Family Violence Module 3

battering among lesbians of color (kahuna 2005)

-"Triple jeopardy.... As women living in a sexist society, as lesbians living in a homophobic society, and as people of color living in a racist society forms a complex web of silence and vulnerability with very little protection" (pg. 76-77) -Barriers to help-seeking 1.fewer service providers who are competent and sensitive to the issues of lesbians, women of color, and domestic abuse 2.Reluctance to report to law enforcement, call the police, press charges, etc. 3.May lack social support across each community they are part of

Cult of Domesticity

-"arguments of biological inferiority led to pronouncements that women were incapable of effectively participating in the realms of politics, commerce, or public service. in return for a husband's provision of security and protection, which by physical nature she required, the true woman would take on the obligations of housekeeping, raising good children, and making her family's home a haven of health, happiness, and virtue" americainclass.org -gender hierarchy, definitions of masculinity and femininity

prone to anger

-"serial abusers"; batterers who move from one relationship to the next and abuse each partner -most abusers have a history of violence that their partner is unaware of -being prone to anger is an early warning sign

other risk factors

-the absence of family and support systems in the receiving country reduces possibilities for domestic violence intervention or assistance, and exacerbates battered immigrant women's entrapment -the context in which migration occurs can compound vulnerability- for example, "mail order brides", forced marriages, and/or wide age differentials -poverty, access to finances, and employment situations -language barriers and social isolation -patriarchal ideologies, traditional gender roles, and gender unequal social order

prevalance

-some evidence suggest that transgender individuals may be particularly vulnerable to IPV -one study finds that half or 50% of transgender individuals studied reported violence - physical and sexual- in their intimate partner relationships

economic dependency as a result of abuse

-sometimes economic dependency is a direct result of the control tactics employed by the abuser -they may prevent their partner from working -may demand control over their paychecks -beatings may result in missed days at work -abusers may show up at the workplace, leading to the victim being fired

Intimate Partner Violence

definition: physical, emotional, psychological, and/or sexual abuse that takes place between intimate partners -may be married or in a long-term committed relationship, or they may be dating -may or may not be living together -could be separated, divorced, or broken up -includes heterosexual individuals and LGBTQ individuals *IPV occurs between two people who claim, or claimed, to love each other

risk factors at the individual level

perpetration: -witnessing IPV during childhood -Being a victim of child abuse -Substance abuse or addiction -Poverty, low income and/or unemployment -History of incarceration -History of anger management problems -Belief in strict gender roles -Desire for power and control in relationships -Exposure to high levels of discrimination victimization: -Being a victim of child abuse -Substance abuse or addiction -Poverty, low income, and/or unemployment -Becoming pregnant as a teen -Early sexual initiation -Exposure to high levels of discrimination

COVID 19 and IPV

-COVID-19 has exacerbated health disparities, mental health problems, such as anxiety and depression, and created a global economic recession -it has created a unique ongoing disaster context with severe impacts to daily life including exposure to an increased range of stressors and reduced access to protective factors -it has been reported that the pandemic further compounds another epidemic, IPV -before lockdown, the WHO estimated that 1 in 3 women globally experienced physical or sexual violence by an intimate partner in their lifetime -although lockdown was necessary to slow the transmission of the virus, they may have contributed to increased risk and severity of IPV -the UN Population Fund estimates a 20% increase in IPV globally due to quarantine and lockdowns -social distancing, isolation, and stay at home orders increased the time individuals spend alone with abusers -external stressors such as unemployment or housing instability, created or exacerbated by the pandemic likely contributed to increased relational conflict and risk for IPV

race, class, gender analysis

-Dominant ideologies of both masculinity and femininity pervade the ideological landscape for everyone in the US -However, marginalized groups may resist dominant ideologies, develop non- conforming ideologies, or are excluded from its practice -Historically, and today, we see that white middle and upper class women employ Black women and Latina women as domestics to ensure domestic success -As a result, these women have had less time and energy to focus on their own homes and children -Further, the opportunity to be a stay-at-home mother has eluded most women of color and poor whites even when the cult of domesticity was at its peak

the peak of the cult of domesticity

-During the Great Depression, and WW2, increasing numbers of women participated in the workforce to support their families and the nation -When men returned from war, women were displaced from the labor market -Several forces coalesced to reinforce that women's role should be relegated to the home and that being a good woman = being a good homemaker and mother 1. plus, wages at the time were such that more families could survive on a sole income 2.ideological dominance of the cult of domesticity in the 1950s

masculinity, femininity, and power

-Gender relations are hierarchical and rely on social construction of difference, and the organization of inequality based on those differences -Definitions of femininity and masculinity pre/proscribes particular behaviors and opportunities for women and men, and reinforces and justifies the unequal gender structure in society -Further, the relationship of domination and subordination between hegemonic masculinity (e.g., strong, leader) and femininity (e.g., physically vulnerable, helper) results in the devaluation of women (Cannon et. al., 2015) -Definitions of masculinity and femininity also create power imbalances that play out interpersonally -This power imbalance and hierarchy create conditions ripe for IPV

