Final Exam Study Guide Ecology Evolution Diversity

Explain how to interpret a phylogenetic tree, identifying grades, clades (para and polyphyletic), and sister groups.

A phylogenetic tree is like a family tree, but for living things. It shows how different species are related to each other. Grades are groups of organisms with similar features, like all mammals. Clades are groups that include an ancestor and all of its descendants. Para- and polyphyletic groups are not good because they either exclude some descendants or include unrelated species. Sister groups are the closest relatives to a particular group.

Define 'population,' and explain why ecologists study them.

A population is a group of the same species living in the same area. Ecologists study them to understand how they interact with their environment and each other. It helps them learn about population size, growth, and how they respond to changes.

Explain a trophic pyramid

A tropic pyramid is like a graph that shows the flow of energy and biomass in an ecosystem. It's shaped like a pyramid because there's less energy and biomass as you go up the levels. Producers, like plants, are at the bottom and have the most energy. As you move up, each level has fewer organisms and less energy. It helps us understand how energy flows through an ecosystem.

Explain the difference between a-, pseudo-, and true-coelomates. Be able to identify examples of each.

Acoelomates don't have a body cavity, pseudocoelomates have a fluid-filled pseudocoelom, and true coelomates have a fully lined fluid-filled coelom.

Explain the differences between and identify examples of allopatric and sympatric speciation, including adaptive radiation.

Allopatric and sympatric speciation are two different processes that can lead to the formation of new species. Allopatric Speciation: This occurs when populations of a species become geographically isolated from each other. The physical separation created barriers that prevents gene flow between the populations. Over time, genetic differences accumulate through natural selection, genetic drift, or mutation, leading to the formation of new species. An example of allopatric speciation is the Galapagos Finches. Each island in the Galapagos has a different population of finches that have adapted to their unique environments, resulting in the formation of multiple species. Sympatric Speciation: This occurs when new species evolve from a single ancestral species without any geographic isolation. Instead, speciation happens within the same geographic area. Sympatric speciation can be driven by various factors such as ecological specialization polyploidy (having multiple sets of chromosomes), or disruptive selection. An example of sympatric speciation is the apple maggot fly. Some populations of this fly shifted their host preferences from hawthorn trees to apple trees, leading to reproductive isolation and the formation of distinct species. Adaptive radiation is a process closely associated with speciation. It occurs when a single ancestral species diversifies into multiple different species, each adapted to occupy different ecological niches. This often happens when a new environment or niche becomes available. An example of adaptive radiation is the famous case of Darwin's finches in the Galapagos Islands. The finches diversified into different species with distinct beak shapes and feeding habits to exploit various food sources on the islands.

Explain how animal complexity is related to embryological development. In your answer, include the terms: zygote, cleaving, morula, blastula, diploblastic, triploblastic, gastrulation, ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm, and blastopore.

Animal complexity and embryological development go hand in hand. It all starts with a fertilized egg called a zygote. The zygote undergoes cell division, forming a solid ball of cells called a morula. Then, it becomes a blastula with a fluid-filled cavity. Animals can be either diploblastic (two germ layers) or triploblastic (three germ layers). Gastrulation rearranges the cells, forming distinct germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm. Each layer gives rise to different body structures. Finally, the blastopore forms, which becomes the mouth in protostomes and the anus in deuterostomes.

Explain the 2 main eukaryotic life cycles: animals and plants

Animals have a diploid life cycle with distinct stages like eggs and adults. Plants have an alternation of generations, switching between gametophyte and sporophyte stages.

Explain the main ways that prokaryotic cells reproduce.

Binary fission this is the most common method of reproduction Prokaryotes. The single cell dividing into two identical daughter cells. Starts with the replication of the genetic material the chromosome in the nucleoid. Then, the cell elongates, and the two copies of the chromosome moved to the opposite ends of the cell., the salmon brain pinches inward, dividing the cytoplasm and creating two separate daughter cells. Each daughter sell inherits one copy of the chromosome, and the process continues. Conjugation is the process of generic exchange between two prokaryotic cells. It involves the transfer of genetic material plasmids from one cell to another through a structure called pilus. During , two cells come into physical contact, in the pilus forms a bridge between them. This bridge allows the transfer of genetic material, such as plasmas, from the donor cell to the recipient cell. This exchange of genetic material can provide new traits or increased genetic diversity within the prokaryotic population. These methods of reproduction allow prokaryotic cells to quickly multiply and adapt to different environments.

Explain the basic biodiversity/biology of bryophytes (all 3), ferns, horsetails, gymnosperms, gingkoes, conifers, angiosperms, monocots, and eudicots.

Bryophytes: These are non-vascular plants like mosses and liverworts. They don't have true roots, stems, or leaves, but they're important for soil and habitats. Ferns: They're vascular plants with fronds, and they reproduce through spores. You can find them in various habitats worldwide. Horsetails: Ancient plants with jointed stems that look like green pipes. They thrive in wet areas. Gymnosperms: They're plants that produce seeds but no flowers. Examples include conifers (like pine trees), gingkoes, and cycads. Angiosperms: The most diverse group of plants, including monocots (like grasses and lilies) and eudicots (like roses and sunflowers).

Explain what ecosystem services are and identify examples.

Ecosystem services are like nature's superheroes. They're the benefits ecosystems provide to us humans. Examples include pollination, water purification, climate regulation, flood control, and nutrient cycling. Nature really does a lot for us.

Explain the main structures of the eukaryotic cell.

