Fashion Marketing Test 1

What is inflation, and how has it impacted purchasing power?

A decline in purchasing power of money is caused by inflation, which is an increase in available money and credit, with relative scarcity of goods, resulting in a significant rise in prices. Inflation is an economic situation in which demand exceeds supply. Although average income has been increasing each year, people have not gained an equivalent increase in purchasing power because the value of the dollar (its purchasing power) has steadily declined since 1950.

What is the relationship between a style and a fashion?

A fashion is a style that is accepted and used by the majority of a group at any one time, no matter how small the group. A fashion is based on a particular style, but not every style is a fashion. A fashion is a fact of social psychology, while a style is usually a creation of a designer or artist. Fashions arise from social emulation and acceptance; a style needs popular acceptance to become a fashion.

Fad

A fashion that sweeps into popularity, affects a limited part of the population, and then quickly disappears The fad starts by being quickly accepted and then quickly imitated by others. However, many fads eventually become fashions, and experts agree drawing the line can be difficult

1990s: Fashion and the Information Age Social and Cultural Conditions

Americans were faced with a new recession following the 1987 stock market crash. The Persian Gulf War polarized society, and George H. W. Bush lost his reelection to Bill Clinton. In the early 90s, Bill Clinton brought a new appeal to the White House and tried to connect with pop culture. Hillary Clinton defied stereotypes and faced harsh backlash for being a working woman. She was also widely criticized for her lack of style. The most significant cultural force came from the alternative/grunge scene. Nirvana, Soundgarden and Pearl Jam popularized the grunge scene. Later in the decade, pop stars such as Britney Spears emerged.

Trade Publications

One of the most important aids in fashion merchandising is the trade publication. Trade newspapers, magazines, and websites are published for industry professionals Cover new acquisitions, industry stats, new innovations, emerging trends, governmental regulations, etc.

Texture

One of the most significant components of fashion; the look and feel of material, whether woven, knit, or nonwoven. Affects the appearance of a silhouette, giving it a bulky or slender look. Influences the drape of a garment. Affects the color of a garment by causing the surface to either reflect or absorb light.

What are market segmentation, market segments, and target markets? Be familiar with the four primary bases of segmentation

Market segmentation is the separation of the total consumer market into smaller groups known as market segments. Target markets are specific groups of potential customers that a business is trying to turn into regular customers. Geographics Demographics Psychographics Behavior

Edwardian Age Designers and Other Influencers

In Paris, Doucet and Paquin remained prominent. The Gibson Girl (created by illustrator Charles Dana Gibson) was the icon of the period. Growing interest in entertainment allowed the classes to intermingle.

What is a recession?

In a recession, which represents a low point in a business cycle, money and credit become scarce, or tight. Interest rates are high, production is down, and the rate of unemployment is up.

Faster Communications and Technology

Speed of communication and connection has accelerated fashion change. In the past, it took weeks or months for fashions to spread from one part of the country to another. The Internet has disrupted fashion cycles and democratized fashion access and influence. Popular movies and TV shows also influence fashion.

Downward-Flow Theory (Trickle-Down Theory)

Maintains that to be identified as a true fashion, a style must first be adopted by the people at the top of the social pyramid. The style then gradually wins acceptance at lower levels. The theory suggests that (1) fashions are accepted by lower classes only if, and after, they are accepted by upper classes (2) upper classes will reject a fashion once it has flowed to a lower social level. Historically, only nobility had the income, access, or freedom to follow fashion. Velben (1899) described the upper strata of the social system as the leisure class, who displayed their wealth through conspicuous leisure and conspicuous consumption. Simmel (1904) described the engine of fashion change in the opposing tendencies toward conformity and individuality. Fashion can serve as a means of class distinction and class membership. Some fashions may first appear among the socially prominent, with eager manufacturers copying and mass producing the looks. However, given that our social structure has radically changed, this theory has few proponents today. There are many social groups and many directions in which fashion can and does travel. Further, most social groups learn about fashion innovations at the same time, and mass production and distribution have broadened accessibility and acceptance.

What aspects in the economic environment impact fashion (e.g., recessions, consumer income, etc.)?

The growth of fashion demand depends on a high level of economic development, which is reflected in consumer income, population characteristics, and technological advancements Income can be a signifier of social acceptance and that one has achieved a particular social status.

More widespread buying power

enables more consumers to buy, therefore speeding up the progression to the culmination stage and subsequent plunges to decline and obsolescence

Public Relations

free and voluntary mentions of company, designed to enhance and shape the company's public image (e.g., product placement, press relations, etc.

Religion

has historically championed custom with ceremonial apparel demonstrating respect for tradition. However, today, religion exerts much less restraining influence on fashion, at least in many faiths

Taste

refers to a prevailing opinion about what is and what is not attractive and appropriate for the given occasion. Good taste in fashion, therefore, means sensitivity not only to what is artistically pleasing but also to what is appropriate for a specific situation. Many styles are beautiful, but because they are not in fashion, good taste prevents their use

Fashion Business

includes all industries and services connected with fashion: design, manufacturing, distribution, marketing, retailing, advertising, communications, publishing, and consulting—any business concerned with fashion goods or services

Mass/Volume Fashion

styles that appeal to the greatest majority of fashion-conscious consumers. Usually produced and sold in large quantities at moderate to low prices

Self-management skills or "soft skills"

refer to your personality characteristics and attributes. Time management, interpersonal skills, organization, punctuality, professionalism, etc.

