Family and Relationships Unit 2

stats of those who live in poverty

14.7% of non-Hispanic white, 16.8% of Asian, 39.6% of African American, 27.5% of Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, 36.8% of American Indian or Alaska Native, and 34% of Hispanic children

What is needed to address the issues?

Adequate Wages Quality, Affordable Elder and Childcare Family Leave Fair and Flexible Scheduling

Regardless of class

African American parents will have to discuss prejudice

Teenagers

Begin to create a sense of self and resolving conflict. Parents generally take a step back to allow for individual identity to develop

Collectivisitic

Conformity to the larger community's values

Raising Children in the Context of Prejudice

Discrimination adds to stress parents may already be feeling Parents fear about safety of children

Maintaining Supportive Social Networks and Life Satisfaction

For singles, it's important to develop and maintain supportive social networks of friends and family. Single people place high value on friendships, and they are also major contributors to community services and volunteer work

Doing Paid Work at Home

Home-based work has increased dramatically over the past decades. Telecommuting is much more common now than ever.

Macro Level factors

Larger level factors. Example: Company policies

Work place factors

Maternity and Paternity Leave Work Related Stress Work place policies

African American Parents

Tend to be more authoritarian Behaviors, attitudes and hopes tend to be more similar across social class than cultural

Making Changes

There is little consensus among policy makers, employers and parents about appropriate and reasonable solutions

Advice can be contradictory. How do parents separate good from bad?

Weight, academic achievement, emotional and behavioral development ect

Waite found that children in married families:

Were about half as likely to drop out of high school. Reported more frequent contact and better-quality relationships with their parents. Were significantly less likely to live in poverty.

All decisions are influenced by

social conditions that expand or limit one's options -Family education and income have more influence on parenting behaviors and children's outcomes than do race/ethnicity or family structure.

The wage gap

the difference in earnings between men and women. Women on average earned 79% of what men earned in 2014. It varies considerably depending on occupation and tends to be greater in the more elite, higher paying occupations. For instance, in 2014 women corporate chief executive officers (CEOs) averaged $1,811 weekly, compared with $2,266 for men.

heternormativity

the idea that heterosexuality is the only normal, acceptable or real option LGBT court victory for same sex marriage is challenging heternormativity

Selection effect

the situation in which individuals "select" them- selves into a category being investigated—

Stigma against non-marital childbearing has

weakened Less pressure to get married in the event of an accidental pregnancy More cohabitating couples plan for children

In heterosexual relationships,

women bring up issues in the relationship 80% of the time; 85% of stonewallers were men.

Social and Cultural Changes

-Emerging adulthood: People spend more time in higher education or exploring career options than in the past. -It is now widely accepted that young people will have sexual intercourse before marriage. As American culture gives greater weight to autonomy, many find that single-hood is more desirable than marriage. -Being unmarried has become an acceptable option, rather than the deviant lifestyle that it was once thought to be. -Cohabitation is emerging as a socially accepted alternative to marriage. -Getting married is no longer the only way to gain adult status. -Marriage has become less strongly defined as permanent

Economic changes

-Expanded educational and career options for college-educated women have led many to postpone marriage. -Middle-aged, divorced women with careers tend to view marriage as a bad bargain once they have gained financial and sexual independence. -The fact that many men's earning potential has declined, relative to women's, may make marriage less attractive to both genders. -Growing economic disadvantage and uncertainty make marriage less available to many who might want to marry but feel they can't financially afford it.

Technological Changes

-With effective contraception, sexual relationships outside marriage, without great risk of unwanted pregnancy, became possible. -New conception technologies offer the possibility for planned pregnancy to unpartnered heterosexual women as well as same-sex couples.

what does it mean to be single

-many college students think of "being single" as not being in a romantic relationship. -some believe that "being single" means to have never been married. -to the US Census Bureau, single simply means unmarried

Mothers spank more often than fathers

1/3 of fathers and 44% of mothers reported spanking their children in the previous 2 weeks

Having first emerged as a remote possibility in the 1970s, legal marriage for same-sex couples became a reality in

2015

Child Care by Relatives, Especially Grandparents

30% of children with employed mothers are care for by grandparents 13% by other relative or older sibling African Americans tend to rely more heavily on kinship networks than other cultures

Golden rule of couples interactions: 5 to 1

5 Positive Interactions for every 1 Negative interaction

Fair and Flexible Scheduling

50% of Americans belief companies should offer more fair and flexible scheduling

Legal Same-Sex Marriage

800,000 same-sex households in 2014; of these, about 25% are married couples. The Netherlands became the first country to allow same-sex marriage (in 2000). At least 20 other countries have since followed suit. Same-sex marriage became legal in the United States in 2015.

Multiracial parents stats

83% of white mixed with another race 34% of black mixed with another race 25% of American Indian mixed with another race 30% of Asian mixed with another race

Negative Affect

: Sadness, anger, disgust, tension, fear, whining, contempt, belligerence and defensiveness High Intensity Affect: Contempt, Belligerence, Defensiveness Low Intensity Affect: Sadness, Anger, tension, whinin

Parenting Style

A general manner of relating to and disciplining children, generally combining parental warmth and parental expectations

Institutional marriage

A social institution based on dutiful adherence to the time-honored marriage premise, particularly the norm of permanence -Family organized around economic production, kinship network, community connections, the father's authority, and marriage as a functional partnership

Working Part-Time

About 26% of women and 13% of men worked part time in 2014. Childcare problems impact work arrangements significantly Part-time mothers of preschoolers evidence better health and more sensitive and involved parenting than do other mothers, both employed and stay-at-home moms.

Foster Parenting

About 402,500 children are in foster care in the United States. A significant portion of foster care takes place in a trained and licensed foster parent's home. Some specialized foster family homes are available for children with specific and complex emotional or medical needs. Children stay in foster care for an average of two years; the mean age of children in foster care is about eight years.

Single Mothers

About 44% of births occur to unmarried women. -15-20% are uncoupled or not in a romantic relationship Single mothers are aware that to be married is the cultural ideal. A private safety net is associated with children's better adjustment. Many single mothers choose further education. However, the stresses of single parenthood often result in less effective parenting behaviors.