Eukaryotic cells have important stuctures like the nucleus, mitochondria, organelles, cytoskeleton, and cell membrane. They all work together to keep the cell functioning properly. Its like a well-organized team.

Explain what Carl Woese and George Fox contributed to the field of biology.

Carl Woese and George Fox made significant contributions to the field of biology, particularly in the study of Microorganisms and the classification of life. Carl Woese Is known for his ground breaking work in the 1970s, where he proposed a new classification system based on the analysis of ribosomal rna. Discovered that there are three distinct domains of life bacteria, archaea, and eukarya. This revolutionized our understanding of the tree of life and the relationships between different organisms. George Fox, on the other hand, is known for his research on extremophiles, which are organisms that can survive in extreme environments such as hot sprains or deep sea hydrothermal vents. His work helped expand our knowledge of the diversity of life and the conditions under which organisms can thrive. Both Woese and Fox played instrumental roles In advancing our understanding of the microbial world and the complexity of life on Earth. Their contributions have had a lasting impact on the field of biology and continue to shape our understanding of the living world.

Explain who Charles Keeling was and what he contributed to the field of science.

Charles Keeling was an awesome scientist who studied carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere. He found out that they were increasing over time, which helped us understand how human activities impact the climate. His work is super important for understanding climate change.

Explain what co-speciation is.

Co-speciation refers to the process in which two or more closely associated species evolve in parallel with each other. It occurs when a host species and its associated dependent species, such as parasites or symbiotic organisms, undergo speciation simultaneously. As the host species diverges into multiple lineages, the dependent species also undergoes speciation to maintain their close association with the evolving host species. Co-speciation often happens when there is a strong ecological or evolutionary relationship between the host and dependent species. For example, consider a scenario where a group of insects has a close association with a specific plant species. As the plant species diverges into different lineages, the insects that rely on these plants for food or shelter may also undergo speciation to adapt to the evolving host plants. Co-Speciation can be seen in various ecological relationships, such as mutualistic interactions (example pollinators and flowering plants) or parasitic interactions (example host and parasite).

Explain the concept of coevolution

Coevolution is like a dynamic dance between two species that influence each other's evolution. For example, predators and prey or pollinators and flowers. They constantly shape each other's traits over time.

Explain all the different types of species interactions and be able to identify examples of each. Competition (inter and intraspecific, competitive exclusion, resource partitioning), exploitative (predation, parasitism, herbivory), mutualism (symbiosis, obligate, facultative and facilitation), and commensalism.

Competition: When species compete for resources. It can be between different species (inter-specific) or within the same species (intra-specific). Competitive Exclusion: Happens when one species outcompetes another. Resource Partitioning: When species divide resources to reduce competition. Exploitative Interactions: These include predation (one species hunting and eating another), parasitism (one species benefiting at the expense of another), and herbivory (animals feeding on plants). Mutualism: It's a win-win situation where both species benefit. Symbiosis: Is a close and long-term relationship. Obligate mutualism: Is when species can't survive without each other. Facultative mutualism: Is when they benefit but can survive alone. Commensalism: One species benefits, and the other is unaffected. For example, a bird building a nest in a tree.

Explain and be able to identify examples of dependent and independent population density factors.

Dependent population density factors are influenced by the size of the population itself, like competition for resources, disease, and predation. Independent factors, on the other hand, affect populations regardless of their size, such as climate events, natural disasters, and habitat destruction.

Explain the process of ecological succession (primary, secondary, pioneer species, etc.)

Ecological succession is like a natural makeover for ecosystems. There are two types: primary and secondary succession. Primary succession happens when there's no soil, while secondary succession occurs after a disturbance. Pioneer species start the process, and over time, the ecosystem becomes more diverse and complex. It's nature's way of renewing itself.

Explain why ecologists study ecosystems.

Ecologists study ecosystems because they're like detectives of nature! By studying ecosystems, they can understand how different species interact, how energy flows through the environment, and how human activities impact the balance of nature. It helps them make informed decisions about conservation and management. Plus, its just super fascinating to learn about the intricate web of life and how everything is connected.

Explain in detail the process of eutrophication and what 'dead zones' are

Eutrophication is when bodies of water get too many nutrients, like nitrogen and phosphorus, which causes excessive algae and plant growth. When the algae and plants die, they sink to the bottom and decompose, using up oxygen in the water. This leads to low oxygen levels, called hypoxia. Dead zones are areas in water bodies where oxygen levels are so low that aquatic life can't survive. Fish and other organisms either die or leave the area. Dead sones have negative effects on the ecosystem and can hurt fishing and the environment. To reduce eutrophication and dead zones, we need to address the sources of nutrient pollution, like improving farming practices and wastewater treatment.

Explain exponential growth versus logistic growth and what influences each to occur.

Exponential growth is when a population grows rapidly without limits, while logistic growth starts fast but levels off due to limiting factors. Exponential growth is influenced by ideal conditions, while logistic growth is affected by resources, competition, and carrying capacity.

Explain the main characteristics that describe all living things.

First, living things are made up of cells, which are the building blocks of life. They can be single-celled or multicellular organisms. Second, living things have the ability to grow and develop. This means they can increase in size and change over time. Third, living things can reproduce which means they can make more of their own kind. Fourth, living things can respond to their environment. They can sense and react to changes in their surroundings. And finally, living things need energy to survive. They obtain energy through processes like eating, photosynthesis, or other means. These characteristics help define what it means to be alive.