Dapper Dan

tapped into black culture's fascination with labels; he appropriated luxury logos to create new styles.

Transferrable Skills

the assets or abilities you possess that can be "taken with you" from one job or career to another (e.g., communication, listening, observing, creating).

Opinion leaders

people who influence the attitudes and decision making of people in their social circles (when the context is fashion, they are fashion leaders).

Innovators

people who wear new fashions and expose others to the new look. They tend to adopt product innovations earlier than others in their social group

Liz Claiborne

produced affordable women's separates

Advertising Agencies

provide many services, all of which are tied to the selling of commercial advertising space and/or time. Some specialize in a particular medium while others are full-service. Small manufacturers, designers, and retailers (and even fairly large department stores) tend to rely on in-house advertising departments for most functions.

Thierry Mugler

put his stamp on the power suit.

Trend Characteristics

A general direction or movement. Identifiable similarities across information sources related to styles, details, or other aspects of appearance characterized by a building awareness of the new look and an accelerating demand among consumers. Fringe- An innovation arises and the trendiest consumers and entrepreneurial firms begin to participate. Trendy- Awareness of the trend grows because early adopters join the innovators. The most fashion forward brands and retailers test the concept. Mainstream- More conservative consumers join in, visibility continues to increase, and corporations and brands capitalize on the growing demand

What is the relationship between a design and a style?

A style may be expressed in a great many designs, all different, yet all related because they are the same style. Different interpretations change the design of a style

What is a fashion cycle, and why is understanding fashion cycles important for fashion merchants?

All fashions move in cycles. The term fashion cycle refers to the rise, wide popularity, and then decline in acceptance of a style. The word cycle suggests a circle, but the fashion cycle is represented by a bell shaped curve. Fashion cycles are like waves. The fashion cycle serves as an important guide in fashion merchandising. Although predicting the time spans of fashion cycles is difficult, declines are typically fast and a drop to obsolescence is almost always steeper than a rise to culmination. The speed with which products are moving through their cycles is accelerating due to rapid technological advancements, instant communications and fast-changing environmental factors. Fast fashion models are quickening the rate of fashion cycles.

Hedonic needs

Although clothing originated out of a functional, utilitarian need, it also serves as a social statement that fulfills hedonic needs.

1920s: Fashion Gets Modern Fashion Trends and Developments:

An easing of social conventions led to less restrictions on dress. Clothes became loose, free, and fun. Max Factor launched a makeup line for the public.

1970s: Fashion and the "Me" Decade Fashion Trends and Developments

Anything goes was the fashion mantra of the times. The hippie style of the counterculture continued with with short skirts and long hair. Many women donned pants and some embraced "hot pants". For men, the polyester leisure suit was popular. Jeans and platforms were worn by men and women alike. Although disco, punk, and glam rock influences reigned, the emergence of more women in the workforce drove a need for professional attire.

1980s: Pop Culture and Excess Fashion Trends and Developments

Bigger is better was the ethos of the 80s. More disposable income = more conspicuous consumption. The American style of the 80s was all about excess; it really was a material world. For nighttime, glitz and glamour ruled. Men had more options, and the yuppie lifestyle led to new Wall Street looks. Wall Street fashion projected an image that was strong, intimidating, and oozed wealth. Run DMC became style icons that popularized Adidas shoes and the hip hop ethos. Hip hop style projected an image of confidence, strength, and affluence that quickly trickled up to high fashion and the runways. Some would say its the most important fashion trend of the decade

Boredom / Curiosity

Boredom: Boredom leads to restlessness and desire for change. People become bored with fashions too long in use. Curiosity: Curiosity causes interest in change for its own sake. Curiosity and the need to experiment keep fashion demand alive.

How do recessions and inflation effect buyers?

Both inflation and recession affect consumers' buying patterns, and fashion merchants must understand their impacts when planning inventory assortments, prices, and promotional activities. Other factors influencing consumer spending include income inequality, lower wages due to outsourcing, lowered consumer confidence, etc.

General Consumer Publications

Careers in fashion reporting extend beyond the pages of fashion magazines to general consumer publications. Many major newspapers have sections devoted to apparel, home, and lifestyle fashions. Fashion editors, reporters, and photographers cover openings, press weeks, fashion shows, trade shows, etc.

The 21st Century: Fashion and Technology Designers and Other Influences

Celebrity designers such as Kanye West, Rachel Roy, Justin Timberlake, Rihanna, and the Olsen twins appeared. Democratization of fashion led designers to embrace the concept of "designing for all."

Who was considered the father of haute couture?

Charles Frederick Worth In 1857, the House of Worth was established in Paris.

Horizontal-Flow Theory (Mass Market Theory)

Claims that fashions move horizontally between groups, or similar social levels, rather than vertically from one level to another. The social environment exposes new styles to the fashion leaders of all social groups at approximately the same time. The emergence of a mass market was enabled by mass communication, mass production, and a growing middle class. Fashions radiate from the center of each social class or originate from one's peer group. This theory has great significance for contemporary merchandising. It acknowledges that there are separate markets in fashion goods and that each group has distinctive needs and characteristics. Retailers must recognize that high fashion does not always align with their customers in terms of income, age, education, or lifestyle. The mass market does not await the approval of the "class market" before it adopts a fashion. However, there is a distinction between the spread of a fashion within the industry itself and its adoption by consumers.

