Final study guide
Compare and contrast the "what" and "where/how" pathways.
"What" pathway: -Dorsal pathway: goes to parietal lobe -Damage --> Balint's syndrome: inability to use visual info to guide movements "Where/how" pathway: -Ventral pathway: goes to temporal lobe -Damage --> Visual agnosia: difficulty identifying objects using visual info
Describe the syndrome known as "contralateral neglect", including its symptoms. What area of the brain, when damaged, seems to lead to this phenomenon?
-After damage to the right parietal lobe lobe (usually), a person may ignore (neglect) the left half of space in all modalities Symptoms: -Bumping into objects located contralaterally to the lesion -Failure to groom the contralateral side of the body -Failure to eat food located contralaterally
Discuss levels-of-processing theory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972).
-The idea that memory depends on how information is encoded, with better memory being achieved when processing is deep than when processing is shallow -The "deeper" we process information, the better we remember it
Distinguish between valid and invalid conclusions. Does validity equal truth? Why or why not?
-Valid: if the conclusion follows logically from its two premises -Validity does not equal truth because a syllogism can be valid but false if one of its premises is false
How is information represented within a single neuron? How is information represented between neurons?
-Within a neuron information is represented electrically -Between neurons, information is represented chemically in the form of neurotransmitters
Describe the four major causes of errors in eyewitness testimony.
1. Attentional errors 2. Errors due to "familiarity" 3. Errors due to suggestion 4. Errors due to post-event questioning
Describe the influence and accomplishments of Donders
1. Donders (1868): -Mental chronometry: measuring how long a cognitive process takes measured in milliseconds -Reaction-Time experiments: measuring interval between stimulus presentation and person's response to stimulus -Subtraction technique: Choice RT - Simple RT = Time to make a decision -Mental responses can't be measured directly but can be inferred from participant's behavior
How can misinformation lead to memory errors? (Hint: Loftus & Palmer, 1974 and Lindsey, 1990)
1. Loftus & Palmer, 1974: -Hear "smashed" or "hit" in description of car accident -Those who heard smashed said car was going much faster than those who hear hit and higher percentage said they saw broken glass even though they heard smashed 2. Lindsey, 1990: -Heard a story in a female voice and two days later heard the same story but with some details changed and was either in a female or male voice -Female voice both times = created more source monitoring errors -Female to male voice = didn't create as many errors
Describe the eight major principles of functional brain organization.
1. in → integrate → out; convergence 2. Sensory and motor divisions exist throughout the nervous system that are kept separate from each other 3. The brain's circuits are crossed: the right hemisphere controls the left side of body and vice versa 4. The brain is both symmetrical and asymmetrical 5. The nervous system works through excitation and inhibition 6. The central nervous system has multiple levels of function: with evolution, new areas are added but old ones are retained 7. Brain systems are organized both hierarchically and in parallel 8. Functions in the brain are both localized and distributed
Describe the computational approach to object recognition.
3 stages: 1. Primal sketch: computing differences in reflected light between objects/background 2. 2 ½ -D Sketch: based on primal sketch; computation of orientations, depth, and structures relative to the viewer 3. 3-D model representation: 3-D representation of the world, independent of viewing perspective; how objects relate to each other
Describe what is meant by "limited capacity" in relation to attention
Attention = limited in capacity SO cannot process everything -have to prioritize info
Compare and contrast automatic versus controlled processing.
Automatic: occurs automatically without intention or awareness Controlled: requires intention or awareness to occur
Describe the action potential.
Brief reversal of electrical charge that travels rapidly down the axon
Describe long-term potentiation (LTP).
The increased firing that occurs in a neuron due to prior activity at the synapse.
Describe Atkinson and Shiffrin's (1968) modal model of memory
Three different types of memory: 1. Sensory Memory - Initial stage that holds all incoming information for seconds or fractions of a second 2. Short-term Memory - Holds five to seven items for about 15 to 20 seconds. 3. Long=term Memory - Can hold a large amount of information for years or even decades
Briefly describe what is meant by "reasoning".
cognitive process by which people start with info and come to conclusions that go beyond that info
Compare and contrast algorithms and heuristics.
-Algorithm: slow definite result, serial processing, computers use them -Heuristic: fast, often correct, parallel processing, humans use them
Briefly describe evidence suggesting that language is universal.