In a classic analysis, social scientist Alice Rossi wrote that the transition to parenthood is very difficult for several reasons

Abrupt change to 24-hour duty Interruptions in sleep, work, leisure time Less time together as a couple May not have adequate supports Declines in emotional/sexual relationship

Intimate Partner Violence

Acts of verbal, physical, proximal, sexual or financial control, as well as verbal, physical or sexual aggression

what group historically was the mostly likely to cohabitate

African americans

Outcomes of spanking

Aggression, behavioral problems, substance use and abuse of one's own children Outcomes tend to differ by race: African American parents and their children tend to have not worse outcomes from physical discipline whereas European American children exhibit problematic behavior

Jumping the Broom

Although controversial because it can be a reminder of slavery, jumping the broom at African American weddings is going through some revival as couples plan wedding rituals that incorporate their cultural heritage

Single Fathers

Among families with children under age 18, about 4.7 percent are single-father families Typically assumed role because they "stepped up" Often do not rely on extended family support, preferring to "make it" on their own Resist and challenge stereotypes of masculinity and parenting

Shift Work and Variations

Any work schedule in which more than half an employee's hours are before 8 a.m. or after 4 p.m. In one-quarter of all two-earner couples, at least one spouse does shift work; one in three if they have children. With just-in-time scheduling, companies call in employees to work exactly when they are needed, often at the last minute. Shift work is associated with a decrease in marital stability.

Why Do People Cohabit?

As a prelude to marriage As an alternative to marriage As an alternative to being single

Parenting Adult Children

As children age relationship become less contentious and closer Young adults delayed transition to adulthood can cause stress within parents resulting in poorer life satisfaction Adult children are often provided financial resources by their parents for rent, mortgage, downpayment on a house, students loans, credit card debt Many adult children return to the home (or never leave)

Two-Earner Partnerships and Work-Family Options

As recently as 1968, there were equal proportions of dual-earner and provider-housewife couples: 45% of each. Today, two-earner partnerships, in which both partners are in the labor force, are the statistical norm among married couples.

No-Drama Discipline

Ask why did my child act this way? What lesson do I want to teach in this moment? How can I best teach this lesson

Poverty level parents tend to work

At minimum (or less than) wage jobs With inconsistent hours and commitment Without access to health care Multiple jobs

Legal Same-Sex Marriage cont

Before same-sex couples could marry legally, many identified as spouses anyway. Demographically, many same-sex couples who identify as spouses are much like heterosexual marrieds. However, not all same-sex couples want to marry. Some lesbians and gays think legal same-sex marriage will stigmatize any sex outside marriage.

Europe remains steadfast in the idea of paid leave

Belief system: social welfare orientation that its citizens inherently deserve certain rights. More family focused

In collectivistic cultures, arranged marriages are far more common

Belief: Marriage involved the joining of two families is too big of a decision for one individual to make Becoming infatuated/lustful can make a poor longterm partner

SES differences

Better access to neighborhood resources More access / more choose to access parenting materials such as books or internet Higher SES parents are more prone to hyper-parenting/helicopter parenting

Nonresident Fathers

Biological or adoptive fathers who do not live with one or more of their children Majority maintain some presence in their children's lives, though it declines over children's lifetimes, especially for daughters Involvement largely depends on relationship with the mother

Confuncian training doctrine

Blends love, concern, involvement and physical closeness with strict and firm control Use of guilt shame and moral obligation

Happiness, Well-Being, and Life Satisfaction: How Does Marriage Matter?

Both husbands and wives are far more likely than others to say they are "very happy" Reasons for this include: Economy of scale Enhanced social support Continuity

who gets spanked

Boys under the age of 2 were spanked the most often

Paid, Non-relative Childcare Arrangements

By the time children are in school 44% have been in paid, non-relative childcare -In home caregiving: caregiving lives in or comes to house daily -Family caregiving: caregiving provided in the family's home -Center care: going to a day care Center care is generally more structured than family or in home caregiving

Investment of time and enegy into the family

Can be challenging when both parents work and as children age. Parents become more established in their jobs and children begin to engage in extra-curricular activities

Parents today are raising their children in a society with conflict values.

Children are exposed to a variety of different values through TV, internet, peers and other adults. Outside, and contradictory influences can tough to navigate Overwhelming info on parental influence on child outcomes.

Selecting a Childcare Facility

Children in nonrelative quality day care may actually benefit in terms of cognitive and linguistic skills when compared with low-income children cared for by their parents. State laws establish minimal standards, and professional organizations have guidelines for quality child care.

Parents face challenges and difficulties, and can make mistakes.

Children, however, are resilient—that is, they can demonstrate the capacity to recover from or rise above adverse situations and events.

Cohousing

Co-housing started in Denmark and spread to the United States in the early 1980s. Cohousing complexes typically provide private areas with communal kitchens and often have community gardens.

Why cohabitation

Cohabitation is a prelude to or a "trial" marriage More than 2/3 married couples lived together before marriage Same percentage of adolescents thought cohabitation was a "good idea" Cohabitation is view as a part of the marriage process Cohabitation as an alternative to marriage Definitions are personally constructed rather than through a social construction

Differences Among Cohabitators and Married Couples

Cohabitators are less alike in social characteristics than married couples Cohabitating men work less than married men Cohabitating women tend to be older than their male partners and make more money than married women Cohabitating individuals tend to have more progressive attitudes towards gender roles Cohabitating relationships tend to be short in duration -Couple either breaks up or marries

More Depth in Cohabitation

Cohabitators tend to be less educated, earn less money and less likely to own their own homes, have more permissive attitudes towards sex, and have multiple living arrangements as kids than their married counterparts

the Cohabiting Relationship

Cohabiters are less homogamous than marrieds and are twice as likely as marrieds to be interracial. For a variety of reasons, cohabiting relationships are relatively short-term. Relationship quality of "long-term" cohabiting couples (together for at least 4 years) differ little from marrieds in conflict levels, amount of interaction, or relationship satisfaction

Characteristics of Cohabiters

Cohabiters are younger, less educated, earn less income, and are likely to have relatively permissive attitudes toward sex. Nonhispanic whites have a slightly higher rate of cohabitation than African Americans and Hispanics. About 75% of cohabiters are younger than 45, though the proportion of middle-aged cohabiters has increased over the past two decades.