How do personal income, disposable income, and discretionary income differ?

Consumer income can be measured in terms of personal income (the total, or gross, income achieved by the population as a whole) disposable income (money remaining after paying taxes) discretionary income (money one can save or spend after covering necessities).

What are the 5 principles of fashion?

Consumers establish fashions by accepting or rejecting the styles offered. Fashions are not based on price. Fashions are evolutionary in nature. No amount of sales promotion can change the direction in which fashions are moving. All fashions end in excess.

Who are fashion followers? Why are they so important? What factors lead people to follow, rather than lead fashion change?

Fashion followers make up the majority. Without them, the fashion industry would collapse. Why do we follow? Feelings of insecurity Admiration Lack of interest Ambivalence Varying rates of response

1940s: War and Duty Fashion Trends and Developments:

Fashion was on "duty" - subject to restrictions to conserve fabric. L-85 restrictions limited the use of certain fabrics and materials (especially rubber, silk, nylon, and wood). Society moved toward a loosening of formality and convention, and scarcity pushed creative boundaries. To offset the utilitarian styles of the time, hair was longer and lipstick a patriotic red. When wartime restrictions were lifted, clothing became fuller and more formal. Christian Dior rescued French haute couture from obsolescence. American and French designers began to share the fashion stage.

Theories of Fashion Adoption

Fashions are accepted by a few before they are accepted by the majority. Three theories have been advanced to explain the "social contagion" or spread of fashion adoption to help understand where fashion innovations originate, who leads and who follows, and how quickly they move.

1930s: Making Do Designers and Other Influences:

Fewer department store buyers made the trip to Paris during the 1930s, and American designers began to achieve more prominence. Designers such as Elizabeth Hawes and Clare Potter focused on sportswear and softer, casual designs. Katherine Hepburn and Marlene Dietrich popularized the menswear look.

1910s: New Fashions Take Hold Fashion Trends and Developments

Focus on lighter materials and construction, slimmer styles. The streamlined trench coat was introduced during WWI. War shortages led to basic color palettes, more utilitarian looks, and shorter hemlines. Converse All-Stars and Keds were introduced.

1940s: War and Duty Social and Cultural Conditions

From 1939-1945, war was the dominating factor of life worldwide. Wartime rationing impacted every industry, including fashion. Women again assumed jobs traditionally held by men. However, with peace in 1945, a return to traditional family values began to take hold and led to the baby boom.

What was the first fashion publication?

Godey's Lady's Book - 1830 Harper's Bazaar - 1867 Vogue - 1892

Habit and custom

Habit slows fashion change when consumers unconsciously select styles that do not perceptually differ from what they tend to wear; some people have a natural attraction to the more familiar. Custom slows fashion by permitting vestiges of past fashions, status symbols, taboos, or special needs to continue to appear in modern dress.

1970s: Fashion and the "Me" Decade Designers and Other Influences

Halston, initially best know for dressing Jackie Kennedy, was the first rock star of American fashion. Halston's simple, clingy dresses—a staple of Studio 54—became an instant classic. Fashion was influenced by popular culture more than ever - think Farah Fawcett's feathered hair and Saturday Night Fever. In 1973, Eleanor Lambert produced a benefit fashion show at the Palace of Versailles, which featured both French and American designers; this was a hit and spread American fashion around the world. The "Battle of Versailles" put America on the fashion map. With few fashion rules, the business of French haute couture continued to suffer, with the exception of Yves Saint Laurent's romantic, bohemian looks. Missoni and Vivienne Westwood emerged. With casual wear dominant, the 70s were a time for American designers to shine. Ralph Lauren and Calvin Klein made their debuts, both producing wearable separates with a nod to menswear.

1990s: Fashion and the Information Age Fashion Trends and Developments:

In the 90s, style became less formal, more individual, and democratized. Style no longer trickled down from NY or Hollywood. Following the excess of the 80s, there was a return to simplicity in the 90s. Yet, it started as a period that seemed to have no distinctive style; American style of the 90s experienced an identity crisis. Individualism and minimalism were the norm. The slip dress, grunge look, and Doc Martens were all prevalent. The grunge scene emerged as a direct response to the excess of the 80s; grunge was anti-fashion and anti-establishment. This was the beginning of vintage fashion becoming popular (and modern vintage now being expensive). Marc Jacobs appropriated this look for high fashion. The 90s introduced the rise of the supermodel. During this time, the image of the gaunt model and the "heroine chic" look also emerged, causing much controversy. The early part of the decade was marked by laid-back minimalism and informality. Casual Fridays emerged and RTW companies such as the Gap, J. Crew, and Banana Republic became prominent.

1960s: Times are A-Changing Fashion Trends and Developments

In the first years of the decade, conservatism was still evident. Women sought to copy Jackie Kennedy's style, and actresses such as Audrey Hepburn inspired the American chic look. However, radical fashions such as the miniskirt (1966), go-go boots, babydoll dresses, and bellbottoms emerged. The miniskirt symbolized a cultural shift. Haute couture appropriated the counterculture looks—albeit at much higher prices. Hair became an expression of individuality: The Beatles' mop top, bubble bouffants, pixie cuts, etc. The great race to become the first country to land on the moon began in the 60s and had a significant influence on the fashion of the era.