institutional racism and IPV among native americans

-Historic maltreatment of Native American populations contribute to higher levels of IPV -Colonialism, genocidal efforts by the US government, including state-sanctioned assimilation -Loss of culture, tradition & land, historical trauma, and social marginalization may explain the increased prevalence of substance and alcohol abuse which are proximal risk factors for IPV -Lack of resources and isolation of reservations -Further, lack of tribal jurisdiction over non-Native perpetrators of violence until recently contributed increased vulnerability among native women

johnson's typology

-Johnson argued that there are four ideal types of IPV -Intimate terrorism and situational couple violence are the most common -intimate terrorism refers to a dynamic in which one partner is violent, coercive, and controlling towards the other. This type of violence is severe, usually escalates over time and is primarily perpetrated by men against women -Situational couple violence describes violence that is perpetrated by both partners and tends to be bidirectional. This type of violence is relatively infrequent and is not embedded within a pattern of coercive control -Mutual violent control is a dynamic in which both partners are violent and controlling. This dynamic is relatively rare -Violent resistance describes violence that is perpetrated in self- defense against a partner who is both violent and controlling. Most often perpetrated by women -created to reconcile two dominant, yet contradicting lines of research -family violence research: perpetration and victimization rates are similar for men and women (relied on large, community-based samples and used the CTS) -feminist research: victimization much higher and more severe among women, mostly at the hands of men (relied on samples of battered women, in hospitals and shelters, and police data -johnson's solution: these two lines of research were oversampling two different types of IPV--> situational couple violence and intimate terrorism ****important notes -Given their findings, family violence scholars argue that IPV is gender symmetric because both men and women were found to perpetrate it to an equal extent -Echoing these scholars, Johnson & co. refer to situational couple violence as gender symmetric -Other scholars have argued that, this type of violence should not be considered gender "symmetrical" -Gender plays a role in shaping all of social life, including all types of IPV -"bidirectional asymmetrical violence

marginalization and help seeking - courts

-LGBTQ individuals face challenges in the court system as well. -According to the textbook, about half of all LGBTQ victims of IPV report that they were denied orders of protection. -Until very recently, some state statutes prevented individuals in same gender relationships access to orders of protection -In many states, there is no statute explicitly against discrimination. A judge's own prejudice or belief in stereotypes about LGBTQ individuals might influence their decision

cultural factors

-socially constructed beliefs about masculinity and femininity contributes to IPV -these beliefs emanate from, reinforce, and serve to justify gender stratification, in which men have greater power and more access to resources --> gender arrangements require on going cultural and organizational effort -these beliefs contribute to the gendered impact of economic factors we have already discussed - men's economic triggers and women's economic independence

race, femininity, and IPV

-Research suggests that oppressive images of Black women leads to greater justification of IPV against them and less empathy from helping agencies (West, 2004). Kimberle Crenshaw (1991) argued that these narratives suggest Black women's experiences of rape are less important and/or less believable -Dasgupta (2002) suggests that stereotypes of Asian and Latina women, particularly immigrant women, leads to beliefs that they are tolerant of male domination. This othering that allows their needs and concerns to be ignored at institutional levels. -Further, victimhood is intimately tied to traditional notions of womanhood, which has been defined by white norms. Thus, being understood as a "true" victims is more accessible to white women -Beyond the home, gendered racial stereotypes may increase violence against women of color

femininity today

-Since the sexual revolution and women's rights movements, women have entered the labor force in large numbers and have greater control over their reproductive lives (e.g. birth control, abortion rights) -However, the cult of domesticity still remains important in defining core features of our current dominant definitions femininity and gender roles -Regardless of their employment status, women feel pressure to and continue to do more household labor, child care, emotional and cognitive labor -A lack of work and national policies accounting for the rise in women's paid labor force participation/dual employed couples, assuming that someone is caring for family, pushes women out of the labor force Femininity today -Defining work/public sphere/breadwinning as a core feature of masculinity and home/private sphere/homemaking as a core feature of femininity--> masculinity = independent; femininity = dependent -Further, we continue to see "advice" given to women that they should respect the authority of their male partner at all costs--> masculinity = dominant; femininity = submissive -This leads to a power imbalance at the macro (economic, political, social) level and micro (relationship) level that creates conditions ripe for IPV

risk factors at the societal level

-Social stratification, inequality, and oppression based on social status (class, race, gender, age, sexuality, etc.) 1.Unequal distribution of political, economic, and social resources 2.ideologies, cultural norms, and beliefs that arise from and perpetuate stratification and inequality (e.g. gender expectations, stigma of non-hetero orientations, racialized tropes and images, etc.) -Social norms about violence -Social norms about family privacy

good news

-The House of Reps recently passed an amendment that would create the first grant program dedicated to supporting LGBTQ survivors of domestic violence, sexual assault and stalking. -Although LGBTQ victims were included in the VAWA 2013 reauthorization, this amendment would dedicate funding to services and initiatives specifically focused on the needs of LGBTQ individuals -Would also strengthen existing protections for transgender women to access women's shelters and serve in prisons that match their gender identity. -Whether congress will reauthorize VAWA with these new provisions remains to be seen

macro level: capitalism, the labor market, and inequality

-The labor market in the US is stratified by race, class, and gender -History: 1.When Europeans first colonized what would become the US, the economy was agricultural - small family farms and plantations 2.Women played an important role on small farms, but were relegated to certain tasks 3.Planters enslaved individuals of African descent, and generated huge profits off their backs 4.After the Industrial Revolution, new forms of work emerged but many employers discriminated based on gender and race 5.during WW1 and WW2, greater numbers of women and black men were hired for factory work -when soldiers returned, women and black men were relegated to low status jobs and were paid inferior wages. black women faced constrained opportunities -the consequences persist: 1.occupational sex segregation--> wage discrimination and economic inequality 2.institutional racism and gendered-->wage discrimination and economic inequality