Are there any down falls to cohabitation as opposed to marriage?

Commitment during conflict. Social Exchange Theory

Trends have changed marriages and 3 typologies have emerged

Compassionate Individual Institutional

Hispanic Parents

Complimentary roles: fathers are authority figures and mothers are caretakers. Tend to be more authoritarian compared to European Americans

Family Well-Being Depends on Positive Communication Habits

Conflict itself cannot be free from conflict. Some individuals have a partner who chooses not to learn to face conflict positively. Not every conflict can be resolved. If an unresolved conflict is not crucial, then the two may have to accept inability to resolve that issue.

Experts advise relationship-focused coping

Conflict should be viewed as challenges to be met rather than avoided Anger should be expressed directly

The Wage Gap

Coupled heterosexual women are more likely than men to limit their labor force participation. Even if she has no plans to do so, however, women must still contend with employers' assumptions that she will opt out of the labor force to care for her children. The motherhood penalty: Motherhood has a tremendous negative lifetime impact on earnings.

Positive communication patterns

Couples and Families are able to effectively discuss both positive and negative aspects of their lives and resolve conflict Confirm validate and accept one another

The Institutional Marriage Bond

Couples are "yoked" together by high expectations for permanence, bolstered by the strong social control of extended kin and community.

Companionate Marriage Bond

Couples are bound together by companionship, coupled with a gendered division of labor, pride in performing spousal and parenting roles, and hopes for "the American dream"—a home of their own and a comfortable domestic life together.

Tag Team Handoffs

Couples with children change responsibilities daily (or more often) based on their individual schedules. Timing of exchanges is the key element Example: one parent drops their kid off at hockey practice and the other parent picks them up

Adequate Wages

Current minimum wage: $7.25 or $14,500 annually If minimum wage rose accordingly with other salaries, it would be $23 per hour Many states (and corporations) have raised the minimum wage above $7.25 -Target's minimum wage is $11 and has promised to be $15 by 2020 18 State increased minimum wages in 2018 Some have suggested that raising the minimum wage will cost some employees their jobs to compensate for the increase

Deinstitutionalized Marriage: Examining the Consequences

Demographer Linda Waite compared married and unmarried households and reported that spouses: Had greater wealth and assets. Earned higher wages. Had more frequent and better sex. Had overall better health. Were less likely to engage in risk-taking. Had lower rates of substance abuse. Were more likely to engage in healthy behaviors.

Developments and Change in Society Surrounding Work and Family

Desire for emotional satisfaction within the family Leaving home for employment opportunities

Race Socialization

Developing children's pride in their cultural heritage Preparing children about the possibility of discrimination

dinner time

Dinner may be less important and couple/family members than creating leisure time to spend with other members Traditions such as birthday, anniversaries, graduations, promotions and celebrations are important

growth of mothers in the labor force attributed to

Economic recession Increasing rates of single motherhood Increase in women's education

Hierarchial parenting

Emotional support coupled with respect for parental authority Emphasis on collectivistic rather than individualistic Family cohesion is important and can reduce stress Important to teach traditions to children

Same-Sex Parents

Emphasize their similarity to heterosexual parents. Their children are as well-adjusted as children with heterosexual parents. Typically have regular contact with extended family (e.g. ex-husbands, grandparents, ect.) However, their children sometimes experience prejudice from friends, classmates, or teachers. Such stigmatization is associated with certain psychological problems, though close friendships can lessen this association.

What Do Children Need

Encouragement Adequate nutrition and shelter Parental interest in their schooling Consistency in rules and expectations Guidance congruent with the child's age or development level

what group has the highest rates of cohabitation today

European americans

Gender Role Hypothesis

Even among changes in gender roles women still contribute more household work Engaging in traditional, gender based household labor (e.g. women cook and clean and men fix the broken shower) reinforces gender roles Men may do housework if their partner is a breadwinner to psychologically neutralize their gender role deviance (e.g. doing more housework)

The Time-Honored Marriage Premise: Permanence and Sexual Exclusivity

Expectations of permanence derive from the fact that historically marriage was a practical institution. In the United States today, marriage seldom involves merging two families' properties. Providing love and ongoing emotional support has become key for most people.

Ten Guidelines

Express anger directly and with kindness. Check out your interpretation of others' behaviors. To avoid attacks, use "I" statements. Avoid mixed or double messages. When you can, choose the time and place carefully. Address a specific issue, ask for a specific change, and be open to compromise. Be willing to change yourself. Don't try to win an argument. Practice forgiveness. End the argument.

Ten Rules for Successful Relationships

Express love verbally. Be physically affectionate. Express your appreciation. Help the relationship or family to become an emotional support system. Express your affection in material ways. Accept your family members' shortcomings. Do unto each other as you would have the other do unto you. Share more about yourself with your partner than you do with any other person. Make time to be alone together. Do not take your relationship for granted.

Verbally and nonverbally open

Expressed appreciation for one another Doing what is best for other members

High degree of commitment

Families shared a common identity or meaning Define family beliefs, values, events and rituals Symbolic Interactionist Perspective Social Media has help increase commitment (e.g. skype

Homeless Families

Families with children are among the fastest-growing segments of the homeless population.

Deal positively in crisis

Family members are able to see something good in bad situations Effectively navigate the crisis together

Workplace Obstacles to Involvement

Fathers jobs often require long hours and off hours electronic access Employers have beliefs that employees especially males should allow family responsibilities to interfere with work Men would typically prefer to work less but not have much of a choice -Coworkers resent and challenging masculinity Men can lie to get out of working to attend to family obligations

Doing Fatherhood cont

Fathers more typically play with and participate in more leisure activities with children. Better educated fathers with more satisfying jobs showed a higher level of parenting engagement. Experiencing workplace stressors adds to fathers' stress, resulting in less effective parenting.

Doing Fatherhood

Fathers' involvement leads to positive cognitive, emotional, and behavioral outcomes Fathers' absence leads to adverse effects on children's cognitive, moral, and social development

Group or communal living

Financial considerations and the desire for companionship encourage romantically involved singles to share households.

Time with Children

Finding time for themselves can be difficult for all mothers. One way that mothers cope with time pressures is by taking their babies to exercise classes.

