct simply because it is the middle position Examples: -Some people claim that God is all powerful, all knowing, and all good. Other people claim that God does not exist at all. Now, it seems reasonable to accept a position somewhere in the middle. So, it is likely that God exists, but that he is only very powerful, very knowing, and very good. That seems right to me. -Congressman Jones has proposed cutting welfare payments by 50% while Congresswoman Shender has proposed increasing welfare payments by 10% to keep up with inflation and cost of living increases. I think that the best proposal is the one made by Congressman Trumple. He says that a 30% decrease in welfare payments is a good middle ground, so I think that is what we should support.

Red Herring

Alias: Ignoratio Elenchi, Translation: "Ignorance of refutation", Latin, Irrelevant Thesis; argument which distracts the audience from the issue in question through the introduction of some irrelevancy. Examples: -We admit that this measure is popular. But we also urge you to note that there are so many bond issues on this ballot that the whole thing is getting ridiculous." -"Argument" for a tax cut: "You know, I've begun to think that there is some merit in the Republican's tax cut plan. I suggest that you come up with something like it, because If we Democrats are going to survive as a party, we have got to show that we are as tough-minded as the Republicans, since that is what the public wants." -"Argument" for making grad school requirements stricter: "I think there is great merit in making the requirements stricter for the graduate students. I recommend that you support it, too. After all, we are in a budget crisis and we do not want our salaries affected." Subfallacies: Appeal to Consequences, Bandwagon Fallacy, Emotional Appeal, Genetic Fallacy, Guilt by Association, Straw Man, Two Wrongs Make a Right

Questionable Cause

Alias: Ignoring a Common Cause; to conclude that one thing causes another simply because the two are associated on a regular basis. This is a general type of fallacy. fallacies like Post Hoc and Confusing Cause and Effect are specific examples of the general Questionable Cause Fallacy. Examples: -Joe gets a chain letter that threatens him with dire consequences if he breaks the chain. He laughs at it and throws it in the garbage. On his way to work he slips and breaks his leg. When he gets back from the hospital he sends out 200 copies of the chain letter, hoping to avoid further accidents. -When investigating a small pond a group of graduate students found that there was a severe drop in the fish population. Further investigation revealed that the fishes' food supply had also been severely reduced. At first the students believed that the lack of food was killing the fish, but then they realized they had to find what was causing the decline in the food supply. The students suspected acid rain was the cause of both the reduction in the fish population as well as the food supply. However, the local business council insisted that it was just the lack of food that caused the reduction in the fish population. Most of the townspeople agreed with this conclusion since it seemed pretty obvious that a lack of food would cause fish to die.

Gamler's Fallacy

Alias: The Monte Carlo Fallacy, The Doctrine of the Maturity of Chances; committed when a person assumes that a departure from what occurs on average or in the long term will be corrected in the short term. Examples: -Bill is playing against Doug in a WWII tank battle game. Doug has had a great "streak of luck" and has been killing Bill's tanks left and right with good die rolls. Bill, who has a few tanks left, decides to risk all in a desperate attack on Doug. He is a bit worried that Doug might wipe him out, but he thinks that since Doug's luck at rolling has been great Doug must be due for some bad dice rolls. Bill launches his attack and Doug butchers his forces.

Post Hoc

Aliases: Post Hoc Ergo (Latin: "After this, therefore because of this.") Propter Hoc, False Cause, Questionable Cause, Confusing Coincidental Relationships With Causes; Type: Non Causa Pro Causa; committed when it is concluded that one event causes another simply because the proposed cause occurred before the proposed effect Examples: -The only policy that effectively reduces public shootings is right-to-carry laws. Allowing citizens to carry concealed handguns reduces violent crime. In the 31 states that have passed right-to-carry laws since the mid-1980s, the number of multiple-victim public shootings and other violent crimes has dropped dramatically. Murders fell by 7.65%, rapes by 5.2%, aggravated assaults by 7%, and robberies by 3%. -Joan is scratched by a cat while visiting her friend. Two days later she comes down with a fever. Joan concludes that the cat's scratch must be the cause of her illness. -The Republicans pass a new tax reform law that benefits wealthly Americans. Shortly thereafter the economy takes a nose dive. The Democrats claim that the the tax reform caused the economic woes and they push to get rid of it.