QUICK REVIEW

-When battering became a topic of public concern, mainstream IPV advocacy and research focused largely on heterosexual couples and suffered from other short comings that prevented a comprehensive understanding of IPV -Further theorizing, research, and activism continues to expand our understanding IPV 1.The impact of intersecting identities and oppressions 2.A more nuanced understanding of gender 3.Awareness of risk and protective factors across multiple, interactive ecological domains 4.different types of IPV

masculinity, femininity, and heteronormativity

-When gay men or lesbians experiencing IPV seek help from law enforcement or social service agencies, they have to contend with the beliefs that those agents have about who is an "appropriate" victim, which shaped by definitions of masculinity and femininity, and heteronormativity -Police are more likely to make an arrest in a lesbian relationship when one partner has even minor injuries. This may be because the female victim fits the officer's conception of victim, even when the perpetrator is female. -Police are more likely to arrest in a gay relationship when there are significant injuries in evidence. This may be because a male victim does not fit the officer's concept of victim even with the perpetrator is a male. -Individuals may not recognize their own victimization because of the dominant constructions

immigration status as a power and control mechanism

-it is the resident spouse's responsibility to file immigration papers for their immigrant spouse, but many battered immigrant women report that their partner failed to do so -the abuser can threaten to report his spouse's undocumented status, withdraw residency petition, or refuse to file necessary immigration petitions to ensure the victim's lawful status in the US, risking her deportation -fear becomes a very powerful tool to keep victims in abusive relationships, as removal means losing custody of children and women may face stigma back in their home countries -even women who are permanent residents may continue to receive threats of deportation from the abuser, as in the case of women with work visas, abusers may disrupt or threaten their jobs

marriage migration

-aside from indigenous peoples, the vast majority of individuals in the US arrived via some form of international migration--> individuals may freely immigrate, immigrate seeking asylum, or are trafficked -with increasing globalization, it is estimated that in 2017 there were 258 million international migrants -one driver of international migration is family reunification, and a large portion are women and girls who are marriage migrants -patrilocality: women are expected to cross the border to reside in their husbands' country of residence -annually, more than half a million applications are made to sponsor/petition a spouse to immigrate to the US. more than half are filed by men who have married women abroad -sponsorships involve providing evidence that one can financially and socially provide for their spouse for three years. the immigrating spouse does not immediately have independent access to resources and may not fully understand their legal rights -this can exacerbate the power differential that already exists between husband and wife -in the light concern for IPV, many legal provisions have been made to protect battered immigrant women

homicide

-can be intentional or result from a severe beating that may take place in minutes or hours and leaves the victim dead -IPV homicide accounts for half of all homicides of women

possession

-describes the sense of ownership that many abusers exhibit toward their partners -we can partly contextualize this behavior in Western history and unequal gender relations 1.ownership of women and violence against women accepted throughout history in the form of legal and religious doctrine 2.historically in the US, women were treated as men's property 3.(English Common Law) "Coverture": women forfeited their rights upon marriage 4.rape was considered a property crime (against husbands or fathers), not a personal crime -the idea of owning/possessing ones partner may still impact contemporary partnerships, regardless of gender -some abusers feel it is acceptable or reasonable to abuse their partner if they believe they will leave them for someone else, or be "stolen" by someone else -possession can also signify more than ownership - the right to use something at your own discretion -"marital rape exemption" husbands were permitted to rape their wives, and would no be punished for it (now gone from all 50 states) -rape remains an incredibly hard crime to prosecute

hegemonic masculinity

-despite individual differences, and differences by social status, men hold themselves accountable and are held accountable by others to dominant notions of masculinity -"in an important sense there is only one complete unblushing male in America: a young, married, white, urban, northern, heterosexual, Protestant, father, of college education, fully employed, of good complexion, weight, and height, and a recent record in sports . . . Any male who fails to qualify in any one of these ways is likely to view himself—during moments at least—as unworthy, incomplete, and inferior

brief history of women's roles in the US

-despite their engagement in agricultural work and economic production on farms, in addition to care for home and children, the home was defined as women's domain -during/after the industrial revolution--> the public private split 1.home as private, paid workforce as public -separate spheres and the cult of domesticity 1.women's roles increasingly restricted to child care and homemaking 2.cult of domesticity: ideology built around the idea that women's place is in the home 3.many marginalized women engaged in paid labor throughout this time period and the COD was defined relative to view that white, middle class women where the embodiment of purity and womanliness

breadwinning

-despite vast increases in women's labor force participation, men are still largely expected to be breadwinners of the family -however, men's ability to establish their masculinity through labor market success has become more tenuous 1.decline in manufacturing jobs 2.increased labor force competition -anderson (2005) notes that when men perceive their masculinity is threatened by circumstances such as unemployment, violence is more likely to occur -some studies found that the risk of men's physical and emotional abuse was greater when female partners had higher income or occupational status than their male partners -some have found that this occurred primarily among men with traditional gender ideologies