Explain and identify examples of the various evidences of evolution. Be detailed and specific.

Fossil Record: Fossils provide a record of past life on Earth and show the progression of different species over time. For instance, the fossil record reveals the transition from fish to amphibians, and from land-dwelling mammals to whales. Comparative Anatomy: By comparing the anatomical structures of different organisms, we can find similarities that suggest a common ancestry. For example, the pentadactyl limb structure (having five digits) is found in various vertebrates, including humans, cats, bats, and whales. Embryology: The study of embryos reveals similarities in early developmental stages among different species. For instance, the embryos of humans, fish, and chickens all have gill slits and tails during early stages, indicating a shared evolutionary history. Molecular Biology: DNA and protein sequences can be compared across species to determine their genetic relatedness. The more similar the sequences, the more closely related the species are believed to be. For example, humans and chimpanzees share approximately 98% of their DNA. Biogeography: The distribution of species across different geographic regions provided evidence of common ancestry. For instance, the presence of similar marsupials in Australia and South America suggests a shared evolutionary history before the continents separated.

Explain what genes, alleles, species, population, gene pool, allele frequency, and microevolution are and explain how they relate to evolution.

Gene: A gene is a segment of DNA that contains the instructions for building and functioning of a specific trait. Genes are passed from parents to offspring and determine various characteristics, such as eye color, height, and blood type. Allele: An allele is a variant form of a gene. Each gene can have multiple alleles, which are responsible for the variations we see in traits. For example, the gene for eye color may have alleles for blue, brown, or green eyes. Species: A species is a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. Members of the same species share similar genetic characteristics and can reproduce with one another, while individuals from different species cannot produce viable offspring together. Population: A population refers to a group of individuals of the same species that live in the same geographic area and have the potential to interbreed. Populations are the units of evolution, as genetic changes occur within populations over time. Gene Pool: The gene pool is the total collection of genes and alleles within a population. It represents the genetic diversity present in a population and serves as the raw material for evolutionary changes. Allele Frequency: Allele frequency refers to the proportion of a specific allele within a population's gene pool. It is calculated by dividing the number of copies of a particular allele by the total number of alleles for that gene in the population. Microevolution: Microevolution refers to the small-scale changes in the genetic makeup of a population over time. It involves changes in allele frequencies within a population, leading to the evolution of new traits or variations in existing traits.

Explain in detail the 3 main threats to biodiversity

Habitat Loss: The first big threat to biodiversity is when natural homes for plants and animals are taken away or damaged. This happens when forests are cut down, cities expand, or land is used for farming. When habitats are lost, many species struggle to survive. Climate Change: The changing climate is another major threat to biodiversity. It causes things like higher temperatures, different rainfall patterns, and extreme weather events. These changes can disrupt ecosystems and make it hard for some species to survive. Some may not be able to adapt and could even disappear forever. Overexploitation: This threat happens when we use up natural resources too quickly and without thinking about the consequences. For example, catching too many fish, trading wildlife illegally, or cutting down too many trees. When species are overexploited, their numbers go down, and this can harm the balance of nature. To protect biodiversity, we need to work together and take actions like conserving nature, using land wisely, and following international agreements. It's important to make sure that different species can keep living and thriving on our planet.

Describe the importance of homeostasis and identify examples. Include in your description the terms 'set point' and 'negative feedback'

Homeostasis is like our body's way of keeping things balanced. The set point is the target value our body wants to maintain, and negative feedback helps bring things back to normal when there are deviations. It helps regulate things like body temperature, blood pressure, and blood sugar levels.

Explain what homogenization, interbreeding depression, nonrandom mating, assorting mating, intra-sexual and inter-sexual selection, founder and bottleneck effect are.

Homogenization refers to the process by which populations become more similar to each other over time. This can occur through various factors such as gene flow, interbreeding, and the spread of advantageous traits. As populations mix and exchange genetic material, the genetic differences between them decrease, leading to homogenization. Interbreeding depression, also known as outbreeding depression, occurs when individuals from different populations or closely related species mate and produce offspring with reduced fitness. This can happen due to the combination of deleterious or incompatible alleles. Nonrandom mating refers to the preference or avoidance of certain traits or individuals during the process of mate selection. This can lead to changes in allele frequencies within a population. Assortative mating is a type of nonrandom mating where individuals with similar phenotypes or traits tend to mate with each other more frequently than expected by chance. Intrasexual selection refers to competition between individuals of the same sex for access to mates. This competition can involve various behaviors such as aggression, displays, or physical combat. Intersexual selection refers to the selection of mates based on certain traits or characteristics that are preferred by the opposite sex. Founder effect occurs when a small group of individuals establishes a new population, leading to a loss of genetic diversity compared to the original population. Bottleneck effect occurs when a population undergoes a drastic reduction in size, leading to a loss of genetic diversity. This can happen due to natural disasters, disease outbreaks, or human activities. The surviving individuals may have a limited set of alleles, and as the population recovers, the genetic diversity may remain reduced.

Explain what each of the following terms mean, how they are related to each other, and how they apply to evolution.