Toward Better Couple and Family Communication

First step: Consciously recognizing how important the relationship is. Second step: Setting realistic expectations about the relationship. Third step: improving our own: emotional intelligence - awareness of what we're feeling so that we can express our feelings more authentically ability and willingness to repair our moods healthy balance between controlling rash impulses and being candid and spontaneous sensitivity to the feelings and needs of others

The First Years of Marriage

First years of marriage tend to be the happiest, with gradual declines in marital satisfaction afterward. Reasons for this decline may include Life cycle stress as children arrive The inevitable decline from the emotional intensity of falling in love

organization of institutional marriage

Generally organized under the premise of patriarchy Men had the power and women were subservient

The Whole-Brain Child

Help children connect their emotional brain with their logical brain Help children tell the story of a trauma, let them see the sequence of events, their emotions throughout, and the resolution

Asian American Parents

Highest income of all racial/ethnic groups Tends to have an authoritarian parenting style Emphasis of obedience Use of physical discipline Increased praise and physical affection Similar experiences of discrimination

Psychological Parent

Holds major emotional responsibility for safety and upbringing

Parenting adult children cont

How much money will the adult child contribute What are standards on neatness Who is responsible for cleaning Who will cook and when What about noise levels Friends/Girlfriends staying over

Cohabitators tend to be lower SES which is a risk factor for

IPV

stats for number of men and women

In 1910 there were nearly 106 men for every 100 women. In 2012, there were about 96 men for every 100 women. Beginning with middle-age, there are increasingly fewer men than women. Sex ratio differs somewhat for various racial/ethnic categories.

Percentage of people that are unmarried, 1970 verses now

In 1970, fewer than 28% of U.S. adults were single; today, there are as many singles as married people.

Married-Couple Families with Stay-at-Home Father

In 2010, about 154,000 married-couple families had a stay-at-home father This situation is largely seen as a norm violation, despite gender role changes Experiences speak to joys and challenges of parenting

Stay-at-Home Moms

In 2015 about 26% of heterosexual, coupled mothers with children under age 15 were not in the labor force (compared with 46% in 1970). Today's generation of new professional mothers is more likely than their own mothers to plan career pauses or limit their working hours.

Weaker Kin Relationships

In Western societies, Kin has a much weaker influence Husband-Wife dyad takes precedence over kinship Kinship is viewed through family of orientation (their own family) and family of procreation (family formed by marriage)

Middle and Upper-Middle Class Parents

Increased resources that may benefit children such as hired help, monitoring equipment and are more likely to live in neighborhoods conducive to raising children

Work-Family Conflict in the Twenty-First Century

Increasing mismatch between our economic system and the needs of American families American workers lead the industrial world in the number of hours worked. The inability to escape relentless work demands correlates with depression, anxiety, and couple conflict.

Transnational Families

Increasing numbers of transnational families Transnational families can have members in multiple countries Work to keep culture alive of their homeland Legislation hostile towards undocumented immigrants

Deinstitutionalized Marriage: The Policy Debate: a decline view

Individualism has caused moral weakening and self-indulgence and as a result are less likely to choose marriage, are more likely to divorce, and are less child-centered

Living Alone

Individuals living alone make up over one-quarter of U.S. households—up from 8% in 1940. The likelihood of living alone increases with age in all racial/ethnic groups and is markedly higher for older women than for older men

Challenges to multiracial parenting

Insensitive remarks about physical appearance related to parents Tension between parents and children's cultural values

Children's Outcomes

Instability with cohabitation (intermittent cohabitation) is related to problematic outcomes for children. Cohabiting parents spend less on their children's education than do marrieds. Adolescents are more likely to experience earlier premarital intercourse, higher rates of school suspension, and antisocial and delinquent behaviors. Compared to single-parent homes, children do benefit economically.

Hyperparenting:

Intensive Parenting the "Hurried Child" Hyperparenting or intensive parenting: Hovering above and meddling excessively in their children's lives. -The over-scheduled or "hurried child" is forced to assume too many challenges and responsibilities too soon. Hurried children may achieve in adult ways at a young age, but they also suffer the stress induced by the pressure to achieve. Or they may "drop out" and abandon goal-directed academic and/or extracurricular activity

Progressive: involved fathers model

Involved fathers work fewer hours than childless men so they can participate more at home. Being an involved father is not easy. Employers often do not support men taking time off work for family. Stay-at-home dads stay home to do domestic work while their wives are employed; they make up a small minority of men.

four characteristics distinguish individualized marriage:

It is optional. Spouses' roles are flexible—negotiable and renegotiable. Its expected rewards involve love, communication, and emotional intimacy. It exists in conjunction with a vast diversity of family forms.

Fathers likely feel stress too

Jobs are even more inflexible regarding paternity leave. Fathers tend to have to leave new mothers on their own due to job demands However fathers today spend far more time with their new babies today than in years past

We are still feeling effects of 2007 recession

Jobs are more likely to be part time Family wealth is about 1/3 of what it was prior to recession More jobs are being moving overseas

Creating Couple Connection

Keep relationship a high priority. Supportive and positive communication. Enjoy leisure activities together. Consciously and continuously strive to maintain intimacy.

Weakened Kinship Authority

Kin includes parents and other relatives, such as in-laws, grandparents, aunts and uncles, and cousins. Some cultures have fictive kin such as friends who are indistinguishable from family

Tactics Used by Fight Evaders

Leaving the house or the scene when the fight threatens. Turning sullen and refusing to argue or talk. Derailing arguments, e.g. "I can't take it when you yell at me." Using the hit and run tactic of filing a complaint and leaving no time for a resolution. Saying "okay, you win" without meaning it.

Facts about Families: Legal Same-Sex Marriage as a Successful Social Movement

Legal marriage for gay and lesbian couples became a frontline issue after 1991 upon the formation of the Equal Rights Marriage Fund. Many religious conservatives strongly oppose legal same-sex marriage. Some proposed a constitutional amendment defining marriage as between one man and one woman. Despite such opposition, public support for legal same-sex marriage has grown since the mid-1990s.