summing it up

-economic factors on micro and macro levels influence IPV -at micro level, money and unemployment are stressors that increase the risk of IPV - with gendered effects -at macro level 1. IPV is shaped by and reinforces men's labor market advantage. as a result, all men benefit from the abusive behavior of some, as it eliminates potential competitors 2.wage gap increases women's economic dependence and vulnerability 3.institutional racism creates disparities in economic resources and opportunities across groups (among other things) which contributes to IPV disparities across racial groups 4.macro events that disrupt economies and individuals lives impact IPV rates - and the effect varies by social location

violence experienced by lesbian and gay individuals

-gay men and lesbians also face significantly higher rates of violence by family members, strangers and acquaintances -nearly half (42%) of gay men and nearly 30% of lesbians reported violence at the hands of family members, peers, or strangers, rates that are significantly higher than for their heterosexual counterparts -such experiences, along with other forms of discrimination, may increase the likelihood of IPV perpetration, and compound the experience of IPV victimization

sexual prowess

-hegemonic masculinity dictates trhat men should be good at satisfying their partners and that they should have multiple partners -further, there remains a sexual double standard - men are praised for having multiple sexual experiences and partners while women are shamed -threats to this core feature of masculinity can lead to violence, and sexual jealousy may be a trigger for IPV perpetration -beyond this, dominant beliefs about men's sexual entitlement and beliefs regarding the transactional nature of marriage may play a role in rape and sexual abuse of intimate partners 1. for example, the marital rape exemption existed in many states into the 1990s 2.1 in 4 women report being raped by or having sex with their husbands when they did not want to

other demographics and IPV

-low SES individuals experience higher rates of IPV compared to their high SES counterparts -Multiracial, African American, and Native American men and women experience higher rates of IPV compared to other racial and ethnic groups -African American and Native American women face the highest risk of intimate homicide -44% of lesbian women, 61% of bisexual women, and 35% of straight women reported having experienced rape, physical violence, and/or stalking by an intimate partner in their lifetime -26% of gay men, 37% of bisexual men, and 29% of straight men reported having experienced rape, physical violence, and/or stalking by an intimate partner at some point in their lifetime

legal context and history

-historically, the US and other western countries typically have treated the immigrant family as one unit, with head of HH being responsible for conferring legal status to dependents--> replicates doctrine of coverture -men who were citizens, lawful residents, or who had US visas had total control over the immigration status of family members -in the 1980s, the Immigration Marriage Fraud Amendments of 1986 were passed to prevent fraudulent pathways to citizenship via false marriages--> strengthened the control and power of the resident spouse by allowing the immigrant spouse to become a resident only if the resident spouse petitioned them -thus immigrant women who were in abusive relationships were trapped if they wanted to stay in the country -following advocacy efforts, the US recognized the failure of immigration legislation to protect abused immigrant women -VAWA of 1994 allowed undocumented immigrant women to obtain legal status by letting them self-petition for lawful status without approval of abusive spouse if they could prove they were being abused, along with other conditions -later restrictive immigration laws passed in the 1990s also included exemptions for battered immigrant women and provided a safety net of welfare benefits or work permits so that they and their children could survive economically, independently of the abusive partner -U-visas in VAWA's reauthorizations

discourses of masculinity

-images of hegemonic masculinity proliferation the media and serves as one way in which we all learn what it means to be a man and what we should expect from men in our society -movies, tv shows, college and professional sports -"ideal" man in the media - successful, affluent, strong, good looking, mostly white, and have multiple female sex partners -violence often presented as a normal part of masculinity -however, we do see a gradual movement away from this narrow representation

IPV among LGBTQ individuals

-in some ways, the IPV experienced by LGBTQ individuals is very similar to that experienced by heterosexual and cisgender individuals -however, the impact of heterosexism and cisgenderism, and their intersection with other structures, must be considered 1. heterosexism: the ideology that only heterosexuality is normal/valued and the systemic discrimination and prejudice against non-heterosexual individuals 2.cisgenderism: the ideology that only cisgender persons are normal/valued, that everyone does/should fit within the gender binary, and the systemic discrimination and prejudice against non-cisgender individuals -LGBTQ individuals face marginalization that shapes their risk and experience of IPV -although the LGBTQ community is very diverse, individuals in the community are subjected to similar prejudices and structural barriers (housing, employment, education, violence) -law enforcement personnel, prosecutors, judges, and social workers generally bring with them their own understanding (or misunderstanding) of sexuality and gender when they respond to violence in same gender relationships and to non-cisgender individuals, which impacts how they respond

physical abuse

-includes a range of behaviors from slapping, pushing or shoving to severe acts that include hit with a fist or something hard, kicked, hurt by pulling hair, slammed against something, tried to hurt by choking or suffocating, beaten, burned on purpose, used a knife or gun -about 1 in 4 women and 1 in 7 men have experienced sever physical violence by a partner in their lifetime (CDC)