Homologous Structures: Homologous structures are anatomical features that have a similar structure but may serve different functions in different organisms. These structures suggest a common ancestry. For example, the forelimbs of humans, bats, and whales have different functions (grasping, flying, swimming), but they share a similar bone structure. Analogous Structures: Analogous Structures are anatomical features that have a similar function but may have different structures and origins. These structures are not evidence of a common ancestry but rather of convergent evolution. An example is the wings of birds and insects. They both serve the purpose of flight, but their structures and origins are different. Vestigial Structures: Vestigial Structures are anatomical features that have lost their original function over the course of evolution. They are remnants of structures that were functional in ancestral species. For instance, the human appendix is considered a vestigial structure as it no longer serves a significant purpose. These terms are related to each other in the context of evolution because they provide evidence for common ancestry, adaptation, and the gradual changes that occur over time. Homologous structures suggest that different species share a common ancestor, while analogous structures show how different species can independently evolve similar traits. Vestigial structures demonstrate the presence of remnants from our evolutionary past.

Explain the concepts and be able to identify examples of homology, analogy, and convergent evolution.

Homology refers to similarities between different species that are inherited from a common ancestor. These similarities can be seen in structures, traits, or even DNA sequences. For example, the forelimbs of humans, cats, whales, and bats all have the same basic structure, even though they serve different functions. Analogy, on the other hand, refers to similarities between different species that are not inherited from a common ancestor but rather arise due to similar environmental pressures. Similarities are often seen in structures of traits that serve the same same function. An example would be the wings of birds and insects. Although they have different structures, they both evolved independently to enable flight. Convergent evolution occurs when different species independently evolve similar traits or characteristics due similar environmental conditions or selective pressures. A classic example is the evolution of wings and birds, bats, and insects. Although this species are not closely related, they all develop wings to adapt their respective environments.

Explain all these terms: Horizontal Gene Transfer, Transformation, and Transduction.

Horizontal gene transfer refers to the transfer of genetic material between organisms that are not parent and offspring. Comments the Sharon of jeans between different individuals or even different species. Process allows for the exchange of genetic information and could lead to the acquisition of new traits or characteristics. Horizontal gene transfer can occur through processes like transformation and transduction. Transformation is a process by which a prokaryotic cell takes up and it incorporates dna from its surroundings. In this process, a prokaryotic cell Can't absorb fragments of DNA released by other cells that have undergone lysis or have released DNA into the environment. Integrated into the recipient cells own genome, potentially providing it with new genetic traits. Transduction is the process in which genetic materials transfer from one bacterium to another by a bacteriophage. Transduction come a Bacteriophage infects the donor bacterium and replicates inside it., instead of producing more phage particles, some phages can accidentally package a fragment of the donor bacterium's DNA. when this phage infects a recipient bacterium, it injects the donor dna into the recipient, which can then be integrated into the recipients genome.

Explain how humans are impacting the carbon cycle, what the greenhouse effect is, what is currently happening and what is predicted to happen with continued climate change.

Humans are impacting the carbon cycle by burning fossil fuels and cutting down forests, which release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This contributes to the greenhouse effect, where certain gases trap heat and cause global warming. We're already seeing the effects of climate change, like rising temperatures and extreme weather events. If we don't take action, things could get worse with more intense heatwaves, rising sea levels, and other problems. But we can make a difference by reducing emissions and adopting sustainable practices.

Explain in detail what a scientific theory is versus what is meant by the common use of the term "theory"

In everyday language when we use the word "theory," it often means a guess or speculation. However, in the scientific world, a theory has a different meaning. A scientific theory is an explanation that is based on a vast amount of evidence, experiments, and observations.it is a well-substantiated and widely accepted explanation for a phenomenon or set of phenomena. Scientific theories are not just guesses or hunches. They are supported by a large body of evidence and have withstood rigorous testing and scrutiny. They are used to explain and predict natural phenomena and are the foundation of scientific understanding.

Explain the keystone species and trophic cascade concepts. Include how ecosystem engineers are sometimes considered keystone species.

Keystone species are like the "key" to a balanced ecosystem. They have a big impact, and if you remove them, it can cause problems. Trophic cascades happen when changes in one species affects the whole food chain. And ecosystem engineers, like beavers, are considered keystone species because they shape their habitat.

Explain the evolutionary trends in the phylogeny of land plants and which plant groups possess which trends.

Land plants have evolved some cool trends. Vascular tissues help them grow tall and transport water, found in ferns, gymnosperms, and flowering plants. Seeds provide protection and nourishment, found in gymnosperms and flowering plants.

Explain the significance of meta-population, habitat patches/fragmentation, and habitat corridors.

Meta-populations are interconnected groups of species occupying different habitat patches. Habitat patches are areas of suitable habitat surrounded by unsuitable or fragmented habitat. Habitat corridors are strips of habitat that connect these patches. Meta-populations allow for gene flow, habitat patches can be negatively impacted by fragmentation, and habitat corridors promote movement and biodiversity.

Explain why the following statement is incorrect: "NS creates new traits and is goal oriented." Be able to re-phrase the statement correctly.

Natural Selection doesn't create new traits, but rather acts on existing traits within a population. It is also important to note that natural selection is not goal-oriented; it doesn't have a specific end goal in mind. Instead, it is a process where certain traits become more or less common in a population based on their impact on survival and reproduction. So, a more accurate statement would be "Natural Selection acts on existing traits within a population based on their impact on survival and reproduction."

