Forensic Anthropology Exam 2

- Minimum number of individuals

(MNI) Smallest number of individuals necessary to account for all identified bones

AAPA statement on race

* All humans living today are a single species and share a common descent * Biological differences = genetic + natural + social * Great genetic diversity within human populations * Humanity cannot be classified into discrete categories with absolute boundaries * "Humanness" is evenhanded * Perpetual flux * Nothing clearly defines a "race" * Racism has no foundation in scientific knowledge

- Processing protocols. Make sure to know the basic steps for processing and their correct order. You should be able to define and explain them, including when forensic anthropologists should use them (e.g. maceration), as well as to determine the pros and cons of these processing methods when dealing with remains from forensic contexts

. There are three generally recognized methods of skeletal processing: maceration, carrion beetles, and chemical approaches Cold water macreation is best for infants and small remains - maceration, or softening of the tissues by soaking the remains in water. Lengthy processing in water results in DNA loss and is impractical for cases. Another approach to soft tissue removal involves the use of carrion beetles that consume soft tissue, particularly dermestid beetles. Processing human remains using dermestid beetles can take up to several weeks, depending on the size of the colony, the amount of soft tissue present, and the condition of the remains. Occasionally, invasive insects (e.g., fly larvae, red-legged ham beetles) are inadvertently introduced, which can affect the overall health and productivity of the colony. Chemical processing and preparation methods can be employed, including those involving bleaching agents (such as bleach, hydrogen peroxide, or commercial chemicals), antiformin, sodium hypochlorite, and papain. While chemical processing can be quick (sometimes removing soft tissue in just a few hours), these approaches can degrade the bone, are hazardous to practitioners, are more expensive, and require special handling and storage of the chemicals Moreover, methods that involve bleach and acids have been shown to reduce DNA yield. These methods are therefore not recommended in most forensic cases. Sometimes, however, the use of chemicals may be required to remove adhering tissue processing method may depend on the type of analysis being conducted as well as any long-term storage or curation plans. Skeletal remains represent evidence, and should be handled, stored, and analyzed in a way that maintains the integrity of the evidence. Quality assurance measures can help ensure the consistency and quality of the examination process. A health and safety program (such as described in the SWGANTH Laboratory Management and Quality Assurance guidelines) should be utilized on scene. Assess the scene prior to processing (i.e., perform a site survey or pre-field research), when appropriate. Maintain communication and cooperation between the practitioner and the agency in charge and with key members of the affected community as appropriate. Adhere to specific scene protocol (e.g., chain of custody, and scene and personal security) established by the agency in charge. Document all data, methods, results, interpretation, and conclusions in such a way that verification through independent review can be completed. Document spatial data in such a manner that probative information is recorded. Avoid actions that will negatively impact subsequent investigations. Recover remains and evidence in a manner that minimize alteration and/or destruction. Proceed from the least destructive to the more intrusive techniques. Assume that the scene itself—the micro and macro environment around the remains—contains pertinent evidence. Consult other qualified practitioners when appropriate. Searches should use a small-scale approach once human remains and/or other potential evidence have limited the suspect area. Photographic, written documentation and video (when appropriate) should be initiated upon arrival at the scene and continue throughout the search and recovery process. Remains and associated materials of probative value should be marked as they are discovered and left in situ when possible to preserve the context until documentation is complete. A numbering/labeling scheme adequate to provide appropriate detail for the type and scale of the scene should be devised before processing. For example, if the scene involves multiple commingled decedents, a numbering/labeling system should be used as unique identifiers for each element recovered. For additional guidance in a large-scale scene refer to the SWGMDI website. The following practices are considered unacceptable and should be avoided in the detection and recovery of remains: Assuming that scene recovery efforts should focus only on human remains, or that human remains represent the only evidence at the scene. Moving or altering potential evidence prior to thoroughly and adequately documenting it. Grouping or separating articles of evidence and human remains, unless necessary and thoroughly documented. Employing unnecessarily destructive or time-consuming search and recovery techniques when less destructive and time-conserving techniques are just as effective. Acting without consulting the agency in charge of an investigation (e.g., speaking to the media). Undertaking acts of detection, recovery or interpretation of human remains and associated evidence beyond one's expertise. Speculating about identifying characteristics of the remains, the cause and manner of death, or the scene reconstruction in such a way that it influences the investigation, before the full examination is conducted. Generating case numbers without regard to case numbers generated by other agencies. Using a coding system that could potentially bias analysis, such as the use of the designators B (body) and BP (body part) Maceration is defined as the softening and breaking down of skin resulting from prolonged exposure to moisture

- Bone growth and development. Diaphysis, metaphysis, and epiphysis.