psychological abuse

-includes aggression (such as name calling, insulting, or humiliating an intimate partner) and coercive control, which includes behaviors that are intended to monitor and control or threaten an intimate partner -some abusers use technology to control their partners-using spyware to gain access to text messages, reveal private information, and to track their location -about 1/3 of men and women have experienced psychological abuse from a partner during their lifetime

sexual abuse and reproductive coercion

-includes rape, being made to penetrate someone else, sexual coercion, unwanted sexual contact, and non-contact unwanted sexual experiences (such as verbal harassment) -reproductive coercion includes attempts to impregnate a partner against their wishes, controlling outcomes of a pregnancy, coercing a partner to have unprotected sex, and interfering with birth control methods -about 45.4% of women who have been raped were raped by an intimate partner -CDC, about 18% of women and 8% of men have experienced sexual abuse from a partner in their lifetime

financial abuse

-includes restricting financial resources. abusers disallow their partners from working, prevent them from having their own bank account, and/or only giving them an allowance -there is not enough data to illuminate the full scope and prevalence of financial abuse in intimate relationships -however, the CDC found that about 10% of women and 5% of men reported that a partner has kept them from having their own money

early warning signs

-individuals in abusive relationships often note that they did not see the abuse coming- it seemed to come out of no where -however, there are some patterns of behavior that often occur in abusive relationships early on: 1.intrusion 2.isolation 3.possession 4.jealousy 5.being prone to anger 6.unknown pasts

IPV among black couples: institutional racism and gendered racism

-institutional racism and gendered racism shape economic outcomes for Black men and women - more likely to experience poverty, have lower incomes, work in lower paying occupations, limited access to healthcare -Also contributes to living in more disadvantaged neighborhoods due to racial segregation, distrust in the CJ system, and historical trauma -These factors partly contribute to higher levels of IPV experienced by Black couples

review

-it is importan to remember that IPV is a complex social phenomenon and that there are many factors that contribute to its occurrence -people of any gender can engage in behaviors socially defined as masculine or feminine- people of all genders can and do engage in violence, and people of all genders can and do engage in violence, and people of all genders can and are victims of violence -understanding the structural gender inequality and definitions of masculinities and femininities can highlight the gendered patterns of IPV among heterosexual couples -implementing intersectionality, we see that various structure of inequality and privilege in society intersect to shape power, resources, and strategies available to individuals/groups, risk factors for IPV, and experiences of IPV

barriers to leaving

-social stereotypes of immigrant communities and cultural insensitivity -lack of information regarding the available resources and legal context of the receiving country -fear of reporting and distrust due to increased immigration enforcement -financial impoverishment -lack of support system -language barriers -cultural factors

jealousy

-many abusers express extreme jealousy and worry over their partner's infidelity, even when their partner is not engaging in infidelity -as the textbook authors note, the abusers themselves more often report engaging in infidelity -sexual double standard in heterosexual relationships 1.recall discussions on the construction of masculinity and "doing gender"; women as property -victims report going to extremes to prove their faithfulness -common in early stages of relationship -supposed to decrease with time in healthy relationships -in violent ones, it increases rapidly

isolation

-many perps will increasingly isolate their partners from their friends and family over time, and even prevent them from leaving the house -results in complete economic dependence on batterer, impossibility to make own income, and severely impacts social connections of victim -keeps abuse a secret and makes escape more difficult -like intrusion, isolation begins slowly and can be mistaken for normal relationship behavior -normally, people "disappear" with start if new relationship, meaning that they spend much time with new partner before they eventually start integrating their dates/time together with friends and family -however, over time abusive partners require their partners to be exclusively with them - no contact allowed with friends or family

unknown pasts

-many victims report that they knew little about their partner's past, and many abusers avoid disclosing closing personal information -This is another very easily misinterpreted early warning sign -Abusers seem like they are focusing more on listening and learning more about their partner - wanting to hear about their hopes and dreams, their past, etc. while revealing very little about themselves -This can feel refreshing for individuals that experienced childhood abuse -Victims end up feeling very close to their partner, and may quickly feel a deep level of trust

remaining legal issues

-many women may be unaware of these laws, cannot meet the legal requirements for self-petition, and/or may refuse to comply with law enforcement (required for U-visa) because they fear or distrust the police -intensified criminalization of undocumented immigration in recent years has made many battered immigrant women reluctant to report abuse for fear of their own legal status- they may be uninformed about their options, sometimes a direct result of their abuser who intentionally misinforms her

risk factors at the relationship level

-marrying young -having a child before age of 25 -having more than the average number of children -poverty, unemployment, and economic stress -substance abuse or addiction -high levels of conflict -inequality within the relationship

masculinity and femininity

-masculinity- what it means to be a man in a given culture -femininity- what it means to be a women in a given culture -gender roles or expectations - behavioral patterns associated with or expected from a particular gender -definitions of femininity and masculinity are constructed as mutually exclusive, oppositional, and binary. they are co-constructed and relational - understanding what women are requires attention to what men are -it is important to note that recent conceptualization argue that there are variations across groups and across time -masculinities and femininities -these variations are also characterized by domination and subordination - some forms are more socially valued than others -for example, hegemonic masculinity is the most culturally exalted 1.expression of stereotypically masculine characteristics: physical strength, aggression, economic power, and sexuality 2.rejection of femininity 3.class, race, sexuality, age, etc figure into the hierarchy as well

risk factors at the community level

-neighborhood disadvantage and lack of resources -low neighborhood support, cohesion, and collective efficacy -weak community sanctions against IPV

social costs

-not only does IPV have severe negative impacts on the mental and physical well being of victims, it is costly to society broadly -For example, one analysis found that the estimated intimate partner violence lifetime cost was $103,767 per female victim and $23,414 per male victim, or a population economic burden of nearly $3.6 trillion over victims' lifetimes (Peterson et. al., 2018). -These costs are incurred through lost productivity, property damage or loss, medical care and criminal justice expenses