Ad Hominem

An Ad Hominem is a general category of fallacies in which a claim or argument is rejected on the basis of some irrelevant fact about the person presenting the claim or argument. Typically, this fallacy involves an attack against the character of person making the claim, their circumstances, or their actions. The attack is taken to be evidence against the claim or argument the person in question is making (or presenting). Example: Bill: "I believe that abortion is morally wrong." Dave: "Of course you would say that, you're a priest." Bill: "What about the arguments I gave to support my position?" Dave: "Those don't count. Like I said, you're a priest, so you have to say that abortion is wrong. Further, you are just a lackey to the Pope, so I can't believe what you say

Bandwagon

Class of Fallacy; Aliases: Appeal to Popularity, Argument by Consensus, Argumentum ad Populum, Authority of the Many; committed whenever one argues for an idea based upon an irrelevant appeal to its popularity. Bill says that he likes the idea that people should work for their welfare when they can. His friends laugh at him, accuse him of fascist leanings, and threaten to ostracize him from their group. He decides to recant and abandon his position to avoid rejection. Bill: "I like classical music and I think it is of higher quality than most modern music." Jill: "That stuff is for old people." Dave: "Yeah, only real woosies listen to that crap. Besides, Anthrax rules! It Rules!" Bill: "Well, I don't really like it that much. Anthrax is much better."

Appeal to Common Practice

It is a fallacy because the mere fact that most people do something does not make it correct, moral, justified, or reasonable.

Misplaced modifiers Example

One morning I shot an elephant in my pajamas. How he got into my pajamas I'll never know. -Source: Morrie Ryskind, spoken by Groucho Marx in the movie Animal Crackers. In the set-up of this joke, it's ambiguous whether the modifying phrase "in my pajamas" modifies "I" or "an elephant", though common sense suggests the former. Then, the amphiboly is exploited for humor in the punch line.

Ambiguity of scope

Scope Fallacy

Ambiguous reference of pronouns Example

The anthropologists went to a remote area and took photographs of some native women, but they weren't developed. -Source: Marilyn vos Savant, The Power of Logical Thinking (St. Martin's Press, 1996), p. 76. In this example, the pronoun "they" is ambiguous between the photographs and the native women, though presumably it was intended to refer to the former.

Appeal to Flattery

The basic idea behind this fallacy is that excessive compliments or praise are presented as a distraction in the place of evidence for accepting a claim.

Poisoning the well

This sort of "reasoning" involves trying to discredit what a person might later claim by presenting unfavorable information (be it true or false) about the person Examples: -I wish it were possible for men to get really emotionally involved in this question [abortion]. It is really impossible for the man, for whom it is impossible to be in this situation, to really see it from the woman's point of view. That is why I am concerned that there are not more women in this House available to speak about this from the woman's point of view. -"Don't listen to him, he's a scoundrel." -"Before turning the floor over to my opponent, I ask you to remember that those who oppose my plans do not have the best wishes of the university at heart." -You are told, prior to meeting him, that your friend's boyfriend is a decadent wastrel. When you meet him, everything you hear him say is tainted.

Amphiboly

Type: Ambiguity Linguistically, an amphiboly is an ambiguity which results from ambiguous grammar, as opposed to one that results from the ambiguity of words or phrases—that is, Equivocation. The fallacy of Amphiboly occurs when a bad argument trades upon grammatical ambiguity to create an illusion of cogency. Amphibolies are often linguistic boobytraps, but less frequently do they occur in fallacious arguments. There are at least the following distinct types of amphiboly:

Ad Hominem Tu Quoque

Type: Argumentum ad Hominem, Two Wrongs Make a Right, Red Herring This fallacy is committed when it is concluded that a person's claim is false because 1) it is inconsistent with something else a person has said or 2) what a person says is inconsistent with her actions. Tu Quoque is a very common fallacy in which one attempts to defend oneself or another from criticism by turning the critique back against the accuser. This is a classic Red Herring since whether the accuser is guilty of the same, or a similar, wrong is irrelevant to the truth of the original charge. However, as a diversionary tactic, Tu Quoque can be very effective, since the accuser is put on the defensive, and frequently feels compelled to defend against the accusation.

Appeal to Novelty

Type: Bandwagon; fallacy that occurs when it is assumed that something is better or correct simply because it is new. Example: James: "So, what is this new plan?" Biff: "Well, the latest thing in marketing techniques is the GK method. It is the latest thing out of the think tank. It is so new that the ink on the reports is still drying." James: "Well, our old marketing method has been quite effective. I don't like the idea of jumping to a new method without a good reason." Biff: "Well, we know that we have to stay on the cutting edge. That means new ideas and new techniques have to be used. The GK method is new, so it will do better than that old, dusty method."

Ambiguity

Type: Informal Fallacy As a logical fallacy, Ambiguity occurs when linguistic ambiguity causes the form of an argument to appear validating when it is not. As a feature of language, ambiguity occurs when a word or phrase has more than one meaning. Note! Because of the ubiquity of ambiguity in natural language, it is important to realize that its presence in an argument is not sufficient to render it fallacious, otherwise, all such arguments would be fallacious. Most ambiguity is logically harmless, a fallacy occurring only when ambiguity causes an argument's form to appear validating when it is not. Such an argument commits a Fallacy of Ambiguity (specifically, Equivocation), because it may seem to have a validating form when the audience interprets the ambiguous phrase univocally. Thus, arguments which commit the Fallacy of Ambiguity can seem to be valid.