Unpaid Family Work

Less housework is being done now than in the past. Men's share of housework is greater than in the past. Women still average more household-labor hours than men do

Singles: Their various living arrangements

Living Alone Living Apart Together Living with Parents Group or Communal Living

Living apart together

Living apart together (LAT): A couple is engaged in a long-term relationship but each partner maintains a separate dwelling. Difficult to ascertain number of these relationships, but it is clearly emerging in the U.S.

Authoritarian Parenting Style

Low on emotional warmth and nurturing High on parental direction and control More likely to spank children or use otherwise harsh punishment

Permissive Parenting Style

Low on parental direction or control High on emotional nurturing Characterized as indulgent and leading to a "spoiled" child

The War on Poverty

Lyndon Johnson's War on Poverty, begun in the 1960s, substantially reduced the child poverty rate by the 1970s. In the 1970s, the child poverty rate began to rise again, then fell after 1993 only to rise again in the 2000s. The War on Poverty offered structural strategies to decrease poverty.

Some Current Policy Measures

Many current policy makers propose job training, support for education, good jobs, drug rehabilitation, neighborhood improvements, and the like as remedies for poverty. Some make a distinction between marital stability and family stability—supporting children and their parents in whatever family form they find themselves. Co-parenting educational initiatives may help promote family stability.

Quality, Affordable Health Care

Many employees have young children and aging parents requiring their attention. Many people quit their jobs to attend to family responsibilities. Others have turned down promotions or switched to part-time work 25% of companies now offer benefits to employee's elderly parents as a recruitment tool

Unintended Consequences

Maternity leave may dissuade companies from hiring women Providing childcare may require lower pay for employees Change is unlikely to be effective at the company level rather at the governmental and policy

Parents give too much financially to their children

May feel they are doing whats best for their children (trophy kids) Probably overcompensating for their own experiences

helicopter parenting may be influenced by

Maybe influence by increasing use of standardized tests, athletic programs for children as young as 3, teaching babies to read at 3 months old Children are denied free playtime, given rigorous schedules and taking on too many challenges

Relative Time Available

Men who work more tend to do less household work and men who work less tend to do more household labor Unemployed men do more than double the household labor of employed men

Cohabitation and Intimate Partner Violence

More intimate partner violence among cohabitaters than among marrieds. Prominent selection effect exists

poverty cont

More than 14.7 million U.S. children under age 18 live at or below the poverty line. Millions more live in "near poor" conditions (125% of poverty level). Residing with married parents does significantly lessen the likelihood of growing up in poverty. However, marriage alone is not sufficient to alleviate poverty. Plus, a majority of unmarried families do not live in poverty.

Cohabitating Parents and Outcomes for Children

More than half of all nonmarital births occur to cohabiting mothers. In 2015, 39% of cohabiting heterosexual households contain children under age 18. Having a child while cohabiting does not necessarily increase a couple's odds of staying together, but conceiving a child during cohabitation and then marrying before the baby is born does increase union stability.

Doing Motherhood

Mothers engage in more hands-on parenting than do fathers. -Adolescents are more likely to name their mother as their primary confidant Take primary responsibility for children's upbringing. Mothers define quality time as having heart-to-heart talks or engaging in child-centered activities. Fathers define quality time as being at home, and being available if needed.

Infants:

Need a consistent and responsive caregiver. Infants develop through touch, cooing, and responsiveness of caregiver. Discipline is, under no condition, acceptable. Infants do not have capacity to understand discipline

Social fathers

Nonbiological fathers in the role of fathers, such as stepfathers Does not improve the adolescents' outcomes when compared with living in a single-mother household

A Change View

Nostalgia about the "good old days" leads to incorrect assumptions. For example, large families with many children and higher death rates for parents with young children meant many children were not raised in two-parent households.

Tend to struggle with

Not owning their own home Housing instability Neighborhood struggles Less emphasis on education

cohabitation and family life

One of the most important changes in family life in the past 40 years By 2013, an estimated 65 percent of women aged 19 to 44 had cohabited—up from 33 percent in 1987. This trend is expected to increase.

Why is negative affect important?

One partner displays negative affect (e.g. whining) the other partner will likely reciprocate with a similar response. Creates a cycle of reciprocation and escalation Sometimes when one partner displays negative affect, the other partner response with a more intense form of negative affect

Socioeconomic Status (SES)

One's position in society, measured by educational achievement, occupation, and/or income

Children's behavior problems may mimic parent's conflict styles

Overt parental conflict leads to behavioral problems (externalizing symptoms) Covert parental conflict leads to emotional problems (internalizing symptoms)

Paid Childcare Concerns

Paid care is becoming more common in higher income families -Wide range of costs up to $17,000 per year ---More expensive for infants than older children ---Costs more than a four year college with in-state tuition ---1/5 of family's budget allocated to child care

Parenting from the Inside Out

Parent's respond to their child based on their own past experiences, must learn to separate this (the high road vs. the low road

Parenting Difficulties

Parenting role conflicts with the working role: parents are unable to be fully attentive to their children as they were previously. Balance of juggling work and family

Neglectful/Disengaged/Uninvolved

Parents are low on both warmth and monitoring. "latch-key child" Parents provide little or no emotional support in addition to not being aware of their children activities

Parenting paradox

Parents are overwhelmed but motivation of having a healthy child places them in the position of being overwhelmed

Positive factors influencing parenting

Parents have higher level of education today than in the past, including formal knowledge about child development and child-raising techniques. Fathers are more emotionally involved than several decades ago. Fewer children exposed to violent crime than in the past. The Internet provides information for parents regarding just about any situation. Communication technologies allow for more contact and engagement.

Helicopter Parenting

Parents who hover over their children, meddle excessively are overly involved or protective in children's lives "Stage Moms"

Power Hypothesis

Partners with more power do less housework

Indirect expressions of anger

Passive-Aggression: Expressing anger indirectly Sabotage: Getting revenge or "payback" Displacement: A person directs anger at people or things that the other cherishes

Polygamy

Polygamy has been illegal in the United States since 1878, when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that freedom to practice the Mormon religion did not extend to having multiple wives. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints no longer permits polygamy. Some dissident Mormons follow the traditional teachings and take multiple wives.

Authoritative Parenting Style

Positive Parenting Warm, firm, and fair Combines emotional nurturing and support with conscientious parental direction Children do better in school and are socially competent.