"we belong together" love and destiny

-one reason victims report not leaving their abusive partner is because of love 1.If victims leave, they might find themselves thrust into poverty and without housing 2.Their experiences of child abuse makes it difficult to respond to adult abuse 3.May stay because they believe it is best for their children 4.victims, especially those most marginalized, will not be able to leave abusive relationships until they have the resources and support to do so -batterers often rationalize violence and controlling as a way of demonstrating love -the notion of destiny is often entwined with possession, especially in the batterer's thinking -Batterers are completely unable to imagine that their partners would ever leave them -Riskiest time for victims to be killed is at the time of separation -Not just abusers - Hattery and Smith reported that the majority of abused women they interviewed admitted they would go back to abuser eventually -Possession combined with "destiny", is extremely dangerous for abused partners

marginalization and help seeking - shelters

-other problems arise when LGBTQ victims seek assistance through shelters -one study fond that some battered lesbian women reported that some women's shelters refused to believe that they were battered due to feminine appearance of their abuser -because the vast majority of perpetrators of IPV are men and the vast majority of victims are women, plus heterocentric views of IPV, few shelters serve male victims -transgender individuals may have difficulty accessing DV and/or homeless shelters that align with their gender identity -LGBTQ individuals may also experience discrimination and stigmatization from shelter employees or residents -lack of social (family support) and financial resources exacerbate these challengers ****EXAMPLES::: -"the shelter staff asked her a set of intensive and grueling questions about her body including, 'What is between your legs?' ...after this humiliating treatment, they told her that she could not be housed there because they decided that she was really a man. After being denied shelter, this woman went back to her batterer because she had no family, no friends and nowhere else to go." (GLBT Domestic Violence Coalition and Jane Doe, Inc., 2005) -Importantly, this treatment is now considered illegal by VAWA 2013 if the shelter receives federal funding -At the same time, on-going political action and discourse renders the rights of transgender people uncertain

roots of masculinity

-popular explanation for root of masculinity (and femininity) and respective gender riles is that men and women are biologically better suited for different tasks -parsons and bales (1955) argued that the gendered division of labor (women- expressive tasks and men - instrumental tasks) can be traced back to early societies -although it has been established that definitions of masc. and fem. are socially constructed, biological explanations remain pervasive -from this perspective, IPV and other gendered behaviors can be (mis)understood as a natural outgrowth of biology rather than an outgrowth of social structural conditions

masculinity and IPV

-recent research on this topic suggests that threats to one's masculinity is an important driver of IPV perpetration -recall our discussion on "doing gender" 1.men are expected to follow established patterns of gender as they interact with others and are rewarded by others when they do 2.men who do not follow these prescriptions are sanctioned - embodying even one feminine characteristic is considered socially contaminating 3.men may even enact violence to who others they are a "real man" particularly in situations that call their masculinity into question 4.breadwinning/ economic success and sexual prowess are other core features of masculinity, so in situations when these characteristics are called into question or when men perceive themselves falling short of these gendered ideals, they may compensate with violence

research on IPV among LGBTQ families

-research and theorizing on IPV has mainly focused on heterosexual men and women -because (1) analyses focused on patriarchy and heteronormative marriage models, (2) the fact that same-gender relationships were illegal and considered pathological, and (3) social pressure among LGBTQ individuals to avoid exposure of their problems, research on IPV in same-gender relationships did not appear until the 1980s and 1990s, with research on transgender and non-binary individuals appearing much later - awareness that violence occurs in same gender couples, illustrating that not only men are perpetrators and not only women are victims, presented challenges for traditional feminist theory/research and mainstream domestic violence advocacy that focused on opposite gender, heterosexual relationships -it also demonstrated the importance of expanding our conceptualization of IPV, as well as rethinking the ways in which gender, as well as other social structures, matter in shaping this phenomenon -without doing so, we risk invalidating, erasing, and silencing the experiences of LGBTQ individuals and we fail to create interventions with their needs in mind

research on IPV among LGBTQ individuals

-research challenges 1.most large IPV surveys do not ask about sexual orientation or gender of relationship partner 2.most surveys assume gender is binary 3.stigmatization of non-heterosexual orientations and non-cisgender identities may prevent some individuals from answering honestly or participating 4.because individual's identification of sexual orientation is fluid, it can be unclear whether IPV occurred in relationships consistent with their current identity