Composition

Type: Informal Fallacy; committed when a conclusion is drawn about a whole based on the features of its constituents when, in fact, no justification provided for the inference. Examples: -Should we not assume that just as the eye, hand, the foot, and in general each part of the body clearly has its own proper function, so man too has some function over and above the function of his parts? -A main battle tank uses more fuel than a car. Therefore, the main battle tanks use up more of the available fuel in the world than do all the cars. -A tiger eats more food than a human being. Therefore, tigers, as a group, eat more food than do all the humans on the earth. -Atoms are colorless. Cats are made of atoms, so cats are colorless.

Division

Type: Informal Fallacy; committed when a person infers that what is true of a whole must also be true of its constituents and justification for that inference is not provided. Examples: -"The ball is blue, therefore the atoms that make it up are also blue." -"A living cell is organic material, so the chemicals making up the cell must also be organic material." -"Bill lives in a large building, so his apartment must be large." -The universe has existed for fifteen billion years. The universe is made out of molecules. Therefore, each of the molecules in the universe has existed for fifteen billion years

Special Pleading

Type: Informal Fallacy; fallacy in which a person applies standards, principles, rules, etc. to others while taking herself (or those she has a special interest in) to be exempt, without providing adequate justification for the exemption Examples: -Bill and Jill are married. Both Bill and Jill have put in a full day at the office. Their dog, Rover, has knocked over all the plants in one room and has strewn the dirt all over the carpet. When they return, Bill tells Jill that it is her job to clean up after the dog. When she protests, he says that he has put in a full day at the office and is too tired to clean up after the dog. -The law requires everyone to follow the speed limit and other traffic regulations, but in Suffolk County, exceptions should be made for cops and their families, police union officials say. Police Benevolent Association president Jeff Frayler said Thursday it has been union policy to discourage Suffolk police officers from issuing tickets to fellow officers, regardless of where they work. "Police officers have discretion whenever they stop anyone, but they should particularly extend that courtesy in the case of other police officers and their families," Frayler said in a brief telephone interview Thursday. "It is a professional courtesy."

Slippery Slope

Type: Non Causa Pro Causa; Alias: The Camel's Nose; fallacy in which a person asserts that some event must inevitably follow from another without any argument for the inevitability of the event in question. Examples: -"We have to stop the tuition increase! The next thing you know, they'll be charging $40,000 a semester!" -"The US shouldn't get involved militarily in other countries. Once the government sends in a few troops, it will then send in thousands to die." -"You can never give anyone a break. If you do, they'll walk all over you." -"We've got to stop them from banning pornography. Once they start banning one form of literature, they will never stop. Next thing you know, they will be burning all the books!"

Appeal to Emotions

Type: Red Herring This fallacy is committed when someone manipulates peoples' emotions in order to get them to accept a claim as being true.

Genetic Fallacies

Type: Red Herring; It is fallacious to either endorse or condemn an idea based on its past—rather than on its present—merits or demerits, unless its past in some way affects its present value. Examples: -"The current Chancellor of Germany was in the Hitler Youth at age 3. With that sort of background, his so called 'reform' plan must be a facist program." -"I was brought up to believe in God, and my parents told me God exists, so He must." -"Sure, the media claims that Senator Bedfellow was taking kickbacks. But we all know about the media's credibility, don't we."

Two Wrongs Make a Right

Type: Red Herring; a logical fallacy that occurs when it is assumed that if one wrong is committed, another wrong will cancel it and the first wrong "justifies" an action against a person Examples: -The operation cost just under $500, and no one was killed, or even hurt. In that same time the Pentagon spent tens of millions of dollars and dropped tens of thousands of pounds of explosives on Viet Nam, killing or wounding thousands of human beings, causing hundreds of millions of dollars of damage. Because nothing justified their actions in our calculus, nothing could contradict the merit of ours. -After leaving a store, Jill notices that she has underpaid by $10. She decides not to return the money to the store because if she had overpaid, they would not have returned the money. -Jill is horrified by the way the state uses capital punishment. Bill says that capital punishment is fine, since those the state kill don't have any qualms about killing others.

Straw Man

Type: Red Herring; the arguer is attempting to refute his opponent's position, and in the context is required to do so, but instead attacks a position—the "straw man"—not held by his opponent. Example: Some of you may have seen the 90-minute ABC network television show...entitled "Growing Up in the Age of AIDS".... I was one of nine guests on that live program.... ...[A] single 45-second sound bite cost me a long journey and two hectic days in New York City. Why...did I travel to The Big Apple for such an insignificant role? ...I felt a responsibility to express the abstinence position on national television.... How sad that adolescents hear only the dangerous "safe sex" message from adults who should know better. What follows, then, is what I would have said on television.... Why, apart from moral considerations, do you think teenagers should be taught to abstain from sex until marriage? ...[N]ot one of 800 sexologists at a recent conference raised a hand when asked if they would trust a thin rubber sheath to protect them during intercourse with a known HIV infected person. ... And yet they're perfectly willing to tell our kids that "safe sex" is within reach and that they can sleep around with impunity.