After spongy bone is formed in the diaphysis, osteoclasts break down the newly formed bone to open up the medullary cavity. The cartilage in the epiphyses continues to grow so the developing bone increases in length. Later, usually after birth, secondary ossification centers form in the epiphyses. The diaphysis is the tubular shaft that runs between the proximal and distal ends of the bone. The hollow region in the diaphysis is called the medullary cavity, which is filled with yellow marrow. The walls of the diaphysis are composed of dense and hard compact bone. The metaphyses (singular: metaphysis) are the wide portions of long bones and the regions of the bone where growth occurs. Growth occurs at the section of the metaphysis that is adjacent to the growth plate (physis). The metaphysis is located between the diaphysis and epiphysis. The epiphyses (singular: epiphysis) are the rounded portions at the ends of a bone separated from the metaphysis by the physis. The epiphysis contributes to a joint, compared with an apophysis which is a site of tendon or ligament attachment. Once the growth plate has fused, the epiphysis and metaphysis are joined.

Importance of population- and sex-specific standards

Aging is a universal trait that is observed across the evolutionary spectrum. ... Determining the causal underlying cellular and molecular processes that deteriorate with age and lead to increased disease susceptibility and frailty is critical if we are to meet the growing healthcare needs of aging human populations.

- Estimation methods for stature

Anatomical method: individual skeletal elements are summed to provide a direct stature estimate Mathematical method: regression equations based on lengths of skeletal elements (usually long bones) are used to calculate stature Thomas Dwight in 1894 suggested an anatomical method for estimating stature o In the mid-1900s, Dwight's anatomical method was modified by Georges Fully The Fully method to estimate living height was calculated as the sum of: basion-bregma height, max. heights of vertebral bodies C2 through S1, lengths of the femur and tibia, and the articulated height of talus and calcaneus. It also added a correction for soft tissue factor (~4 inches) Fully's technique was later revised by Raxter et al. (2006, 2007). The revised Fully method o Measure all bones attributing to height o Sum these measurements o Include a "correction" factor for soft tissue Regression equations to predict stature based on: Individual elements Multiple elements As many elements as possible should be used in a regression equation to estimate stature. Incomplete fragments can be used to estimate height, by first estimating the complete length of bone from a regression equation before applying the original formula to estimate stature.

- What (/who) Anthropologists study?

BIOLOGICAL anthropology is the study of the biology of humans and their nearest biological relatives, it investigates human and nonhuman primate biological evolution and variation by studying biology (especially the skeleton), evolutionary theory, inheritance, the fossil record, and living primates. "Biological relatives" include both humankind's ancestors and our nearest living relatives, the non-human primates. It looks at interrelationships between behavior, ecology, and biology. CULTURAL anthropologists study how people who share a common cultural system organize and shape the physical and social world around them, and are in turn shaped by those ideas, behaviors, and physical environments. Cultural anthropology is distinguished by the research methods employed in the study of human cultures. LINGUISTIC anthropologists study the nature of language and how humans use it in their everyday life. They study the history of language, the way languages change over time and across cultures, and how languages shape human behavior and social life. ARCHAEOLOGY is the study of the ancient and recent human past through material remains. Archaeologists might study the million-year-old fossils of our earliest human ancestors in Africa. Archaeology analyzes the physical remains of the past in pursuit of a broad and comprehensive understanding of human culture.