definitions

-sex is biological. it refers to the physical characteristics such as chromosomes, reproductive organs, genitalia, etc. most individuals are assigned male or female, but sex is not binary -gender refers to the physical, behavioral, and personality traits a groups considers normal, natural, and right for its male and female members -more recent conceptualizations of gender expand on this, noting that gender is a multi-level system that operates at individual (identity), interactional (expectations and doing gender), and structural (inequality and stratification) levels -gender identity refers to how individuals identify in terms of their gender -transgender refers to individuals whose sex is assigned at birth is different from their gender identity -cisgender refers to individuals whose sex is assigned at birth is congruent with their gender identity -genderqueer or non-binary refers to individuals whose gender identity is outside the binary, not exclusively masculine or feminine -sexual orientation refers to sexual desire or attraction toward people of a particular sex or gender -for most of the 20th CE, sexuality was believed to exist in a set of fixed locations: 1.homosexual, heterosexual, bisexual 2. Kinsley et al. argued sexuality exists on a continuum and may shift across the life course -attraction and orientation are distinct from behavior, which may be based on circumstance or structural constraints

heterosexism, sexual minority stressors, and IPV

-sexual minority stressors. including forms of stress due to stigma, prejudice, discrimination, concealment, and internalized homophobia, play a role in IPV perpetration and victimization among LGB individuals -the impact of stress may directly impact perpetration, or indirectly through other risk factors (substance abuse) -these stressors may also make it more difficult for victims to leave abusive relationships -specific stereotypes and prejudice of bisexual women and men may explain their particularly high rates of victimization - for example, beliefs that bi people are more likely to cheat

marginalization and help-seeking - law enforcement

-simiilar to other marginalized groups, gay men and lesbians may fear what will happen to their partner if they involve law enforcement when IPV occurs due to historical and contemporary police violence and maltreatment. -Transgender individuals might face the greatest barriers to reporting IPV, especially if they have not legally changed their identity or had gender affirmation surgery. -For example, their jail and prison assignments are often based on their biological sex, not their gender identity. -Trans women who are sent to men's facilities and trans men who are sent to women's facilities are at much higher risk for violent victimization, especially sexual assault. -Further, trans individuals may fear re-victimization by law enforcement if they report

the impact of the great recession on IPV

-social events that disrupt the economy and cause widespread uncertainty impact IPV -one study found rapidly worsening labor market conditions during the GR were associated with increases in the prevalence of violent/controlling behavior in marriage (Schneider, Harknett, and McLanahan 2014) 1.black and hispanic married mothers, and mothers with less education were more likely to experience IPV across low and high unemployment environments 2.the effect of worsening economy was strongest among white and more educated mothers, in which their levels rose to the rates of their marginalized counter parts -a later study by the same authors found both economic hardship at the household level and adverse labor market conditions were associated with increases in men's abusive and controlling behavior against their partners -even controlling for individual circumstances, rapid increases in unemployment increased the risk of IPV - providing further support that economic uncertainty may independently contribute to IPV

intrusion

-the batterer's monitoring the comings and goings of their partner -signs include constantly checking up, requiring calls and check ins, anger when partner takes longer than expected/is late -includes "popping up" - randomly appearing without partner's knowledge -often reflects lack of trust from batterer and creates anxiety for victim -closely related to jealousy -when it occurs early on during the relationship, it can be misinterpreted by victim as romantic or loving 1.calling to say hello during the day 2.popping up for a surprise lunch/dinner

intersectionality

-the challenges experienced by LGBTQ individuals may be exacerbated depending on whether their social location involves the intersection of multiple forms of disadvantage based on race, class, gender/gender identity, disability, immigrant status, etc. -We have talked a lot about differences between groups on the basis of one or two identities (e.g. experiences of transgender individuals, Black women, low income women, etc.) but there are also differences in vulnerability within these groups

race and femininity

-the cult of domesticity and dominant beliefs about femininity were/is racialized -though still subordinate to masculinity, there is a hierarchy of femininity in which white, middle and upper class women are deemed more socially valued and "normal" -controlling images, rooted in history, are used denigrate, objectify, and "other" women of color and to justify their subordination on the basis of both race and gender (Hill Collins, 2000) *examples 1.images of black women are aggressive, domineering, superhuman strength, hypersexual, and unfeminine 2.images of asian women as passive, weak, submissive, and sexually exotic

patriarchy and gender stratification

-the dominant construction of masc. is built around the principles of patriarchy -patriarchy is a social system in which men and boys have greater access to opportunities, resources, and power than women and girls -cultural indicators of patriarchy that also serve to justify stratification 1.men are smarter than women, like science and math 2.women are more suited to take care of the home and family, reducing the number of women in the workforce 3.women should defer to their husbands on financial matters 4.men are better logical thinkers

unique forms of abuse

-the fear of being "outed" may prevent LGBTQ victims from reporting IPV. abusers may use this fear and leverage societal homophobia to threaten their partner and keep them from leaving and reporting IPV--> this constitutes a form of psychological abuse and control that compounds the experience of physical abuse -an abuser may intentionally misgender their trans or non binary partner as a form of abuse. further, abusers may engage in pathologizing, which refers to the intentional action of labeling and treatment of people's gender identity, body, presentation, and practice as abnormal or deviant (Ansara and Hegarty, 2014)