Describe and identify the non-adaptive natural selection mechanisms

Non-adaptive natural selection mechanisms refer to processes that can affect the frequency of traits in a population without providing a fitness advantage or disadvantage. Genetic drift is a random process that can lead to changes in allele frequencies over time. It occurs when the frequency of certain alleles fluctuates due to chance events, such as the random sampling of individuals during reproduction. Genetic drift is more pronounced in small populations and can lead to the loss or fixation of certain alleles, even if they do not confer any selective advantage. Gene flow, refers to the movement of genes between different populations. When individuals migrate and reproduce with individuals from other populations, they introduce new genetic material and can alter the genetic composition of both populations. Gene flow can help maintain genetic diversity within a species but can also lead to the spread of advantageous or disadvantageous trats. Mutation is another non-adaptive mechanism that can contribute to genetic variation. Mutations are random changes in DNA sequences that can introduce new alleles into a population. While most mutations are neutral or harmful, occasionally, they can lead to beneficial traits that may be subject to adaptive natural selection. These non-adaptive mechanisms play a role in shaping the genetic diversity and composition of populations, alongside adaptive natural selection.

Explain all the steps of the scientific method.

Observation: This is where scientists make observations or ask questions about something they want to study. It could be anything from noticing a pattern to wondering how something works. Research: scientists then gather information and research what is already known about the topic. They review existing literature, studies, and data to build a foundation of knowledge. Hypothesis: based on their research, scientists form a hypothesis. A hypothesis is an educated guess or a proposed explanation for the observed phenomenon. It should be testable and falsifiable. Experiment: scientists design and conduct experiments to test their hypothesis. They carefully plan and control variables to ensure accurate results. They collect data and make observations during the experiment. Analysis: after gathering data, scientists analyze and interpret the results. They look for patterns, trends, and relationships in the data to draw conclusions. Conclusion: based on the analysis, scientists draw conclusions about whether their hypothesis was supported or not. They evaluate the significance of their findings and discuss any limitations or areas for further research. Communication: finally, scientists communicate their findings through scientific papers, presentations, or conferences. This allows other scientists to review, replicate, and build upon their work.

Explain the limitations of the BSC and describe what a 'hybrid' is according to the BSC.

One limitation is that it cannot be applied to species that reproduce asexually or to extinct species that we can't observe directly. Additionally, the BSC doesn't account for cases where different species can occasionally interbreed and produce offspring, like some hybrids. According to the BSC, a hybrid is the offspring of two individuals from different species. Hybrids usually have a mix of traits from both parent species. However, hybrids are often infertile or have reduced fertility, which means they cant successfully reproduce with either parent fertile offspring themselves. This reproductive isolation is an important factors in defining species according to the BSC. So, while the BSC provides a useful framework for understanding species, it does have its limitations when it comes to asexual reproduction, extinct species, and cases of occasional hybridization.

Explain what parsimony is and be able to identify the most parsimonious phylogenetic tree.

Parsimony is a principal used in phylogenetics to find the most likely or simplest explanation for the evolutionary relationships between species. The most parsimonious phylogenetic tree Is one that requires the fewest evolutionary changes their assumptions. To identify the most parsimonious phylogenetic tree, scientists analyze different characteristics or traits of the species in question. They look for the tree that requires the views number of evolutionary changes to explain the observed traits. Approach assumes that the simplest explanation usually is the most accurate. However, it is important to note That finding the most parsimonious tree can be quite complex and requires careful analysis of multiple traits and data. Scientists use various techniques, such as computer algorithms, to evaluate different tree topologies and determine the most parsimonious one

Compare and contrast the afore-mentioned persons' ideas of evolution

Plato and Aristotle, being ancient Greek philosophers, had more general ideas about the natural world rather than a specific theory of evolution. Plato believed in the concept of forms, which influenced later philosophers and scientists. Aristotle, on the other hand, focused on the classification and categorization of organisms. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck proposed the theory of the inheritance of acquired characteristics. He believed that organisms could change during their lifetimes in response to their environment, and these acquired traits could be passed on to their offspring. However, this idea has been largely discredited in modern evolutionary biology. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution through natural selection is the most widely accepted and influential concept in the field. Darwin proposed that species change over time through the process of natural selection, where individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, leading to the accumulation of beneficial traits in a population over generations. Alfred Russel Wallace independently developed a similar theory of natural selection to Darwin's. His extensive fieldwork, particularly in Southeast Asia, provided further evidence for the process of evolution through natural selection.

Identify the contributions Plato, Aristotle, Lamarck, Darwin, and Wallace have to the field of evolution.

Plato: Plato was an ancient Greek philosopher who lived around 400 BCE. While he didn't directly contribute to the field of evolution as we know it today, his ideas about the natural world and the concept of forms influenced later philosophers and scientists, setting the stage for the development of evolutionary thought. Aristotle: Aristotle, another ancient Greek philosopher and student of Plato, lived around 300 BCE. He made important contributions to the understanding of biology and classification of organisms. Although his ideas about evolution were not as developed as those of later scientists, his work laid the groundwork for future studies in natural history. Lamarck: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck was a French biologist who lived in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. He proposed a theory of evolution known as Lamarckism or the inheritance of acquired characteristics. According to Lamarck, organisms could change during their lifetimes in response to their environment, and these acquired traits could be passed on to their offspring. While Lamarck's ideas were later largely discredited, his work contributed to the early discussions and debates about evolution. Darwin: Charles Darwin, an English naturalist, is often considered the fatner of the theory of evolution. In the mid-19th century, Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection as the mechanism for how species evolve over time. His groundbreaking book, "On the Origin of Species," published in 1859, presented evidence for evolution and revolutionized our understanding of the natural world. Wallace: Alfred Russel Wallace, a British naturalist, independently developed a theory of evolution through natural selection around the same time as Darwin. In fact, it was Wallace's letter to Darwin that prompted Darwin to finally publish his own work.