Occupational segregation

Pronounced tendency for men and women to be employed in different types of jobs

Physical punishment is not limited to spanking

Pushing, Shoving Grabbing, punching, kicking, throw or smash things

Women in workforce after WW2

Rates decreased after World War 2 after husbands came back from the war Rates increased again in the 1970s (a majority of women were employed by 1979) Families were more reliant on second income Increased divorce rate

Role-Making

Refers to personalizing a role by modifying or adjusting the expectations and obligations traditionally associated with it. The process of role-making must continue throughout marriage. Potentially problematic topics couples must deal with: money, sexual frequency, and the amount of time spent together.

Families benefit from shelters, but these too can be stressful.

Regulations regarding bedtimes, mealtimes, keeping children quiet; requirement that children be kept with parent at all times

Two Career Partnerships

Remember differences between career and jobs -Couples with career partnerships have demanding jobs with high levels of commitment needed to both relationship and job -Typically require education beyond a bachelors degree -1/3 of men work more than 50 or more hours a week -"Power Couple" Most people view it is a possible and plausible option

Conflicts can end in constructive ways from the children's perspective.

Seeing a breakdown then seeing it being resolved is helpful for children's development

Single Mothers Continued

Single mothers are excellent at creating social networks to help with finances, child care and general needs Also rely on kinship networks such as extended family Social and Kinship networks are considered a safety net which is associated with better child outcomes. Most often, those who need the most assistance are in kinship and social networks than can provide the least amount of resources because their own circumstances preclude them from doing so High levels of financial and emotional stress leads to poorer child outcomes rather than the family structure.

Communes

Situations or places characterized by group living

Micro Level Factors

Smaller level factors. Example: politics in the office workplace Spillover: the impact pleasures and stress translate from work to family and from family to work (e.g. high job stress leads to poorer interactions with children). LGBTQ friendly work environment decreases anxiety at home whereas non friendly environment increases anxiety

Living with parents continued

Some believe young people have been "coddled" and are unprepared for life as independent adults. Others cite the trend of "emerging adulthood" as a prime reason. Today's parents may expect to serve as "collaborators" in their children's transition to adulthood. However, conflict between parents and adult children can be an issue.

Spanking

Spanking refers to hitting a child with an open hand without causing physical injury. Analysis of data from the 13,000 respondents in the National Survey of Families and Households show that about one-third of fathers and 44% of mothers had spanked their children during the week prior to being interviewed. Recent research shows that corporeal punishment has generally negative effects.

Spirituality/Orientation

Spirituality/Orientation

four stage process of cohabitation

Stage 1: Vast majority of heterosexuals marry without cohabiting first. Stage 2: More people cohabit, but mainly as a form of courtship before marriage. Stage 3: Cohabiting becomes a socially acceptable alternative to marriage. Stage 4: Cohabitation and marriage become virtually indistinguishable. Social scientists believe the U.S. is currently transitioning from stage 2 to stage 3.

Women's Work and Family Roles

Stagnant and declining earnings for men in the second part of the 20th century led more families to rely on a second earner. Historically, black women have been more likely than non-Hispanic whites to work for wages, but white women are beginning to close this gap. Mothers of young children were the last women to move into the labor force.

Women: Work and Family Roles

Starting in 1890, women began to enter the work force Industrialization gave rise to corporations and subsequent clerical work without enough men available Textile industry believe women to be more effective at making household products

Fatherhood

Stay-at-home-fathers -154,000 stay at home fathers in 2010 Men began losing their jobs during the recession and became more involved fathers Many of those fathers have opted to stay out of the work force to remain stay-at-home fathers Wives increasingly are breadwinners and would be cheaper for fathers to stay home compared to day care -Still viewed as violating social norms

Four (Five) Horsemen of the Apocalypse

Stonewalling: You refuse to take a partner's complaints seriously; avoidance Defensiveness: Preparing one's self for an anticipated attack in the future Criticism: You make disapproving judgement or evaluations of your partner Contempt: You feel your spouse is inferior or undesirable Belligerence (added later): You challenge the other's power or authority

Transmission of Problematic Interactions

Stress affects a person on a physiological level, it makes it harder to regulate emotions and makes "small" things feel much bigger (i.e., overreacting, yelling, violence) Stress leads to family conflict, which leads to child problems

ABC-X family stress model

Stressors (A) + family resources (B) + the family's sense of seriousness of the problem (C) = crisis (X). Family cohesion is a resource (B) and family conflict is a lack in this resource

Optimal parenting involves

Supportive family communication Involvement in a child's life and school Private safety nets Adequate economic resources Workplace policies that facilitate a healthy work-family balance Safe and healthy neighborhoods Society-wide policies that bolster all parents

Swinging

Swinging is a marriage arrangement in which couples exchange partners in order to engage in purely recreational sex. Swingers often face the challenge of managing jealousy, but they empathize what they see as the positive effects, such as variety.

Family Leave

THIS IS NOT SCHOLRALY Sweden has 480 days of paid leave. America has roughly 84 Leave may be paid or unpaid Paid leave is more common in higher income jobs and less or unavailable in working class jobs What about independent contractors

Double bind

Take pride in ones own culture but also rising against their culture to advance in mainstream culture Hispanic: strong family tied competing with individualization of America Native Americans: Leaving reservation in favor of economic opportunities

Native American Parents

Tend to have a permissive parenting styles Some have viewed it as neglectful Traditional Native American culture emphasizes individuality and autonomy Use of warmth, persuasion, ridicule or shaming as opposed to corporal punishment High levels of community support

With regard to marriage, an individualist orientation resulted in three developments:

The authority of kin and extended family weakened. Individuals began to find their own marriage partners. Romantic love came to be associated with marriage.

Male provider role

The economic provider of the family predominated into the 1970s Consistent across social class Belief is still very much present Men work more hours and are more likely to work full-time. Heterosexual men continue to be primary breadwinners in the majority of couples.

Living with Parents

The percentage of young adults living at home has increased dramatically since 2000. Reasons are both cultural and economic. Boomerangers—adult children who had previously left home but then returned. About 25% of boomerangers report the situation is bad for their relationship with their parents; 25% say it is good; 50% say it has not affected their relationship. About 60% of parents have positive things to say about their adult children moving back home.