- Anatomical/directional terms for the entire skeleton (for both bipeds and quadrupeds)

Bipeds and Quadrupeds Anterior ● Situated toward the front part of the body Ventral ● Situated on the underside (abdominal) surface Posterior ● Situated toward the hind part of the body Dorsal ● Situated on the upper side (along the back) surface Superior ● Situated above another (reference) body part Cranial ● Situated toward the head Inferior ● Situated below another (reference) body part Lateral ● Situated toward the side Medial ● Situated toward the midline Proximal ● Situated nearer to the body or point of attachment of a limb to the body Distal ● Situated away from the center of the body or away from the attachment of a limb to the body Rostral ● Toward the nose Quadrupeds Rostral ● Same - but the elongated muzzle of the dog means that this term is used more frequently in veterinary medicine than human medicine Caudal ● Situated toward the tail

Know the main characteristics of trabecular, compact, and woven bone

Cancellous bone, also called trabecular bone or spongy bone, light, porous bone enclosing numerous large spaces that give a honeycombed or spongy appearance. ... It is found in most areas of bone that are not subject to great mechanical stress. Compact bone, also called cortical bone, dense bone in which the bony matrix is solidly filled with organic ground substance and inorganic salts, leaving only tiny spaces (lacunae) that contain the osteocytes, or bone cells. Woven bone is produced when osteoblasts produce osteoid rapidly, which occurs initially in all fetal bones, but is later replaced by more resilient lamellar bone. In adults woven bone is created after fractures or in Paget's disease.

- which bones/parts of the skeleton are of particular importance for the creation of the biological profile. As well as, their contribution in assessing the cause and manner of death and/or their ability to provide additional information in forensic investigations

Cause and Manner of death - hyoid if broken can determine if hanging or strangulation was cause and manner of death Sex Estimation - Pelvis and Skull are typically different for men and women Age Estimation - Eruption of Teeth for subadults and Pubic Symphysis or Sternal ribs for adults. Individualization - Sinuses and atypical skeletal features.

chronological vs biological age

Chronological = number of years a person has been alive; biological age refers to how old a person seems. Biological age (physiological age), takes many lifestyle factors into consideration, including diet, exercise / sleeping habits etc

- Differences and main responsibilities associated with Medical Examiners vs. Coroners vs. Forensic Anthropologists

Coroner - Usually elected • Usually NOT physicians • Requirements may be minimal • Usually must rely upon the help of a pathologist to perform autopsies • They often have other jobs that take priority (sheriff and what not) Medical Examiner - Almost always physicians • Appointed • Usually pathologists • Often (and ideally) forensic pathologists, quality is better, uniformity Forensic Pathologists - the study of disease and injury that is of interest to the public and courts, requires a four-year bachelor's degree, four years of medical school, a four-year residency program, and a year-long forensic pathology fellowship-- adding up to a total of 13 years of education and training, appointed not elected.

- Know the difference between the postcranial and cranial skeleton

Cranial - Pertaining to the head Postcranial - Pertaining to all of the skeleton except the skull

Craniodental morphology (including qualitative descriptions based on overall patterns of variation)

Craniodental form and function were evaluated in the 2 extant, parapatric species of dermopterans (Dermoptera: Cynocephalidae). The level of morphological distinction between the 2 taxa was such that were they known as fossils; most taxonomists would not contest their genus-level distinction as indicative of adaptive differentiation. discriminant function analysis of tooth crown measurements. This approach uses equations from 28 measurements representing both buccolingual and mesiodistal crown measurements (Table 9.2 and Figure 9.14) from all teeth except the third molars, with different equations for males and females. A first set of equations classifies individuals as either African/Asian or European, and a second equation (if needed) classifies individuals as African or Asian. This approach correctly classifies 88.1% of females and 71.9% of males (Pilloud et al., 2014). One limitation of this approach is that it requires all of the teeth to be present, which is rare in forensic cases.

- Cranial landmarks (the 9 cranial landmarks covered in class). Be able to define and identify them in the skull

Craniometry is a science that utilizes measurements of the skull and facial structures with the aim of analysing specific osseous features in different populations. Therefore, craniometric points (CPs) were described as the landmarks from which these measurements could be taken.

- Chain of custody

Documentation of evidence allowing for legal custody to be traced from the scene to initial agency and to subsequent agencies Presentation in court requires a continuous chain of custody. The law enforcement or medical examiner case number 2) The time and date of each transfer 3) The items under consideration 4) The signature of the person relinquishing the custody, initially the coroner, medical examiner, or the law enforcement officer in charge of the scene 5) The signature of the person receiving custody (e.g., the anthropologist).