1920s: Fashion Gets Modern Social and Cultural Conditions:

Jazz music and new dances became all the rage. Prohibition-era encouraged more rule breaking. Women celebrated the right to vote. Mass media expanded with most Americans having access to radio. First shopping mall opens in 1922. Prosperity ended with the crash of 1929.

Katherine Hepburn

Katherine Hepburn was a gender outlaw who normalized more androgynous looks. She made pants happen and gave women confidence to break traditional gender rules.

Sumptuary laws

Laws that control what we can and cannot purchase. In the past, sumptuary laws regulated extravagance and luxury in dress on moral and religious grounds. To maintain social stratification, certain garments and styles were reserved for specific classes. Today, laws require children's sleepwear to be flame retardant, and some schools impose uniforms and dress codes.

Status of Women:

Less than a century ago, women, regardless of race, social status, or social rank, could not vote, serve on a jury, earn a living at any but a few occupations, own property, or even enter public places unescorted. She dressed to please the man and reflect his status. Incremental changes began in 1800s, with more professional and educational opportunities beginning in the 1860s, and the right to vote in 1920. Today, women 25 and older have achieved relatively equal levels of education as men. However, although women make up 47% of the workforce, in nearly every profession they continue to earn less than male counterparts. Women make nearly 85% of consumer purchase decisions for their respective households. Perhaps the most marked change has been the degree of social freedom that women now enjoy. Until 1974, a women could not get her own credit card in her name. Short skirts, popular in the 1920s, 1960s, and 2000s, represent the freedom of the times. This new freedom of choice has had a significant impact on women's choices in fashion

1990s: Fashion and the Information Age Designers and Other Influences

Minimalist Calvin Klein's streamlined suits and slim, bias-cut dresses were distinctive and widely copied looks of the 90s. Jil Sander and Dries Van Noten offered more deconstructed, avant-garde looks.

Ethnic Influences:

Minority groups in the U.S have experienced vast population increases and sociological changes, with more to come. Hispanics now outnumber African Americans as the largest minority group in the U.S., and the Asian population is rapidly growing. The implications for fashion are vast. Some suggest this shift could impact sizing specifications.

The 21st Century: Fashion and Technology Fashion Trends and Developments

More than ever, celebrity culture inspires the way people want to dress. Shows like Sex and the City inspired feminine, ladylike styles for high-powered women. Fashion became more personal and fluid. Reality TV took off, with shows like Queer Eye for the Straight Guy and Project Runway significantly impacting fashion. Social media and blogging changed the level of accessibility to fashion and disrupted the industry; this evened the playing field. Globalization enabled the emergence of fast fashion (Forever 21, H&M, Zara). Fast fashion offers a "see now, buy now" model that altered the entire landscape of the industry. Fast fashion provided instant gratification that wasn't initially possible in high fashion. However, some fear fast fashion has enabled a culture of disposable fashion. Michelle Obama excelled at mixing high and low fashion. She also consciously wore many up-and-coming American designers and enabled women to see beauty in a new way. The era of the waif supermodel ushered in a new focus on size inclusivity on runways and in advertising campaigns, which led to a new focus on body positivity.

The Edwardian Age

Named for King Edward VII - La Belle Époque - The Beautiful Age Socialites of this era clung to the classical and opulent dress and manner of the past.

Need for self-assurance/Desire for companionship

Need for self-assurance: The need for self-assurance or self-confidence is a human characteristic that gives impetus to fashion demand. Often the need to overcome feeling of inferiority or of disappointment can be satisfied through apparel and fashion. Desire for companionship: The desire for companionship is fundamental in human beings. In the broader sense, companionship implies the formation of groups, which can require conformity of dress.

Nature of the Merchandise

Not all merchandise moves at the same pace through a fashion cycle. Men's fashions have typically moved slower than women's, while women's accessories have typically moved faster than women's apparel. Reductions in consumers' buying power can delay fashion change. Consumers' buying power is sharply reduced during economic recessions. "Nothing except poverty can make a style permanent." - Laver

What were some of the major developments that contributed to the emergence of ready-to-wear fashion in the 1900s? What is ready-to-wear fashion?

Not until the rise of the middle class during the industrial revolution do we see the influence of technology and need for ready-to-wear (RTW) fashion—fashion merchandise made with mass production techniques using standardized sizing. But RTW clothing was not available to most consumers until the sewing process was mechanized. Sewing machine inventions by Walter Hunt (1832), Elias Howe (1845), and Issac Singer (1846) made it possible for apparel to be produced by machine.

Leisure Time:

One of our most precious possessions is leisure time, which is becoming increasingly scarce. The increased importance of leisure time has brought changes to people's lives in many ways: in values, standards of living, and scope of activities, thus resulting in entirely new markets. A focus on casual clothes and sportswear emerged in the 1950s and continues today. The emphasis on health and the self in the past three decades has led to bourgeoning active sportswear market.

What is the Theory of Shifting Erogenous Zones? What are some examples that relate to what we learned about in the film, American Style?