-All human cultures have spoken language -Language development is predictable across culture: All kids make same type of mistakes at the same time -All languages have: Grammatical rules, nouns and verbs, questions, can be used to discuss past present and future, and are flexible
Discuss the "recognition by components" theory of object recognition.
-All objects can be made up of simpler, 3-D forms called geons (geometrical icons) -Simple, efficient theory -Viewpoint Invariance: objects look the same regardless of the angle from which it's angle in which it's view
Discuss the episodic buffer
-Backup store that communicates with LTM and WM components -Hold information longer and has greater capacity than phonological loop or visuospatial sketch pad -Keeps track of everything that has happened to you without you knowing/being conscious of it
Describe the behavioral approach to studying the mind, including the subtraction technique.
-Behavioral approach: is interested in study of the mind, using behavior to make inferences about studying the mind -Subtraction Technique: Choice RT - Simple RT = Time to make a decision
Briefly describe the behavioral vs. nativist positions on language (a.k.a. Skinner vs. Chomsky).
-Behavioral: Skinner: language learned through reinforcement -Nativist: Chomsky: Children produce sentences they have never heard or have never been reinforced
Describe Davachi and colleagues study of remembered vs. forgotten words.
-Brain activation measured while participants asked to create images of 200 words -When asked to remember words, brain activity in perirhinal cortex -Words easier to remember if you create images to connect
Describe the function of the central executive.
-Central executive-part of WM that coordinates the activity of the phonological loop & the visuospatial sketchpad -Functions: 1. Controls suppression of irrelevant info (suppresses irrelevant info) 2. Decides what info gets processed, where info goes, and what is done with it
Discuss the paradigm shift from behaviorism to cognition which occurred in the 1950s. What were the major events involved?
-Cognitive "Revolution": shift from behaviorist stimulus-response relationships to an approach that attempts to explain behavior in terms of the mind -Information-processing approach: a way to study the mind created from insights associated with the digital computer ****1954: First commercially available digital computer -1956: M.I.T. and Dartmouth conferences -1957: Skinner: Verbal Behavior language is entirely the result of reinforcement and punishment -1959: Chomsky: "A Review of B. Skinner's Verbal Behavior" Tear his book to shreds w the damning evidence that children say things they've never been reinforced to say -1961: Breland: "The Misbehavior of Organisms" Tried to teach a racoon to put money in a jar with reinforcement but the racoon started to treat the money as food bc secondary reinforcement
Be able to recognize and distinguish between the various types of long-term memory
-Declarative/Explicit (conscious): Episodic and Semantic -Implicit (not conscious): Repetition priming and procedural mem
Briefly describe the neural circuitry that underlies the following types of memory: explicit, procedural, and emotional.
-Emotional: Amygdala -Declarative/explicit: hippocampus -Procedural: Basal Ganglia
What are the four major reasons we forget information?
-Encoding failure: Information isn't properly encoded into your long-term memory -Decay: The information fades away if it's not used -Retrieval failure: Failure to pull information out of long-term memory -Interference: When information learned at one time, interferes with information learned at another time (proactive and retroactive)
What is encoding? What are the two basic types of rehearsal?
-Encoding: how information gets into memory -Maintenance rehearsal: involves repetition without any consideration of meaning or making connects to other information -Elaborative rehearsal: involves thinking about the meaning of an item to be remembered or making connections between that item and prior knowledge
Describe the influence and accomplishments of Wundt
-First psychology lab to study human behavior = Uni of Leipzig, Germany -Structuralism: experience is determined by combining elements of experience called sensations -Analytic introspection: participants trained to describe experiences and thought processes in response to stimuli
Describe the Wason selection task, including how people typically perform on it
-Four cards → typically perform worse w/ modus tollens -Must falsify: falsification principle -Do better w/ concreteness and permissions
Briefly list the major functions of the four lobes.
-Frontal Lobe: executive control of behavior, planning, inhibition, motor control, memory, language, personality, cognition, and emotion -Parietal Lobe: spatial representation, executive control of attention, vision(where things are), sense of touch -Temporal Lobe: hearing, language, music, memory, higher visual functions, emotion(amygdala-sexual and aggressive motivation), -Occipital Lobe: vision
Discuss the area of the brain involved with facial perception and recognition. What happens if this area is destroyed?