Marital Status, Poverty and Child Outcomes: Does Marriage Matter?

The proportion of children under 18 living with two married parents declined steadily over the past 50 years. Considerable research supports the overall conclusion that growing up with married parents is better. However, this is a complex relationship mediated by several factors.

demographic changes

The sex ratio—number of men to women in a given society or subgroup—Influences marital options and single-hood Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries the United states had more men than women -Today this is reversed due to changes in immigration patterns and greater improvement in women's health.

Juggling Employment and Family Work

The typical dual-earner family is a hectic one. This is particularly true when children are in the home. Employed parents put in a second shift of unpaid family labor.

Positive affect

The verbal or nonverbal expression of affection. Divorce can be predicted by examining how well spouses show they are interested in each other. Partners should respond positively and enthusiastically when something positive happens to the other one.

Cohabiting Same-Sex Couples

There are about 800,000 same-sex couple households in the U.S. Nearly one-fifth have children. Twice as many female same-sex couples as male same-sex couples have children. About 80,000 same-sex couples are in civil unions or registered as domestic partners. Today, between 55-60% of Americans favor legal marriage for same-sex couples.

Cohabitating tends to decrease relationship satisfaction

There is uncertainty about commitment, less defined norms and unequal fairness regarding finances There is little difference in relationship satisfaction between long term cohabitators and married couples Older cohabitators tend to be more satisfied than younger cohabitators Less conflict in relationships moving towards marriage than those that are indefinite

Family cohesion

Togetherness, the emotional bonding that couples and family members have toward one another -A family can have too much cohesion (an enmeshed family) or too little (a disengaged or disconnected family).

Transition to Parenthood

Transition to parenthood can be difficult for a number of reasons, including upset schedules and lack of sleep. New parents feel overwhelmed while inspiration to overcome their stress is provided by the stressor itself—the child as a source of profound delight.

Options for Working Couples

Two-career partnerships Part-time employment Shift work Working at home

Cohabitation compared to being single

Uncommitted cohabitators: living together without a serious commitment or overt future plans Little is known about cohabitation particularly in regards to being single.

Social Policy, Work, and Family

Undesirable financial conditions Parental stress due to work-family conflict Persistent gender inequality in work-family division of labor

Talking to Children By Applying Brain Science (from Dan Seigel)

Use curiosity and connection to help children develop their brains and manage emotions

People are living longer and parents often take care of their children and also their elderly parents. Caregiving can increase life satisfaction but can also add stress

What factors might play a role in this? Work/Life balance, attention and energy needed for both caregiving system, family of origin. Women are more likely to be caregivers as are the oldest children

Gender and the Work-Family Interface

When social institutions are not well integrated, individuals who play roles in both institutions experience role conflict. For example, an employed parent needs to be 1) home to monitor a teenager's after-school behavior and 2) at work.

Permanence

With few exceptions marriages are expected to be lifelong -Think of marital vows Expectations of permanence views were derived from marriage as a practical institution -Raising children -Economic advantages -Emotional Support

Partners Relative Earning Hypothesis

Wives earn slight more than 1/3 of total income (up from approximately 25% in 1970) Women may compensate with unpaid household work As income becomes more equal between men and women so do household roles and labor Heterosexual breadwinning women have partners who contribute more household labor

Household Labor

Women are mainly responsible for health behavior work: Making family dental appointments, monitoring eating habits, etc. They also disproportionately organize family activities perform kin keeping activities—maintaining contact with family members, remembering birthdays and anniversaries, and so forth.

Mothers in the Labor Force

Women of young children were the last to enter the workforce because of the high levels of child dependence By 1970, women who had children between 6 and 17 were in the workforce (75% in 2013) Today, 58% of women with children under the age of 1 are in the workforce

Post-Partum depression

Women with histories of depression are at increased risk for development of post partum depression

Changing gender roles have impacted priorities for men and women in the workforce

Women, in comparison to men, reported that professional success was more important in 2015. 2015 was the first time women reported more desire to being professional successful compared to men.

Spanking cont

Younger, less-educated parents in households with more children and less social support, parents who argue a lot with their children, sociopolitical conservatives, and parents who live in violent neighborhoods are more likely to spank. Some experts advise against EVER spanking The American Academy of Pediatrics advises that children less than 2 years old and adolescents never be spanked.

Husbands are more likely to get spousal support from their wives than wives from their husbands if there is

a family run business

When done right, conflict is

a good thing in relationships

change in percentage of people that are unmarried is due to

a growing proportion of widowed elderly, a high divorce rate, young adults postponing marriage, along with a growing incidence of cohabitation.

Marriages may lead to

a loss of personal identity, marriage is too confining or stifles equality or the endpoint of a relationship.

Multi-partnered fertility

a person's having children with more than one partner.

Deinstitutionalized Marriage

a situation in which time-honored family definitions and social norms "count for far less" than in the past -E.g., childbearing outside of marriage now carries little stigma.

The Polyamory Society's Children Educational Branch offers

advice for polyamorous parents and maintains a PolyFamily scholarship fund.

Today, fathers are expected to

also actively participate in the child's care.

Larger companies in the US

are beginning to integrate family friendly workplace including onsite child care, family leave, and support groups. Not widely available

Historically, fathers have been

been breadwinners, not expected to be engaged in daily activities/responsibilities.

Therapists suggest to be at least somewhat independent

before cohabitating -this runs contrary to people cohabitating for financial reasons

Expectations of sexual exclusivity have

broadened to include expectations of emotional centrality, or putting one's partner first.

Grandparents As Parents

children under 18 are living in a grandparent's household. About 11% of U.S. grandparents are raising grandchildren. Formal kinship care systems can help grandfamilies.

Second generation immigrants tend to have

culture clash between "Americanism" and their heritage -May feel like outsiders Culture clash with parenting practices, particularly physical discipline

For both marrieds and long-term cohabiters, relationship satisfaction

declines with the addition of children to the household.

The female-demand/male-withdraw pattern leaves both partners feeling misunderstood,

decreasing marital satisfaction.