One theory is that it's about sex appeal: the alternate exposure and covering of body parts. In 1933, J.C. Flügel suggested that sexual attraction was the dominant motive for wearing clothes. Laver said that "Fashion really began with the discovery in the 15th century that clothes could be used as a compromise between exhibitionism and modesty." He suggested that those portions of the body no longer fashionable to expose are "sterilized" (no longer sexually attractive), while those newly exposed are erogenous, or sexually stimulating. This has shifted to include various parts of the female body: waist, shoulders, bosom, neckline, hips, legs, etc. Historically, fashion eras focused on certain parts of the body (e.g., in the 50s, fashions trended toward full skirts and dresses that emphasized the waist).

Oprah 1990's

Oprah became an icon for American women. She broke down walls and empowered a newfound authenticity and openness among her wide viewership. The "Oprah Effect" impacted what was in style and what the public consumed.

1920s: Fashion Gets Modern Designers and Other Influences:

Parisian designers flourished in the post-war period. Coco Chanel pioneered the use of casual fabrics, sportswear separates, and costume jewelry. Madeleine Vionnet created inventive styles with handkerchief and asymmetrical hems, geometric shapes, and cowl and halter necklines. Jean Lanvin introduced more romantic interpretations from the period.

1910s: New Fashions Take Hold Designers and Other Influences:

Paul Poiret introduced cutting-edge styles. Jeanne Sacerdote (Madame Jenny) designed simple fashions reproduced extensively for U.S. RTW. Women sought to imitate American stars of the stage and screen: Mary Pickford's dresses, Theda Bara's "vamp" look, etc. Men copied Charlie Chaplin and Rudolph Valentino.

Reaction to convention

People's reactions take one of two forms: rebellion against convention or adherence to it. Rebellion is a rejection of what exists and a search for something new. However, acceptance by the majority is an important part of the definition of fashion. The majority tends to adhere to convention, either within its own group or class, or in general.

What is the Pendulum of Fashion Theory? What are some examples that relate to what we learned about in the film, American Style?

Periodic movement of fashion between extremes

Physical Mobility

Physical mobility, like social mobility, encourages the demand for and response to fashion. One effect of travel is cross-pollination of cultures; people adopt or adapt some of what they observed and make it part of their environment. Leisure travel and more frequent relocation expose individuals to new contacts, new environments, and new fashion influences.

What is fashion?

Prevailing custom, usage, or style A style that is popular in the present or a set of trends that have been accepted by a wide audience. A style of a consumer product that is perceived to be socially appropriate for the time and situation. The style or styles of clothing and accessories worn at a particular time by a particular group of people. It also refers to cosmetics, fragrances, and home furnishings.

Ralph Lauren

Ralph Lauren became the first designer to sell a lifestyle and the wardrobe to match. He tapped into the disparate aspects of American culture to create a timeless American style.

Innovation

Something new. In fashion terms, this could be a new fabric, color, detail, mood expressed in a distinctive style, etc.

What are the four basic elements of fashion?

Silhouette Details Texture Color

1930s: Making Do Fashion Trends and Developments:

Slender silhouettes still dominated and looks were softer and more feminine. Nylon stockings were introduced in 1938. Casual styles for men and women began to gain popularity.

1950s: New Prosperity Fashion Trends and Developments

Softer, fuller styles continued to be in fashion. Stilettos were introduced in 1951. Styles also tended toward more conformity. For men's attire, formality in the workplace was common; the grey, flannel suit was the uniform of the era. Casual clothing such as jeans gained popularity.

1970s: Fashion and the "Me" Decade Social and Cultural Conditions

TV was quick to adapt to the new culture of the 70s with the introduction of shows such as the Mary Tyler Moore Show, Charlie's Angels, and The Brady Bunch. Social unrest remained a hallmark of the times and the economy reached its lowest point since the Great Depression. Americans were still divided by Vietnam and the struggle for the rights of minorities. Vogue featured its first black model on the cover in 1974.

1980s: Pop Culture and Excess Social and Cultural Conditions

The 80s were an era of excess driven by yuppies and conspicuous consumption. Food and fashion became status symbols. TV shows like Dallas and Dynasty epitomized the excess of the 80s. This mood lasted until the 1987 stock market crash. Following the gloom of the 70s recession and the drug scene, the Reagans promised to bring America back to its traditional values. They also brought an affluence and opulence to the White House that many Americans sought to emulate. They understood the power of "image" and Nancy Reagan offered a more glamourous, yet refined style. She turned red from the color of communism to the color of republicanism Technological advancements changed the culture; Apple introduced the first Macintosh in 1984. VCRs, cable TV, and the Sony Walkman changed the entertainment industry. In 1981, MTV revolutionized pop culture and offered an initial step toward the democratization of fashion. Hip Hop provided an artistic, cultural, and political outlet for the marginalized black community.

Calvin Klein

The Calvin Klein ads featuring Brooke Shields were some of the first overtly sexualized ads. CK revolutionized the use of sexuality in advertising, for both men and women. His ads made objectification egalitarian across the sexes.

Edwardian Age Fashion Trends and Developments

The Pouter pigeon figure, trumpet skirt and voluminous hair were popularized. Men's fashion had a blockier shape, with 3pc suits and the sack coat. Recreation had an impact on fashion; though sportswear was still in its infancy, practical clothing took hold.