-Fusiform face area: important for identifying upright faces, in right inferior temporal cortex, most strongly to members of own species -Prosopagnosia: inability to recognize faces (acquired: brain damage OR developmental: genetic defect) -Two types of deficits: 1. Configural processing: lose ability to interpret the overall configuration of faces 2. Featural processing: lose ability to analyze specific facial features
Discuss the template theory of object recognition. What is the major problem with this theory?
-Have a specific template for each potential object -Problem: Too many objects and variations between objects in the world!
Describe Lavie's "Hybrid" model of selective attention. Be sure you understand why perceptual load (task difficulty) is important to her theory. What neuroimaging evidence (presented in class) supports her theory?
-High load task: early selection, exhausts available resources -Low load task: late selection, does NOT exhaust available resources -Neuroimaging evidence: activity in V5 was stronger in low load task condition; in high load task condition there was no evidence that V5 was active during motion
Describe sensory memory, including Sperling's (1960) study of iconic (visual) sensory memory. What is the capacity and duration of iconic memory? How does the report method influence what participants report?
-Iconic memory: Brief sensory memory for visual stimuli that lasts for a fraction of a second after a stimulus is extinguished -High capacity, short duration: 1 second or less -Array of 12 letters flashed quickly on a screen and participants asked to report as many as possible -Whole report : participants asked to report as many as could be seen -Immediate Partial report : participants heard tone which told them which row of letters to report -Delayed partial report : presentation of tone was delayed for a fraction of a second after the letters were extinguished; Results were same as whole report procedure
What are category-specific neurons? What can these cells tell us about the mechanisms of visual imagery?
-Imagery neurons respond to both perceiving and imagining an object (respond to specific objects) Mechanisms of visual imagery: -Overlap in brain activation -Visual cortex -Perception and imagery share overlapping mechanisms
What is Korsakoff's syndrome? What causes it? Describe Warrington and Weiskrantz's (1968) study. What are the implications of these findings?
-Korsakoff's syndrome: a condition caused by prolonged vitamin B1 deficiency and chronic alcoholism that causes severe impairments in memory -Degeneration of the mammillary bodies bilaterally -Disrupts hippocampal memory circuit -Unable to form new long-term memories Warrington and Weiskrantz (1968): Korsakoff's syndrome patients were shown fragmented pictures that they had to identify -found participants had no memory of doing the task, but got better at the task over the days due to procedural memory taking over
What is the Law of Pragnanz? Why is it important? What happens when we "trick" the brain into applying it inappropriately?
-Law of Pragnanz: We automatically perceive the simplest, most stable, and most statistically likely figure of all possible alternatives -Important: general explanation for visual illusions -What happens: Kanizsa figures: illusionary geometric shapes
Describe the lexical decision task. How does word frequency affect reaction time in this task?
-Lexical decision task: read a list of words and non-words and have to identify if they are real words Word frequency effect: -Respond more rapidly to high-frequency words -Eye movement studies: Look at/fixate low-frequency words longer → takes longer for brain to process low-frequency words
Briefly describe what is meant by "long-term" memory. How does it relate to short-term or working memory? How is it different from long-term memory?
-Long-term memory: memory mechanism that can hold large amounts of info for long periods of time (process: encoding, storage, retrieval) STM vs. WM vs. LTM: -Duration: LTM: long STM/WM: very short -Capacity: LTM: very large STM/WM: very limited
Describe Gazzeley and colleagues (2005) experiment on the suppression of irrelevant information.
-Participants in face relevant task told to remember faces and ignore scenes --- Participants in passive task told to look at faces and scenes fMRI measurements: -Good suppressors : less brain activity when ignoring scenes -Poor suppressors : greater brain activity when ignoring scenes -Ability to suppress irrelevant information results in better memory for relevant information
Describe Shepard and Metzler's "Mental Rotation" experiment and its findings.
-Participants rotated an image of an object in their mind to compare whether it was similar to or different from another object -Results: participants took longer to compare 2 objects separated by a larger angle than a smaller angle
Discuss serial position effects, including: the primacy effect, the recency effect, and the von Restorff effect. Briefly explain each effect.
-Primacy Effect: due to rehearsal advantage; words at beginning of a list are remembered better than words in the middle of a list (in immediate and later recall) -Recency effect: due to last in, first out; words at the end of the list are remembered better than words in the middle of the list (only in immediate recall) -Von Restorff Effect: words that stick out are more likely to be remembered even when they're in the middle of a list
Discuss the concept of prototypicality, as well as typicality effects (sentence verification results, priming).