economic dependency

-the impact of wage discrimination and economic inequality is that women are more likely to be economically dependent on their partner, which leaves them vulnerable to IPV -some suggest that wage discrimination leads to compulsory partnering among women - because it is more challenging to achieve economic independence, women may find themselves having to partner with men as an economic necessity

similarities

-the same risk factors we have discussed increase the likelihood of experiencing IPV among LGBTQ individuals - poverty and economic hardship, substance abuse, relationship conflict, relationship inequality, experiences of discrimination, etc -although there isn't a power disparity related to gender in same-gender relationships, power differentials still matter -The person with more power is better positioned to effectively control and abuse and the person with less power may experience challenges in leaving the relationship -While gender may not impact power differential between individuals within the couple, gender still shapes responses to and perceptions of IPV perpetration and victimization, and may shape the triggers of violence

climate change linked to gender based violence

-there is a link between climate change and increased risk fir gender based violence through climate change induced crises -global warming is linked to significant contextual changes - rising sea levels, floods, droughts, desertification, and extreme weather events -existing inequalities -> unequal outcomes: individuals, communities, and localities that are socially, politically, and economically marginalized fare the worst -for example, in many parts of the world, women are disadvantaged and lack land and legal rights. they are often the first targeted in the face stress caused by climate crises. in some communities, marrying young girls off becomes a survival strategy for economic hardship -there is evidence that climate change related crises are related to increased violence against women, and some have argued that climate crises reproduce gender inequality (Wonders 2018)

micro-level: social class and money

-there is a link between money/income and IPV -low income, poverty, and unemployment are significant stressors that can lead to relationship conflict and IPV -relationship between gender, income, and IPV 1. because of dominant expectations that men should be breadwinners, low income and unemployment can trigger IPV 2. women's access to financial resources within the family shapes their ability to leave abusive relationships, and what kind of strategies they use to do so

disasters and IPV

-there is evidence that natural disasters (bushfires, floods, droughts, hurricanes, etc) also have an impact on IPV -one study found that certain experiences (experiencing damage, injury) of Hurricane Katrina were associated with increased likelihood of conflict and violent methods of conflict resolution (Harville et al 2011) -a recent study found that Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004 impacted IPV rates over time across 4 Indian states. the disaster effected groups differently, which created disparities in IPV outcomes (Rao, 2020) -the Indian Ocean tsunami wrought destruction on peninsular India with 15,m000 mortalities and about 654,512 people affected -TamilNadu and Andhra Pradesh on the east coast, and Kerala on the west bore the brunt of the disaster; Karnataka was not directly affected -this paper examined the impact of geographical location and social location of women when examining the effects of the tsunami on IPV -similar to the US, social inequalities in India are linked to women's experiences of IPV. specifically, patriarchy, religion, caste, and class -guided by vulnerability theory, it was hypothesized that groups who were disadvantaged prior to a natural disaster would be most vulnerable to its effects -findings from this study reveal that contextual vulnerabilities increase the risk of IPV among women and this amplified in the aftermath of a major disaster

race, class, gender analysis

-threats to masculinity around breadwinning is a trigger for both white and black men, however, the trigger may be set off differently -for example, the inability to meet the role of sole provider may be a more salient threat for white men -a long history of institutional discrimination has lead to greater rates of unemployment and underemployment for black men, black women have often also worked in order to support the household 1.thus, most black men expect their partners to work and contribute financially to the HH 2.therefore, the Hattery and Smith assert that their partner's refusal to work while desiring a standard of living they cannot provide may be particularly triggering

cisgender and violence against transgender individuals

-transgender individuals face significantly higher rates of discrimination, are more likely to commit suicide, and are more likely to be victims of violence than their gay and lesbian counterparts -transgender people face significant threats of violence in sexual encounters with acquaintances and strangers as well -transgender individuals are often fetishized and seen as "sexually exotic," which can lead to dehumanization and sexual violence -individuals engage in violence against trans individuals, in part, because they are threatened by the challenge they present to our social constructions of sex and gender

immigrant women and IPV

-upon relocation, immigrant women, particularly those with undocumented or nonpermanent status, are at an increased risk for IPV -immigrant women experience the same stressors and trauma associated with IPV as other women, but with the added burdens of immigration status and context, which intersects with others axes of oppression -these factors create heightened risk for IPV among this population, and shapes their ability to leave abusive relationships -research on this topic has focused on the experiences of Latina, South Asian, East Asian, SE Asian, and Middle Eastern immigrant women

stalking

-victimization involves a pattern of harassing or threatening tactics used by a perpetrator that is both unwanted and causes fear or safety concerns in the victim -common after separation or divorce, and is a common feature of dating violence -can be facilitated through technology -10% of women and 2% of men have reported being stalked at least once in their lifetime (CDC)

the economy and IPV

-we can analyze the impact of factors related to the economy on both micro and macro levels 1.micro-social class and money 2.macro-capitalism, the labor market, and inequality

economic risk factors, race, and gender

-women's economic dependence puts them at risk for IPV across race and ethnicity -however, race and ethnicity shapes this risk -white women have lower rates of employment- 25% are stay at home mothers. this economic dependency may severely limit their ability to leave an abusive relationship -black women are more likely to be employed compared to white women, but experience lower wages, so while they may be more likely to leave abusive relationships, they may find themselves having to quickly partner with someone new