1980s: Pop Culture and Excess Designers and Other Influences

The Preppy Handbook revealed to the public the image of preppy style and became a lifestyle handbook for some. As women began working more and at higher levels, the power suit of the 80s dominated. The look was exemplified by a strong-shouldered, tailored jacket paired with a pencil skirt or pants. The desire for luxury was favorable for French designers like Christian Lacroix (famous for the pouf skirt) and Jean Paul Gaultier (designed the famous Madonna bra).

The 21st Century: Fashion and Technology Social and Cultural Conditions

The attacks on 9/11 shattered the nation's perception of security and invulnerability. Globalization continued to impact society at large, with significant impacts on fashion. Concerns about climate change and global warming intensified, leading to the creation of more sustainable fashion options. E-commerce and social media revolutionized the industry. This became the era of fashion inclusivity - race, gender, size, age, etc. Fashion became democratized and more accessible in every way. In 2008, the Obamas enter the White House, and their style resonated with the public.

1960s: Times are A-Changing Designers and Other Influences

The big fashion story of the decade was swinging London, where Mary Quant introduced the miniskirt. The Rolling Stones introduced the Carnaby Street "Peacock" look for men. Looks became easier to copy and knockoffs became prevalent; French designers struggled to keep pace. Andres Courrèges, Pierre Cardin, and Emanuel Ungaro were influenced by futuristic design, while conservative styles emerged from Hubert de Givenchy. Bill Blass, Oscar de la Renta and Betsy Johnson were successful in the U.S.

Bikini Atoll

The bikini, named after Bikini Atoll—the site of nuclear testing, was introduced in 1946, causing much scandal and outcry across the world.

What is the fashion/marketing environment? What are the major environmental factors that impact fashion interest and demand?

The cardinal rule in any business, especially fashion businesses, is to know your customer. Collectively, the conditions under which we live are called our environment. Four major environmental factors that affect fashion interest and demand include (1) market segmentation (2) a country's economic development and wellbeing (3) sociological characteristics (4) the psychological attitudes of consumers.

Social Mobility

The class system in America is based largely upon occupation, income, residential location, education, and avocation. Upper class top 5% earning $150,000 or more; poverty level 15% earning $23,000 or less. The growth and strength of the middle class has a direct relationship with the growth and strength of fashion demand. As the largest class, members of the middle class have the most significant influence on which fashions will be adopted.

Movement of Fashion

The constant movement of fashion depends on the social, political, and economic environment. Successful designers, manufacturers, and buyers have a good understanding of basic cycles, principles, and patterns that operate in the world of fashion. Accelerating factors speed up fashion cycles, while delaying factors either discourage people from adopting incoming styles or encourage them to continue using styles that might be considered on the decline.

Decline Stage:

The decline stage occurs when boredom with a fashion sets in, the result is a decrease in consumer demand for that fashion. Consumers may still be wearing the fashion, but they are no longer willing to pay full price. Fashion merchandisers need to anticipate this stage and start markdowns early.

Diffusion of Innovation / Gatekeepers

The diffusion process maps the response to the innovation over time. This pattern of acceptance or rejection determines the fashion or innovation's lifecycle. Gatekeepers: People or groups that filter the innovative ideas proposed by designers and street fashion and determine which will be disseminated widely and which will be discarded—a role traditionally played by journalists, manufacturers, retailers, that has expanded to include bloggers, influencers, etc.

Details

The individual elements that give a silhouette its form or shape (trimmings; skirt and pant length and width; and shoulder, waist, and sleeve treatment). Causes the evolutions in silhouettes; variations in detail allow designers and consumers to express their individuality within the framework of the currently accepted silhouette.

Marketing

The marketing process includes diverse activities that identify consumer needs so that marketers can plan, price, distribute, and promote products to sell easily. The goal is to match products and services close to the wants and needs of a carefully defined target market to ensure profitability and customer satisfaction.

Introduction Stage

The next new fashion may be introduced by a producer in the form of a color, texture, or style. New styles are almost always introduced in higher priced merchandise and in smaller quantities. A testing period comes at the beginning of the buying cycle of fashion merchandise, which coincides with the introduction stage of the fashion cycle. This testing period ends when the new style either begins to increase in popularity or is rejected by the target market.

What is the difference between a consumer buying cycle and a consumer use cycle? Which is typically longer?

The normal flow of a fashion cycle can be broken or abruptly interrupted by outside influences. This could be unexpected weather or changes in group acceptance, or it could be more dramatic and far-reaching such as war, economic depressions or natural disasters. Every fashion has both a consumer buying cycle and a consumer use cycle. Consumer use is usually longer

Silhouette

The overall outline or contour Silhouettes belong to one of three basic groups: (a) bell-shaped or bouffant (b) bustle or back fullness (c) straight or tubular. Variations of straight silhouettes are: (d) slim (e) rectangular (f) wedge (g) A-line.

1950s: New Prosperity Social and Cultural Conditions

The postwar years were a boom period for Americans, with rising birth rates and a thriving economy. New consumer goods filled the home, TV became popular, and more leisure time and disposable income ushered in a new consumerism. The era was marked by a general conservatism; men and women resumed traditional gender roles. The nuclear family was held up as the ideal. However, rock n' roll emerges as a significant influence on youth culture. Marilyn Monroe, Elvis, Marlon Brando, and James Dean were icons of the time. Kerouac's On the Road became a manifesto for disenchanted youth. The 50s see the birth of the "teenager" as a new phenomenon that influenced style (trickle-up from blue collar workers and motorcycle culture). Teenagers rebelled against the conformity and repression of the era.