Explain the factors that cause populations to grow or decline.

Populations can grow due to high birth rates, immigration, and favorable environmental conditions. Conversely, populations can decline due to high death rates, emigration, and unfavorable environmental factors. Interactions like predation and competition also play a role.

Describe what positive and negative selection, heterozygote advantage, and balancing selection are.

Positive selection occurs when a particular trait or allele is favored by natural selection, leading to its increased frequency in a population over time. An example of positive selection is the evolution of lactase persistence in humans, where individuals with the ability to digest lactose have a higher fitness advantage in populations that consume dairy products. Negative selection, refers to the removal or reduction of a particular trait or allele from a population due to its detrimental effects on fitness. An example of negative selection is the selection against harmful mutations that can cause genetic disorders or reduce an individual's chances of survival and reproduction. Heterozygote advantage, also known as overdominance, occurs when individuals heterozygous for a particular trait have a higher fitness advantage compared to both homozygous individuals. This can result in the maintenance of genetic variation within a population. A classic example of heterozygote advantage is sickle cell anemia and malaria resistance. Individuals who are heterozygous for the sickle cell trait have increased resistance to malaria, while those who are homozygous for the sicle cell gene may develop sickle cell anemia. Balancing selection refers to the process by which natural selection maintains genetic diversity within a population by favoring different alleles under different environmental conditions. This can occur through various mechanisms, such as frequency-dependent selection or spatial heterogeneity. An example of balancing selection is the maintenance of different color morphs in certain butterfly species. The different color patterns provide advantages in different habitats, leading to the coexistence of multiple alleles. These concepts help us understand the dynamics of genetic variation.

Explain and be able to identify examples of each of the pre and post zygotic reproductive isolating mechanisms.

Pre-zygotic mechanisms occur before fertilization, while post-zygotic mechanisms occur after fertilization. Pre-zygotic mechanisms: Habitat isolation is when two species live in different habitats and rarely come into contact. For example, one species of bird lives in the forest, while another species lives in grasslands. Temporal isolation is when two species have different mating seasons or times of activity. For instance, one species of frog mates in the spring, while another species mates in the fall. Behavioral isolation is when the species has different courtship behaviors or mating rituals that are not recognized or accepted by individuals of other species. An example is the unique mating dance of certain bird species. Mechanical isolation is when structural differences prevent successful mating or transfer of gametes. For example, the reproductive organs of two flower species are not compatible for pollination. Gametic isolation is when the gametes of two species are unable to fuse or recognize each other. This can occur due to biochemical incompatibilities between sperm and egg. Post-zygotic mechanisms: hybrid inviability is when the offspring do not develop or survive past the embryonic stage. This can occur due to genetic incompatibilies between the parents. Hybrid sterility means that the offspring are healthy but are unable to produce viable offspring themselves. For instance, mules are offspring of a horse and a donkey, but they are usually sterile. Hybrid breakdown is when the first generation hybrids are viable and fertile, but their offspring (second generation hybrids) have reduced fertility or viability.

Explain how prokaryotes coevolved with eukaryotes and identify examples.

Prokaryotes and eukaryotes have evolved together through symbiotic relationships, like mitochondria in our cells and chloroplasts in plants. These relationships have shape the development of complex cellular structures.

Explain in detail the structures of a prokaryotic cell

Prokaryotic cells are simple, single celled organisms that lack a nucleus and other membrane bound organelles. Typically smaller and less complex than eukaryotic cells. Cell wall prokaryotic cells have a rigid cell wall made of peptidoglycan, A unique molecule that provides structural support and protection. Plasma membrane just beneath the cell wall, there is a plasma membrane that acts as a selectively permeable barrier, controlling the movement of substances in and out of the cell. Cytoplasm the cytoplasm is a gel like substance that fills the interior of the cell, containing various molecules, enzymes, and cellular structures. Nucleoid instead of a nucleus, Prokaryotic cells have a region called the nucleoid. It contains the genetic material, typically in the form of a single Circular DNA molecule called the chromosome. Ribosomes prokaryotic cells have some smaller ribosomes compared to eukaryotic cells. Ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis. Flagella Some prokaryotic cells have flagella, which are whipped like structures that help with cell movement. Pili Are short, hair like projections on the cell surface that ate in attachment to surfaces or other cells. Plasmids prokaryotic cells contain small, circular pieces of DNA called plasmids. Postmates often carry jeans that provide benefits such as antibiotic resistance. These structures allow prokaryotic cells to carry out essential functions like reproduction, metabolism, in response to the environment. Prokaryotic cells are simpler than eukaryotic cells, they are incredibly diverse and can be found in a wide range of environments.

Explain why prokaryotic cells are so small.

Prokaryotic cells are small because their size allows for efficient nutrient uptake in waste removal. Prokaryotics like membrane bound organelles, their cellular processes happen directly in the cytoplasm. The small size ensures that nutrients can quickly diffuse across the cell membrane to reach all parts of the cell. Similarly, waste products can be efficiently expelled. Being small also aids in rapid reproduction, as it requires less time and energy to duplicate genetic material and divide into two cells, so their small size is all about maximizing efficiency.

Explain why prokaryotic phylogeny is particularly tricky to decipher.

Prokaryotic phylogeny is tricky to decide for because prokaryotes have unique ways of evolving and exchanging genetic material. You can easily share jeans with unrelated organisms, making it challenging to trace their evolutionary history accurately. Prokaryotes also have diverse habitats and rapid reproduction rates, leading to unique adaptations and genetic variations. Scientists use various methods, but it's an ongoing challenge. Like solving a puzzle with shifting pieces. Researchers are making exciting discoveries to understand prokaryotic evolution better.