-Prototypicality: how well an item matches the prototype, allows for significant variance from the standard -Typicality effects: 1. Family resemblance: have more in common w/ other members of same category 2. Typicality: faster to respond to high-prototypical items than low 3. Naming: named first when listing examples 4. Priming: facilitates making same-different color judgements for high-prototypical items
Briefly describe how perceived responsibility influences decision making.
-Risk-taking strategy: used when problem put in terms of losses (not gains); Tend to take risks -Risk-averse strategy: use when problem put in terms of gains (not losses); Tend to take the sure thing
Describe short-term memory, including its duration and capacity.
-STM: Intermediate stage between sensory memory and long-term memory -Duration: ~15 - 20 seconds or less (without rehearsal) -Capacity: Miller's Magic Number 7 ± 2
Describe the influence and accomplishments of Ebbinghaus
-Savings: a way of measuring retention by measuring how much faster one relearns material that has been previously learned and then forgotten -Read a list of nonsense syllables aloud as many times to determine number of repetitions needed to repeat list without errors -Took less rehearsal to re-learn previously studied lists on day 2 if spent more time rehearsing on day 1
Distinguish between syntax and semantics. What effects do syntactic and semantic violations produce (in terms of electrical activity) in the brain?
-Semantics: meanings of words and sentences -Syntax: rules for combining words into sentences -Semantic violations amplify the N400 wave component -Syntactic violation creates the P600 wave component
Briefly describe the situation model of understanding stories. What evidence supports this model?
-Situation model: mental representation of what a text is about, represent events as if experiencing the situation: point of view of protagonist Horton and Rapp(2003): Told story about girl watching movie and mother either standing behind the TV or in front of it telling her to do her HW -Quicker to answer question about the movie if mother stands behind the TV -Better and quicker at making judgments about objects more visible to the protagonist
What is source monitoring? Describe experimental evidence related to errors in source monitoring.
-Source monitoring = process of determining origins of our memories -Source monitoring error: misidentifying source of memory -Jacoby et al. : becoming famous overnight study
Discuss the findings of Cabeza and colleagues (2004). What implications do these findings have for autobiographical memory?
-Study: Measured brain activation caused by autobiographical memory by viewing both pics taken by yourself (A-photos) and laboratory memory by viewing pics taken by someone else but of the same location (L-photos) Findings: -Both types of photos activated similar brain structures -A-photos activated more of the: Prefrontal cortex and Hippocampus -Implications: memory involves imagery
Describe the synapse and the processes involved with neurotransmission.
-Synapse: space between end of an axon and the cell body or dendrite of the next axon (space between neurons) -5 stages of neurotransmission: 1. Synthesis: building blocks of a transmitter substance are imported into the terminal 2. Storage: where the neurotransmitter is synthesized and packed into vesicles 3. Release: in response to an action potential, the transmitter is released across the membrane by exocytosis 4. Receptor action: the transmitter crosses the synaptic cleft and binds to a receptor 5. Inactivation: the transmitter is either taken back into the terminal or inactivated in the synaptic cleft
Describe the syntax-first (a.k.a. "garden path" model) and the interactionist approach to sentence parsing. What evidence supports each model?
-Syntax-first/garden path model: Says we use syntax first and semantic second -Interactionist approach: Says we use syntax and semantics at the same time *key difference is when semantics is used*
What are the advantages of the connectionist approach?
-The death of one unit/neuron doesn't totally disrupt the entire network so it's biologically plausible -Generalized learning: when the network can recognize examples of a concept, it can easily incorporate new examples or even new but related concepts -Computer models work well; mimic the effects of brain damage
Describe working memory and its major components.
-Working memory (WM): limited capacity system for temporary storage and manipulation of information for complex tasks such as comprehension, learning, and reasoning -3 parts: 1. Phonological loop 2. Visuospatial sketchpad 3. Episodic buffer
Describe the connectionist approach to categorization. How does learning take place in such networks?
-concepts are represented in networks that contain nodes and links like semantic network -Neuron-like units: input units to hidden units to output units -Learning: back propagation
Discuss evidence suggesting that memory is constructive.