1940s: War and Duty Designers and Other Influences

The shift away from European influences was the biggest change to American fashion in the 1940s. Claire McCardell worked within the rationing guidelines to create practical staples like the popover dress and dirndl skirt. The "founder" of American sportswear. She was a pioneer who provided affordable and functional garments that exemplified what American style was and would become.

1930s: Making Do Social and Cultural Conditions:

The worldwide economic downturn ushered in a new frugality. Unemployment was at an all-time high during the Great Depression. Americans turned to glamourous Hollywood for relief. The Duke and Duchess of Windsor became fashion icons.

Culmination Stage:

This is a period when a fashion is at the height of its popularity and use. At this stage, also called the plateau stage, the fashion is in such high demand that it can be mass produced, mass-distributed, and sold at prices within the range of most consumers. At this stage, the high-price line fashion buyer stops reordering the fashion and begins reducing stock. This stage may be extended if the fashion becomes a classic or if new details of design, color, or texture are continually introduced.

Upward-Flow Theory (Trickle-Up Theory)

This theory holds that the young (and often those of lower incomes) are quicker than any social group to create or adopt new and different fashions. Denim reached America in the mid-1800s and was first worn by miners and laborers, but by the 1950s, it had become the informal uniform of the rebellious beat generation. Denim is now accepted as appropriate casual attire around the world. The motivation for differentiation drives subcultures where new looks are created. Members of these subcultures adopt specific aesthetic codes that differentiate them from other subcultures and from the mainstream. Imitation may occur between social groups, but subcultures provide inspiration for fashion designers and gatekeepers.

The Sociological Environment

To understand fashion, we must understand the sociological environment in which fashion trends begin, grow, and fade away. Changes in fashion align with subtle shifts occurring in society; fashion is symbolic of social change. Some key aspects influencing fashion include leisure time; ethnic influences; status of women; social and physical mobility; technology; and wars, disasters, and other crises.

Who are innovators, influentials, and opinion leaders? Who are fashion leaders? How do these individuals act as change agents?

Together these consumers are change agents, and they perform several important roles in the spread of innovations in their social groups: They communicate trends visually and verbally. They are more knowledgeable and interested in fashion. They have the aesthetic taste and social sensibility to assemble stylish looks. In particular, they produce word-of-mouth with the power to spread the innovation. Fashion leaders can take the form of royalty, the wealthy, celebrities, or athletes, but they can also be typical consumers who impact their own social groups.

Edwardian Age Social and Cultural Conditions

U.S. population = 75.9 million by 1900, continued to grow due to immigration. The divide between the rich and poor widened. Women continued to work; by 1910, 25% earned wages. Bicycling was a popular pastime. Vehicle and telephone use became more widespread.

War, Disaster, and Crisis

War, widespread disaster, and crisis shake people's lives and focus attention on ideas, events, and places that may be completely new. People develop a need for fashions that are compatible with changes in their attitudes and also changes in their environments. In the midst of both world wars and the Depression of the 1930s, fashions changed.

Rise Stage:

When a new style is accepted by an increasing number of customers, it is in the rise stage. At this stage, the buyer reorders in quantity for maximum stock coverage. During the rise stage, many retailers offer knockoffs, or versions of the original designer style duplicated by manufacturers (usually mass produced with cheaper materials). At this stage, the promotion effort focuses on regular price lines, full assortments, and product-type ads to persuade customers.

Obsolescence Stage:

When strong distaste for a style has set in and it can no longer be sold at any price.

1950s: New Prosperity Designers and Other Influences

With Dior's New Look in 1947, Paris regained its standing. Pierre Balmain, Jacques Fath, Nina Ricci, and Dior made significant contributions to the feminine, formal styles of the 50s. In 1954, Chanel reopened and introduced the iconic, collarless tweet suit; it was an instant hit in the U.S. (though not in France). Italian designers including the House of Gucci emerged. American designers, such as Norman Norell and Charles James, continued to gain recognition. Barbie, an unlikely fashion icon, was introduced in 1959.

1960s: Times are A-Changing Social and Cultural Conditions

With the election of JFK, the decade began in a mood of progressiveness and optimism; this quickly faded with his assassination in 1963. The decade then was marked by the Vietnam conflict and race riots. In 1968, MLK and Bobby Kennedy were assassinated within 2 months of one another. The birth control pill, approved in 1960, ignited the sexual revolution and female empowerment. Helen Gurly Brown, Editor of Cosmopolitan, disrupted the industry and society's preconceived notions of sex and feminism. Hugh Hefner helped to revolutionize traditional sexual norms. Playboy taught men to see themselves as consumers of fashion, style, and sophistication. The 60s brought an era of protests, antiwar demonstrations, and generational conflicts, which contributed to the 60s being the most tumultuous decade for fashion. Fashion = freedom; clothing was a symbol of opposition. 1967's Summer of Love and 1969's Woodstock festival were defining moments for youth culture.

Zoot Suits

Zoot suits were primarily worn by African American and Latino men. One of the first youth cultures. The zoot suit gave marginalized communities an identity. Defied the war rationing efforts and offended conservative men, leading to the zoot suit riots in LA in 1943. The zoot suit became a symbol of racial conflict in the U.S.