Explain the difference between deuterostomes and protostomes. Be able to identify examples of both.

Protostomes are animals whose mouth develops first, while deuterostomes are animals whose anus develops first.

Explain the difference between radial and bilateral symmetry. Be able to identify examples of both.

Radial symmetry is when an organism can be divided into identical parts around a center. Examples include jellyfish and starfish. Bilateral symmetry is when an organism can be divided into equal halves along a single plane.

Explain ways that we can respond to climate change (hint: a 2-part approach)

Responding to climate change involves two main approaches: mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation focuses on reducing greenhouse gas emissions through renewable energy, energy efficiency, sustainable practices, and conservation. Adaptation involves preparing for and adapting to the impacts of climate change through resilient infrastructure, water management, ecosystem protection, and education. By combining these approaches, we can make a positive impact on climate change.

Explain how we know that chloroplasts and mitochondria are the result of endosymbiosis.

Scientists have found evidence that chloroplasts and mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosomes, similar to prokaryotic cells. They also have a double membrane and resemble free-living prokaryoes. All of this points to them being the result of endosymbiosis, where they were once independent organisms that formed a symbiotic relationship with eukaryotic cells.

Explain the two main hypothesis for the origin of the nucleus and endoplasmic reticulum.

Scientists have two main hypotheses for the origin of the nucleus and endoplasmic reticulum. One is the invagination hypothesis, where the cell membrane folded inwards to form them. The other is the symbiotic hypothesis, where an ancestral cell engulfed a prokaryotic cell that evolved into these structures.

Explain the significance of seeds

Seeds are important! They're like little packages that contain everything a plant needs to grow. They can survive tough conditions and help plants spread. When conditions are right, the seed starts to grow into a new plant. Seeds are like the starting point for plant life.

Describe segmentation and identify organisms that display it.

Segmentation is when an organism's body is divided into repeating segments. Examples include earthworms, insects, crustaceans, and even vertebrates like humans.

Explain the terms: Size and abundance, minimum viable population and carrying capacity, distribution and density, ranges, and age structures.

Size and Abundance: Size refers to the total number of individuals in a population, while abundance refers to how common or plentiful a species is within its habitat. Minimum Viable Population: MVP is the smallest number of individuals required for a population to survive and maintain genetic diversity in the long term. It helps prevent inbreeding and increases the chances of the population's survival. Carrying Capacity: Is the maximum number of individuals that a particular habitat or ecosystem can support sustainably. It depends on factors like available resources, space, and environmental conditions. Distribution and Density: Distribution refers to the geographical area where a population is found, while density refers to the number of individuals per unit area or volume. Distribution can be clumped, uniform, or random, and density can vary within a population. Ranges: Are the geographical areas where a species is found. They can be large or small, depending on factors like habitat suitability, competition, and environmental conditions. Age Structures: Refers to the distribution of individuals in a population across different age groups. It helps us understand the population's reproductive potential, growth rate, and overall health.

Explain the variables in the Hardy-Weinberg equation.

The Hardy-Weinberg equation is used to study the genetic equilibrium in a population. It helps us understand how allele frequencies remain stable from generation to generation under certain conditions. P: P represents the frequency of the dominant allele in the population Q: Q represents the frequency of the recessive allele in the population P^2: P^2 represents the frequency of individuals that are homozygous dominant for a particular trait Q^2: Q^2 represents the frequency of individuals that are homozygous recessive for a particular trait 2pq: 2pq represents the frequency of individuals that are hetrozygous for a particular trait

Explain each of the four species concepts. Be sure to include Charles Darwin and Ernest Mayr in your explanation.

The biological species concept: This concept, proposed by Ernst Mayr, defines a species as a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. According to the biological species concept, individuals from different species cannot successfully reproduce with each other or produce viable offspring. This concept focuses on reproductive isolation as the key factor in defining species. The morphological species concept: This concept, proposed by Charles Darwin, defines a species based on observable physical characteristics. It suggests that individuals belonging to the same species share similar morphological features. The morphological species concept focuses on the external appearance, anatomy, and other visible traits of organisms to identify species. The ecological species concept: This concept, proposed by Ernst Mayr, defines a species based on its ecological niche and role in the environment. It emphasizes the unique adaptations and interactions of a species within its specific habitat. The phylogenetic species concept: This concept, which is based on evolutionary relationships, defines a species as a group of organisms that share a common ancestor and have a distinct evolutionary history. It uses genetic and evolutionary data to determine species boundaries and relationships. Charles Darwin, known for his theory of evolution by natural selection, laid the foundation for understanding the processes that drive species formation and diversity. Ernest Mayr, a renowned evolutionary biologist, made significant contributions to our understanding of speciation and the concept of species. He refined the biological species concept and emphasized the role of reproductive isolation in defining species boundaries.

Explain in detail the biogeochemical cycles of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Include the major reservoirs and fluxes

The carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles are important processes that involve the movement of these elements through different reservoirs in the environment. In the carbon cycle, carbon is exchanged between the atmosphere, oceans, land, and living organisms. The nitrogen cycle involves the conversion of nitrogen between different forms in the atmosphere, soil, plants, and living organisms. In the phosphorus cycle, phosphorus moves between rocks, soil, water and living organisms. These cycles play a vital role in maintaining the balance of these elements in nature.