1. Bartlett's "War of the Ghosts" experiment -Read a story and used repeated reproduction -As time passed, remembered story as shorter and containing more omissions and inaccuracies -Story changed to make consistent w/ participant's culture 2. Bahrick et al. (1996): -Compared students' high school transcripts with their own memory of grades -Often accurately remembered A's but rarely accurately remembered D's
Describe the basic structure of the neuron, as well as the three basic types of neurons.
1. Basic structure: -Dendrite to cell body to axon 2. Three types of neurons -Sensory neurons: bring information to the central nervous system -Interneurons: transmits impulses between other neurons; associate sensory and motor activity in the central nervous system -Motor neurons: send signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscles
Compare and contrast the "early selection" and "late selection" theories of selective attention.
1. Early Selection -Irrelevant info is filtered out, it never gains access to processing 2. Late Selection -Everything gains access to processing
Describe the prototype approach to categorization.
An average of category members we've had personal experience with, highly dependent on experience
Discuss how chunking can improve the capacity of short-term memory.
Chunking: putting info into more meaningful units
What role do concreteness and permissions play in terms of people's accuracy on the Wason selection task?
Concreteness: -If things are in concrete, everyday terms we are better at the Wason selection Permission schema: -If A is satisfied, B can be carried out -People are familiar with rules
Briefly describe the process of deductive reasoning.
Deductive reasoning-allows definite conclusions; involves syllogisms in which a conclusion logically follows from premises
What are the major differences between deductive and inductive reasoning?
Deductive reasoning: -Based on logic -Definite conclusions Inductive reasoning -Conclusions are suggested -Based on constructive processes: go beyond the info given
Explain why detecting edges is fundamentally important for object recognition.
Edges are important bc they define objects and intersections between objects
Describe the exemplar approach to categorization.
Exemplar approach: actual category members a person has encountered before -Allows for more variance: easier to integrate unusual members
Describe inattentional/change blindness
Failure to notice a conspicuous change in an object or scene
Briefly discuss how studies of relative image size (Kosslyn, 1978) and priming (Farah, 1985) support the "spatial representation" model of visual imagery.
Kosslyn (1978) -Relative image size -If visual imagery is roughly equivalent to actually viewing an object, we should be faster to make decisions about small details when the size of the image is bigger compared to when it is smaller -Size of image does matter -Faster RT when image is bigger Farah (1985) -Imagine an H or a T and letter then flashed in one of two quickly presented squares -Better at discriminating what time interval contained the picture of a letter when the image of the letter matched the target
Describe "flashbulb" memories. How do they differ from "everyday" memories? How are they similar?
Memory for the circumstances surrounding hearing about shocking highly emotionally charged events. Extraordinarily vivid and detailed, people have high confidence in them -Differ from everyday memories: Belief in accuracy and vividness don't decay as quickly as everyday memories -Similar to everyday memories: Actual accuracy is the same
Discuss evidence that supports the semantic network theory of categorical organization.
Myer and Schvaneveldt (1971) -Lexical decision task: participants are asked to say as quickly as possible if stimuli pairs shown are words or not -Some pairs of actual words were closely associated: RT was faster for these pairs; Spreading activation
Describe the base rate problem
People overestimate the probability that someone has a disease given that they've tested positive for it → bc they fail to take into account the prevalence of the disease in the population and misunderstand what a false positive is
Discuss (three pieces of) evidence which supports the existence of the phonological loop.
Phonological loop-part of WM that holds and processes verbal and auditory information 1. Phonological similarity effect: letters or words that sound similar but are confused 2. Word-length effect: more difficult to remember a list of long words than a list of short words 3. Articulatory suppression: Interference with operation of the phonological loop that occurs when a person repeats an irrelevant word such as "the" while carrying out a task that requires the phonological loop
Compare and contrast prospective vs. autobiographical memory.
Prospective memory: Projecting oneself into the future -Remembering what you want to do -Remembering to do it at the right time Autobiographical memory: Recollected events that belong to a person's past -May recall both episodic and semantic memories -Field perspective: Recent memories, when we visualize the scene not ourselves -Observer perspective: Remote memories, we visualize ourselves in the scene
Under what conditions do we seem to use the prototype approach? Under what conditions do we seem to use the exemplar approach?