Marriage gap

disparity in marriage rates between the poor and well off

one important reason for marital status shift is

economic

"Accordion" families provid3

economic and emotional/social functions.

There has been less ecological and community support for children since more individuals and couples are

electing to not have children. Less public funding for parenting programs

traditional: good providor model

emphasize the provider role and work more hours than men with no children.

swinging

exchanging partners for sex

Couples demonstrate different relationship ideologies

expectations for closeness and/or distance as well as ideas about how partners should play their roles. -Couples also differ in their attitudes toward conflict. What matters is whether the partners' actual interaction matches their ideology.

Even the happiest and most committed couples

experience conflict. Research shows that an essential characteristic of happy couples involves disclosure of feelings and showing affection for one another. Positive Affect during conflict predicts satisfaction

Higher educated people tend to have

fewer children, display less anxiety and concerted cultivated (development of children's individual talents and skills -More praise, increased conversations, clubs, sports and activities and read to them

Spouses in individualized marriages remain together because they

find self actualization, intimacy, and expressively communicated emotional support in their unions.

The proportion of Americans age 18 and over who are married has declined significantly in the last 50 years

from 72 percent in 1960 to 49 percent in 2014. People are also much more likely to be older at age of first marriage.

Childcare

fulltime care and education of children 6 and under, care before and after school and during school vacations and overnight care when parent's travel

Center care

generally have hours that don't accommodate some job schedules (e.g. abnormal work schedules or traveling) Also poses a problem when children are sick More parents are using "patched" child care utilizing a variety of methods but can increase stress

To be a "good spouse" bring in income was more than twice as important for

husbands compared to wives

Parents are given full responsibility for raising "good" children but their authority is often questioned, placing them in a no win situation, which is particullary important for

immigrant parents who have different cultural values such as physical discipline that may e construed as abuse or neglect

Cohabitators are just as likely to engage in

in IPV as married couples and more likely than dating couples not living together

This leads to poorer parenting practices

inconsistent discipline limited parental warmth or involvement lower levels of trust and communication Poorer child outcomes result. Having social support diminishes this adverse relationship.

Individualistic

individual's own values are important

Marriages have shifted from

institutional to compassionate to individualized.

Single income became less and less able to provide everything a family needs therefore

it became increasingly necessary for women to be in the workforce

Kinship is strong in

lower and higher SES families as well as recent immigrants but middle class tend to rely less on Kinship Hispanics for example are beginning to adopt the value the immediate, couple based values

consequences of poverty

malnutrition; unhealthy neighborhoods; increased physical , socioemotional, and behavioral problems; less academic success; and increased exposure to violence.

Polyamory

many loves

It is only recently that love has become associated with

marriage, especially with the newly developing middle classes.

Polyamory refers

marriages in which one or both spouses retain the option to sexually love others in addition to their spouse.

polygny

men can have many wives (less common)

Female-demand/male-withdraw pattern

men tend to withdraw when faced with a complaint from a partner, while women do not

Percentage men and women ages 18 to 34 living with a parent or relative

men: decreased from 1940 to 1960, increased slightly from then til now women: similar trend, but lower overall

Marriage in the United States legally requires

monogamy, along with expectations of sexual exclusivity, in which spouses promise to have sexual relations only with each other.

Polygamy

more than one spouse -polygny -polyandry

Unresolved conflict

negatively impacts children Children will manifest emotional and behavioral problems Will take on a mediator role often parenting their own parents

Experts advise a balanced level of cohesion

one that combines a reasonable and mutually satisfying degree of emotional bonding with individual family members' need for autonomy.

Polyamorous spouses agree to

openly acknowledge sexual relationships with others while keeping the marriage relationship primary.

Stress that parents experience—from sources such as job demands, financial worries, concerns about neighborhood safety, feeling stigmatized due to stereotypes—causes

parental frustration anger and depression increasing likelihood of household conflict

Psychological aggression may be a stronger predictor of relationship dissolution compared to

physical aggression

Selection hypothesis

posits that many of the benefits associated with marriage result from the personal characteristics of those who choose to marry.

Pre-school and school aged children

practice advanced motor involvement and speech. They need structure to discern acceptable from unacceptable behavior.

Gender differences

qtend to act as "relationship barometers." Expressions of love are defined and perceived mostly on feminine terms (e.g., verbally). Deborah Tannen's book You Just Don't Understand argued that men typically engage in report talk (aimed mainly at conveying information) while women are likely to engage in rapport talk (speaking to gain or reinforce rapport or intimacy).

Highest cohabitation rates are among those with the least strongest

religious values

Increased use of

sabbaticals, "flexible culture" and employee friendly policies for both parents and non-parents

African Americans are more likely than European Americans to

spank their children even within the same social class Physical discipline is more accepted

Flextime

starting and ending at varying time with a set of "core" required hours -Reduces spillover from work-family conflict

other options

telecommuting, compressed work weeks (four 10 hour days instead of give 8 hour days). Emergency responders tend to have 2 days on, 2 days off or similar

The experience hypothesis holds

that the experience of being married itself causes these benefits.

If relationship was high quality prior to parenthood, however

the transition was easier

Industrialization took individuals away from

their families starting the transition from a joining of families and economics to love Traditionally, people fell in love but they were not expected to fall in love

Middle aged cohabiters are more likely

to have been divorced and have less desire to marry May be more financially beneficial for middle aged and older adults to cohabitate

Employed mothers with established egalitarian relationships with husbands may find their role becoming more

traditional

Parents' suppressing negative emotions in front of their kids actually causes them to

transfer those emotions to their child, and prevents kids from learning how to regulate their own emotions

Job sharing

two people doing one job.

Cohabitation

unmarried couples living together

Characteristics of Cohesive Families

verbally and nonverbally open high degree of commitment dinner time deal positively in crisis

In Westernized (individualistic) societies, kinship authority is

weak. Sociologist Talcott Parsons noted that in the American kinship system married people are members of their family of orientation and their family of procreation. -Extended family has been the basic family unit in most non-European countries.

Jobs typically held by men and women differ within major occupational categories

with men more likely to hold the upper-level jobs. Women are more likely to occupy the lower-paying ranks. For example: doctors versus nurses, lawyers vs paralegals

Polyandry

women can have multiple husbands (even less common)