Funny Fallacy

Unintentionally ambiguous statements are frequently sources of humor, especially when one of the possible meanings is ludicrous. For example: Police blotter; Sent city police out at 11:38 a.m. to kick kids off the roof of a downtown furniture store.

BoobyTrap

While not always a fallacy, ambiguity is frequently misleading. For instance, in the much publicized statement by President Clinton: "I did not have sexual relations with that woman, Miss Lewinsky." Source: Howard Kurtz, Spin Cycle: Inside the Clinton Propaganda Machine (Touchstone, 1998), p. 297. This claim was testimony, rather than argument, so it cannot be fallacious. However, it is now clear that it was intended to snare the listener into concluding, falsely, that there was no sexual relationship between the President and Miss Lewinsky. The ambiguity came from the phrase "sexual relations", which has a broad and narrow meaning: 1.A sexual relationship 2.Sexual intercourse As he later admitted, President Clinton had had "sexual relations" with Miss Lewinsky in the broad sense (1), and he was denying it only in the narrow sense (2).

Appeal to Fear

a fallacy in which a person attempts to create support for his or her idea by using deception and propaganda in attempts to increase fear and prejudice toward a competitor; common in marketing and politics.

Appeal to Spite

a fallacy in which someone attempts to win favor for an argument by exploiting existing feelings of bitterness, spite, or schadenfreude in the opposing party.

Appeal to Pity

a fallacy in which someone tries to win support for an argument or idea by exploiting her or his opponent's feelings of pity or guilt.

Misleading Vividness

fallacy in which a very small number of particularly dramatic events are taken to outweigh a significant amount of statistical evidence Example: -Joe and Drew are talking about flying. Joe: "When I was flying back to school, the pilot came on the intercom and told us that the plane was having engine trouble. I looked out the window and I saw smoke billowing out of the engine nearest me. We had to make an emergency landing and there were fire trucks everywhere. I had to spend the next six hours sitting in the airport waiting for a flight. I was lucky I didn't die! I'm never flying again." Drew: "So how are you going to get home over Christmas break?" Joe: "I'm going to drive. That will be a lot safer than flying." Drew: "I don't think so. You are much more likely to get injured or killed driving than flying." Joe: "I don't buy that! You should have seen the smoke pouring out of that engine! I'm never getting on one of those death traps again!"

Circumstantial Ad Hominem

fallacy in which one attempts to attack a claim by asserting that the person making the claim is making it simply out of self interest. Examples: -"She asserts that we need more military spending, but that is false, since she is only saying it because she is a Republican." -"I think that we should reject what Father Jones has to say about the ethical issues of abortion because he is a Catholic priest. After all, Father Jones is required to hold such views." -"Of course the Senator from Maine opposes a reduction in naval spending. After all, Bath Ironworks, which produces warships, is in Maine."

Appeal to Tradition

fallacy that occurs when it is assumed that something is better or correct simply because it is older, traditional, or "always has been done."

Appeal to Authority

lias: Appeal to Authority, Argument from Authority, Argumentum ad Verecundiam Translation: "Argument from respect/modesty" (Latin) Ipse Dixit Translation: "He, himself, said it" (Latin) Type: Genetic Fallacy This fallacy is committed when the person in question is not a legitimate authority on the subject. An appeal to authority may be inappropriate in a couple of ways: -It is unnecessary. If a question can be answered by observation or calculation, an argument from authority is not needed. Since arguments from authority are weaker than more direct evidence, go look or figure it out for yourself. -It is impossible. About some issues there simply is no expert opinion, and an appeal to authority is bound to commit the next type of mistake. -The "authority" cited is not an expert on the issue, that is, the person who supplies the opinion is not an expert at all, or is one, but in an unrelated area. -The authority is an expert, but is not disinterested. That is, the expert is biased towards one side of the issue, and his opinion is thereby untrustworthy. -While the authority is an expert, his opinion is unrepresentative of expert opinion on the subject. The fact is that if one looks hard enough, it is possible to find an expert who supports virtually any position that one wishes to take.

Appeal to Ignorance

lias: Argument from Ignorance Argumentum ad Ignorantiam Type: Informal Fallacy An appeal to ignorance is an argument for or against a proposition on the basis of a lack of evidence against or for it. If there is positive evidence for the conclusion, then of course we have other reasons for accepting it, but a lack of evidence by itself is no evidence.

Appeal to Ridicule

logical fallacy which presents the opponent's argument in a way that appears ridiculous