Prototype approach: -During initial learning, non-experts -Results in mistakes bc you over-generalize -Categories with large number of members Exemplar approach: -Develops with experience and error feedback -Experts -Highly specific categories
Describe the fundamental process of sensory transduction.
Receptors transform energy from environment into electrical energy (changing physical energy into neural info)
Describe the representativeness and availability heuristics, including how they can lead to errors in reasoning.
Representativeness heuristic: Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes -May lead one to ignore other relevant information Ignore conjunction rule Availability heuristic: Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory -If instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common -Causes us to fear the wrong things
Briefly discuss the major properties of semantic networks.
Semantic networks: Concepts are arranged in networks that represent the way concepts are organized in the mind; node = category/concept Major properties: 1. Cognitive economy: common properties at higher levels; exceptions at lower levels 2. Prediction: mean RT for verifying info one node away than info two nodes away; Slower at property level than category level 3. Spreading activation: activity spreads out along any link that is connected to an activated node, concepts that receive activation are primed and more easily accessed from memory
Describe the pioneering studies of Shepard and Metzler (1971) and Kosslyn (1973; 1978). What fundamental conclusion regarding visual imagery can be drawn from these studies?
Shepard and Metzler (1971): -Mental chronometry, mentally rotating objects to see if it matched another object, mean RTs were dependent on how much the stimulus had to be rotated Kosslyn (1973; 1978): -Memorize a picture and create an image of it -Asked to move from one part of the mental image to another -Took longer to mentally move long distances than shorter distances Conclusions: -Imagery is spatial -Mental images are like real images -There is information in the image itself
What is the "reminiscence bump"? What are the possible explanations for this?
The empirical finding that people over 40 yrs old have enhanced memory for events from adolescence and early adulthood, compared to other periods of their lives Possible explanations: -Life-narrative hypothesis: period of assuming person's life identity, time corresponds to self-discovery -Cognitive hypothesis: encoding is better during periods of rapid change, especially when followed by relative stability -Cultural life script: we remember more events from time periods which correspond to major transition points in our particular culture, especially if our personal experiences match cultural norms
Why do computers sometimes have difficulty recognizing objects?
They don't do a good job of scene segmentation: knowing what in the visual environment is important and what isn't
Describe the results of Poser and colleagues 1980 experiment.
They found we are faster and more accurate with valid cues than with invalid cues
Discuss the "feature integration model" of object recognition.
Two stages: 1. Preattentive Stage: immediately extracts and processes sensory information (primitives) looks for big difference in texture and light unconsciously -Primitive texture features = textons Runs in parallel 2. Focused Attention Stage: requires conscious effort -Serial self-terminating search: you look at item in a display one at a time but once you find it you stop looking
Describe the influence and accomplishments of Helmholtz
Unconscious inference: Some of our perceptions are the result of unconscious assumptions we make about the environment; we infer much of what we know about the world based on statistical regularities in the world
Discuss evidence which supports the existence of the visuospatial sketchpad (see Brooks, 1968).
Visuospatial sketchpad-part of WM that holds and processes visual and spatial info Part 1: Memorize sentence and then consider each word (mentally) and respond one of two ways -Say "yes" if it is a noun and "no" if it is not (verbal) -Point to a Y if word is noun and a N if word is not (spatial) -Response is better in split resource pools --> separate spatial and verbal Part 2: Visualize and uppercase "F" and mentally trace it -While tracing, point to "Y" for an outside corner, point to "N" for inside corner OR same task but verbally respond yes or no -Response is better in split resource pools again --> separate systems
Name the brain areas involved with the production and comprehension of spoken language. Where are these areas located? What are the effects of damaging these areas?
Wernicke's Area: in Left superior temporal lobe, involved in understanding language and word choice -Wernicke's Aphasia: difficulty understanding spoken language or problems with word choice Broca's area: left posterior frontal lobe, involved with producing language and representation of grammar -Broca's aphasia: problems speaking or problems with grammar
What is procedural memory? Be able to recognize and/or give examples.
a type of implicit memory including motor skills (riding a bike) and cognitive tasks (reading)
Discuss fMRI and TMS evidence suggesting that visual perception and visual imagery involve largely overlapping mechanisms.
fMRI: -Both activate occipital cortex but perception activates it more TMS: -RT was slower for perception and imagery tasks when applied TMS -Brain activity in visual areas of brain play important roles for both