- Determining sex in adults vs. subadults

Estimating sex in subadults is possible but generally considered less reliable than for adults because most sexual differences in the skeleton do not appear until the increase in sex hormones which stimulate the development of secondary sexual characteristics during puberty. Most of the methods discussed in the previous sections are not considered reliable prior to around 14 years of age. Another factor affecting the accuracy of subadult sex estimation is the limited availability of juvenile skeletal material of known sex to study. In general, accuracies of subadult sex estimation methods are low and interobserver error is high. differences have been noted in the elevation of the auricular surface, with females generally exhibiting an auricular surface that is raised entirely above the plane of the ilium, while the male auricular surface is in line with the ilium . Sex differences have also been reported in the fetal sciatic notch and subpubic angle. Differences have also been reported in the subadults mandibular arcade shape , but subsequent studies found sexual dimorphism in the subadult mandible to be low and unreliable for sex estimation. More recently, studies have shown that metric analysis can be used to estimate sex from subadult. Specifically, measurements taken from radiographs of the humerus and femur of infants up to 1 year were shown to correctly estimate sex with a very low rate of error, and metric analysis of radiographs of children up to 12 years of age achieved sex classification accuracies of 81%-90%

- Fordisc: What is it? How does it work and what are some of its limitations?

Fordisc (Jantz and Ousley, 2012) is a statistics-based software with the main purpose of estimating ancestry, sex, and stature of unknown individuals and can therefore help with the assessment of a biological profile. Furthermore, it can be used to perform group comparisons using different types of data. The results of Fordisc(®) 3.0 vary between 52.2% and 77.8% depending on the options and groups selected. the program determines ancestry through discriminant function analysis of cranial measurements. Fordisc will only return a correct ancestry attribution when an unidentified specimen is more or less complete, and belongs to one of the populations represented in the program's reference samples. The use of Fordisc for the estimation of ancestry begins by taking all appropriate skeletal measurements, inserting them into the electronic data forms, selecting groups for comparison, and selectively eliminating groups until a limited number (usually two to four) remain Three-dimensional morphometric approaches control for the variable of size, singling out shape differences for analysis. These approaches are now being utilized more frequently, including in the estimation of ancestry, as 3D data are becoming increasingly easier to obtain and analyze. Most 3D data are collected using digitizers, which record the locations of particular points (such as skeletal landmarks) in three dimension

- Why evolution matters to Forensic Anthropologists (both within humans and within all life forms)

Forensic Anthropology use phylogenetic characters to decide if a skeletal material is human vs animal. Forensic Anthropology focus is on the 'noise' (intra-specific variation) for biological profile - Age, sex, geography - Idiosyncratic premortem variation (e.g., disease, nutrition, environment)

- Main examination methods used by Forensic Anthropologists

Forensic anthropologists can assess the age, sex, and unique features of a decedent and are invaluable in documenting trauma to the body and estimating how long a corpse has been decomposing. Gross Skeletal Assessment Macrostructure/Histology Microstructure (spongy part of bone) Radiograph Clay or graphic facial reproduction Scanning electron microscopy Radiographic techniques Photo or video superimposition techniques Thin-sectioning techniques of bone histology The casting of skeletal materials Preservation of skeletal materials using commercial preservatives Rehydration and preservation of mummified or decayed soft tissues

- Ancestry estimation methods

Forensic anthropologists determine the ancestry of a skeleton by examining the morphology, or shape, of the skull and by taking measurements of the skull vault (cavity) and face. By comparing these results with data from populations worldwide, scientists can evaluate that individual's relationship to a world group. Osteometric data, measurements that capture the overall size and shape of the skeleton, are the most commonly used data for estimation of ancestry. However, craniometric data (measurements from the cranium) are more often used than postcraniometrics.

- Bones in the cranial and postcranial skeleton, including location and main features (as indicated in the TermstoKnow.pdf). You should also know the elements bones articulate with (e.g., Assignment 3- questions 2 and 3) and to be able to side the bones identified with * in lecture slides.