Style

a characteristic or distinctive artistic expression or presentation. Styles exist in painting, architecture, music, sculpture, politics, as well as heroes, games, hobbies, weddings, etc. In apparel, style is a characteristic or distinctive appearance of a garment—or combination of features that make it unique and different from other garments.

Editorial Content

a form of publicity in which the name of the designer or manufacturer is provided to consumers, along with retail stores where the item can be purchased—may be provided.

Trend

a general direction or movement. Several designers, including leading ones, are showing the trend which leads retailers to buy them and fashion-forward consumers to wear them. A trend can originate anywhere and has a solid foundation that supports its growth; a fad does not

High Fashion

a new style accepted by a limited number of fashion leaders who want to be the first to adopt changes and innovation in fashion. High fashion styles are generally introduced and sold in limited quantities and at high prices.

Desgin

a particular or individual interpretation, version, or treatment of a specific style

Anne Klein

a popular sportswear designer until her death in 1974; Donna Karen was one of her design successors who would become a hit in the 80s.

Eleanor Lambert

a publicist who helped to shape the perception of American fashion. She created the first American Fashion Week (in the midst of WWII). Fashion and events like Fashion Week provided distraction and a sense of hope during the war.

Classic

a style of design that satisfies a basic need and remains in general fashion acceptance for an extended period of time. Characterized by simplicity of design that keeps it from being dated

Carrie Bradshaw (and costume designer Patricia Field)

bridged the gap between runway couture and the everyday woman

Increased education

broadens people's exposure to new interests and wants, and greater education tends to equate with greater discretionary income

Madonna

broke stereotypes of feminism, sexuality, and identity

Sales promotion

cannot force consumers to accept a new fashion or save a dying fashion, but it can greatly influence a fashion's success just by telling people it exists

Influentials

change agents who are recognized by others for their abilities to adopt and display innovations and who tend to establish the standards of dress for others in the social group.

Adornment

decoration—was an important part of dressing from the beginning, and it continues to be

Social media managers

develop and implement marketing strategies for a fashion business's social media presence, including managing regular posts and responding to followers, creating company profiles, blogging, etc. Individuals are hired to create Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, Instagram, and Pinterest accounts to effectively market and drive traffic to websites to enhance the visibility of a brand, product, service, or person. Most professionals in this area do not possess degrees in "social media" but often have transferable and specialized skill sets in technology, public relations and marketing, advertising, and journalism.

Technological advances

have improved production and increased the speed at which new fashions are introduced to the market, while also improving consumer accessibility to fashion information

Stylist

helps with clothing and accessories that flatter their client's appearance and effectively present the celebrity's personal brand or elements of the product brand being advertised. Stylists often receive promotional goods from designers and manufacturers.

Dianne von Furstenburg

introduced her iconic wrap dress in 1973; it was an instant success.

Seasonal change

is consistently the most important accelerating factor. As seasons change, so do consumer demands. Even in moderate climates, boredom can drive change

Donna Karen

launched practical work attire for women. Her "7 easy pieces" made of jersey, wool, and silk offered sophisticated separates and provided a new type of feminine power dressing.

Increased leisure time

means more time to consume and more time for exposure to information about current fashions

Advertising

media placement that is paid for (e.g., TV, magazines, billboards, etc.)

Trend Forecaster

responsible for identifying new trends and predicting how those trends will shape a certain industry. Usually based at a trend forecasting agency such as WGSN or Donegar, but can be an in-house position as well. Often travel to different cities across the country and around the world.

Karl Lagerfeld

revitalized the house of Chanel in 1982.

Special knowledge skills or "hard skills"

the career-related skills you learn when you attend institutes of higher learning or through specific job experiences. Fashion designer - ability to sketch, research trends, work with Illustrator or Photoshop, create mood boards, develop flat sketches, and spec sheets. Buyer - ability to use Excel, read spreadsheets, shop the market for trends, and understand retail math and "open to buys."

Publicity

the free and voluntary mention of a firm, product, or person in the media

Fashion Merchandising

the planning required to have the right fashion-oriented merchandise at the right time, in the right place, in the right quantities, at the right prices, and with the right sales promotions for the specified target customer

Color

the quality of an object or substance with respect to light reflected by the object, usually determined visually by measurement of hue, saturation, and brightness of the reflected light. Historically, color denoted rank and profession. Is a major factor in apparel selection and is important in advertising, packaging, and store décor. Color symbolism varies geographically and culturally.

Fast Fashion

the retail strategy of keeping fashion fresh. They are set up to deliver new styles within weeks instead of months.

Fashion Industry

those engaged in manufacturing the materials and finished products used in the production of apparel and accessories

Vanessa Williams

was crowned the first black Miss America, later to be dethroned due to a scandal from her past.

Victorian Era

was marked by the conservative and strict standards of personal morality that defined most of the 19th century. The spirit of the times focused on gentility, refinement, and propriety. There was a shift from homemade to ready-made apparel and mass production.

Fashion Magazine

which combine advertising and PR, came into existence about 150 years ago. Primary function is the business of reporting and interpreting fashion news. Brings together an array of professionals with skills in writing, art, photography, business, research, and more

PR Agencies

work closely with clients, keeping abreast of what is new or newsworthy and announcing it to the world, either through press releases, social media campaigns, or story ideas presented to the press. PR agencies may suggest or help to plan and coordinate events, partnerships, philanthropy efforts, etc.