Explain the cyclical pattern of predator/prey relationships.

The cyclical pattern of predator/prey relationships is like a never-ending dance. When prey populations are abundant, the predator populations increase. But as predators put more pressure on the prey, their numbers decrease. This allows the prey population to recover, starting the cycle again.

Explain what the cytoskeleton allows cells to do.

The cytoskeleton allows cells to maintain their shape, provide structural support, and facilitate cell movement. Its like the cell's internal scaffolding system.

Explain the 5 historic mass extinctions, and general patterns that they share.

The five historic mass extinctions were major events in Earth's history where a significant number of species went extinct. Although they each had their unique causes, there are some general patterns they share. The late Ordovician mass extinction Occurred around 445 million years ago and was likely caused by a combination of glacialization and rapid climate change. The late Devonian mass Extinction happened around 375 million years ago, possibly to a Series of environmental changes, including climate change and oceanic anoxia. (lack of oxygen). The Permian-Triassic Mass extinction, also known as the great dying, occurred around 252 million years ago and is the most severe extinction event in Earth's history. It was likely caused by massive volcanic eruptions leading to warming ocean acidification and a decline in oxygen levels. The Triassic-Jurassic Mass extinction happened about 201 million years ago and is believed to have been triggered by combination of flood basalt eruptions climate change and possibly asteroid impacts. The Cretaceous-Paleogene Mass extinction, famously known for the demise of the dinosaurs, occurred around 66 million years ago. It was likely caused by a combination of a large asteroid impact, leading to global climate disruption widespread environmental changes. These mass extinctions had significant impacts on the Earth's biodiversity and shaped the course of evolution. Each event has its own unique factors, but they all resulted in the loss of many species and paved the way for new forms of life to emerge.

Describe the four main tenants of natural selection and the 'raw material' of evolution. Be able to define both terms.

The four main tenants of natural selection are variation, heredity, overproduction, and reproductive advantage. Variation refers to the differences in traits within a population. Heredity means that these traits can be passed down from generation to generation. Overproduction means that more offspring are produced than can survive, leading to competition for resources. And reproductive advantage means that individuals with certain traits have a better chance of surviving and reproducing. These tenants help shape the 'raw material' of evolution, which is the genetic variation within a population.

Explain the Keeling Curve

The keeling curve is a graph that shows the increase in carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere over time. It was named after Charles Keeling, who started measuring carbon dioxide levels in Hawaii in the 1950s. The curve helps us understand the impact of human activities on climate change.

Explain the 'niche' concept, differentiating between the fundamental and realized niche.

The niche is like a species' job in the environment. There are two types: the fundamental niche, which is the full range of conditions a species can survive in, and the realized niche, which is the actual conditions it occupies due to interactions with other species.

Explain the trophic levels in an ecosystem and be able to identify organisms in the various levels.

Trophic levels in an ecosystem are like food chain levels. They show how energy and nutrients flow from one organism to another. Producers are the plants and other organisms that make their own food through photosynthesis. Primary Consumers are the plant-eating animals that feed directly on the producers. Secondary Consumers are the meat-eating animals that feed on the primary consumers. Tertiary Consumers are the top predators that feed on other carnivores And don't forget about decomposers, like bacteria and fungi, that break down dead organisms and recycle nutrients back into the ecosystem. It's like a big food chain, with each level depending on the one below it for energy.

Explain vascular plant leaf anatomy and how it protects against moisture loss and UV exposure.

Vascular plants have special leaf anatomy to protect against moisture loss and UV exposure. They have a waxy cuticle to prevent water loss, stomata to regulate water loss, and trichomes to shield from UV rays. It's like a natural raincoat, gatekeepers, and sunscreen for plants.

Explain why viruses are not considered living organisms.

Viruses are not considered living organisms because they don't possess all the characteristics that define living things. While they do have genetic material like DNA or RNA, they lack the ability to carry out essential life processes on their own. Viruses cannot grow, reproduce, or respond to their environment without the help of a host cell. So, even though they can cause infections and diseases, viruses are more like biological entities rather than living organisms.

Describe the main patterns in NS and identify examples of each.

When it comes to NS there are three main patterns or modes that can occur. Stabilizing Selection: In this pattern, the intermediate or average phenotype is favored while extreme phenotypes are selected against. This leads to a reduction in genetic variation within a population. An example of stabilizing selection is birth weight in humans. Babies born with very low or very high birth weights have higher mortality rates compared to those born with average birth weights. Directional Selection: In this pattern, one extreme phenotype is favored over the other extreme, or the average phenotype is favored over the other extreme or the average phenotype. This leads to a shift in the frequency of a particular trait over time. An example of directional selection is the evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacteria. When exposed to antibiotics, bacteria with genetic variations that confer resistance have a survival advantage and can pass on these resistant traits to future generations. These patterns of natural selection help shape the genetic makeup of populations over time.

Explain in detail how all populations are not the same. Be sure to include the details and significance of each.

When it comes to populations, they can differ in various ways. One significant difference is genetic diversity. Different populations may have unique genetic variations that make them distinct from one another. Another aspectis cultural diversity, where populations have their own traditions, languages, and customs. These differences contribute to the richness and uniqueness of each population.

Explain how xylem and phloem work and how they allow vascular plants to grow upright.

Xylem and phloem are like a plant's transportation system. Xylem carries water and minerals up, while phloem distributes sugars and nutrients. They work together to help vascular plants grow upright. It's like a plant's own internal highway system.