Frontal Bone Articulation- parietal, sphenoid, nasal, zygomatic, ethmoid, lacrimal, maxillary Temporal Bone Articulation - parietal, sphenoid, zygomatic, occipital, mandible

- Homology vs. homoplasy

Homology is similarity that reflects common descent and ancestry. Homoplasy is similarity (some might say superficial similarity) arrived at via independent evolution.

- Human variation and skin color

Human skin color ranges from the darkest brown to the lightest hues. Differences in skin color among individuals is caused by variation in pigmentation, which is the result of genetics (inherited from one's biological parents), the exposure to the sun, or both.

- Make sure you have a general understanding of the first and last bones to fuse

In humans, the first elements to fuse are the ischium and pubis, which unite anteriorly to form the ischiopubic ramus between 4 and 8 years of age. The medial (or sternal) clavicular epiphysis matures relatively slowly. In the human skeleton, it is generally the last long bone epiphysis to fuse.

- How natural selection works

In natural selection, genetic mutations that are beneficial to an individual's survival are passed on through reproduction. This results in a new generation of organisms that are more likely to survive to reproduce. The process carries on generation after generation.

- Joints. Types of Joints and their definitions. Be able to provide examples for each.

Joints aka articular surface can be defined as a point where two or more bones are connected in a human skeletal system. Cartilage is a type of tissue which keeps two adjacent bones to come in contact (or articulate) with each other. 3 Types of joints are Synovial Joints, Fibrous Joints, and Cartilaginous Joints. A synovial joint, also known as diarthrosis, joins bones or cartilage with a fibrous joint capsule that is continuous with the periosteum of the joined bones, constitutes the outer boundary of a synovial cavity, and surrounds the bones' articulating surfaces (the ball-and-socket joint (shoulder joint), hinge joint (knee), pivot joint (atlantoaxial joint, between C1 and C2 vertebrae of the neck), condyloid joint (radiocarpal joint of the wrist). Fibrous joints are a type of joint where the bones are joined by strong fibrous tissue rich in collagen. These joints allow for very little movement (if any) and are often referred to as synarthroses (The skull bones are connected by fibrous joints called sutures.) Cartilaginous joints are a type of joint where the bones are entirely joined by cartilage, either hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage. These joints generally allow more movement than fibrous joints but less movement than synovial joints (the manubriosternal joint (between the manubrium and the sternum), intervertebral discs, and the pubic symphysis.)

- Views about the world and human origins before Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace proposed the theory of evolution through natural selection

Lamarck was a proponent of spontaneous generation, the belief that life can appear spontaneously from inanimate materials and then gradually change into more complex forms through a constant striving for perfection. He believed that the ultimate product of this goal-oriented evolution was the human race. His theory, now known as Lamarckianism, was based on the belief that evolution was mostly due to the inheritance of acquired characteristics as creatures adapted to their environments. Lamarck's assertion was that that evolution occurred when an organism used a body part in such a way that it was ultimately altered during its lifetime and this acquired change could be inherited by its offspring.

- Bone classification

Long - Cylinder-like shape, longer than it is wide, function -Leverage, ex. Femur, tibia, fibula, metatarsals, humerus, ulna, radius, metacarpals, phalanges Short- Cube-like shape, approximately equal in length, width, and thicknessProvide stability, support, while allowing for some motion ex. Carpals, tarsals Flat - Thin and curved Points of attachment for muscles; protectors of internal organs ex. Sternum, ribs, scapulae, cranial bones Irregular- Complex shape Protect internal organs ex. Vertebrae, facial bones Sesamoid - Small and round; embedded in tendons Protect tendons from compressive forces ex. Patellae

- Medico legal significance: What is it? Main questions addressed when trying to determine the medicolegal significance of remains recovered. Know how forensic anthropologists address each of these questions (including methods and analyses generally used). Be able to identify or provide examples of what is and is not of medicolegal significance

Material that is of interest of the medicolegal death investigation system for identification or criminal prosecution Remains <50-75 years old, found in a non-burial context. Is the material skeletal? Bone or tooth VS. Non Skeletal. If it is non-skeletal then there is no reason that it would be of medicolegal significance. Visual examination • Microscopic examination • Radiologic examination • Elemental analysis • Alternate light source Is the material human? Human VS. Animals. If we are able to determine that the bones are not human then there would be no medicolegal significance. Gross skeletal anatomy • Macrostructure • Microstructure (histology) Is the material modern? Modern VS. Historic/Prehistoric.- If the human remains are historic then they are not of medicolegal significance because they are more than 50-75 years old. ) state of preservation 2) antemortem body modifications 3) associated personal belongings 4) the conditions of interment

- Microevolution vs. macroevolution

Microevolution: Changes in gene frequency that occur within a population without producing a new species Macroevolution: Evolution at the level of species or higher (a population becomes so different that it is no longer able to reproduce with members of other populations)

o Morphoscopic traits

Morphoscopic traits are subdivided into five classes: (1) assessing bone shape (eg, nasal bone structure); (2) bony feature morphology (eg, inferior nasal aperture morphology); (3) suture shape (eg, zygomaticomaxillary suture); (4) presence/absence data (eg, postbregmatic depression); and (5) feature prominence/

Journal of Forensic Sciences. Letter to the Editor Ancestry in forensic contexts. Arguments for and against its inclusion in biological profiles

One issue in the way forensic anthropologists have operationalized ancestry estimates may be that there is an assumption that certain traits (morphoscopic traits) have a classificatory power when there is a lack of knowledge surrounding the traits and how and why they were inherited. This problem can be further developed when trying to relate morphoscopic traits to ancestry social labels. One cannot accurately connect social race to skeletal traits as this only further implements racist ideas about biological variation and spreads misinformation. Another issue would be that studies that involve the traits are not being conducted through the foundational theories for biological anthropology (evolutionary theory and ecogeographic variation) when every other aspect of forensic anthropology is grounded in a foundational framework. A lack of education regarding skeletal ancestry and the misconception that skin color indicates social race is another issue. Those circumstances are not the same thing. Furthermore, the belief that an estimate of ancestry is a necessary component in order to use information to compare to a missing persons list is also untrue. According to the authors and the data they have surveyed, not all cases of unidentified people are treated equally. Racism in the medicolegal study of forensic anthropology has proven to even prevent families from providing missing persons reports in fear of the underlying bias that determines how cases are investigated (inadequately) and solved.This can be seen with unidentified individuals that are anything other than European-descended. This defeats the purpose of forensic anthropology, which is to positively identify the unknown remains of a human being in hopes to bring justice and or return them to their loved ones if possible.

Aging adults vs. subadults

One method used in ageing subadults is analyzing the dental development at skeletal death. This form of assessment includes determining the developmental stages of teeth (deciduous meaning baby teeth and permanent meaning adult teeth) by studying the eruption of teeth. The eruption of teeth is based on the emergence of teeth. A good way to age an individual is by tooth formation because, unlike other developmental factors, the age variations is less. Analyzing the emergence of teeth shows the multiple changes that occur from the formation of the teeth to the final loss of them. The times are constant and consistent for the most part which helps in finding the average age. Based on the degree of the development of the teeth the mean ages for each tooth stage is calculated. Another ageing method used for subadults would be measuring diaphyseal growth because there is a prominent connection between diaphyseal length and age with little variation in different sexes and populations. It is especially useful during a fetal stage for age estimation, however, in individuals around ten and up, the epiphyses begin to fuse with the diaphysis, which makes the method not useful afterwards. Because dental development is minimal in fetal skeletal material, this method is used. However, the visual appearance and fusion of primary ossification centers within bones is helpful in juvenile age estimation because of its direct correlation with age - specifically the union of the epiphyseal between the ages of 10 and 25. Forensic Anthropologists will be able to recognize the beginning of the union (a cartilage filled gap between the components that may take several years to close) to the end of the union ( the gap that will soon close and the cartilage will soon disappear with age). Though measuring diaphyseal length is better for infantile remains, dental development proves to be one of the most accurate and reliable age estimation methods because the timing of tooth growth/development is less affected by outside factors and follows a consistent formation that follows chronological age. Measuring diaphyseal length most definitely works better in younger subadults (infants and fetal remains) and epiphyseal union works better in mid to older subadults, whereas dental development works well in all subadults but starting at 6 months of age. A method used for age estimation in adults is pubic symphysis which can be seen through the physical features of the face of the pubic symphysis that changes chronologically. For example, in younger adults, the pubic symphyseal face has horizontal oriented ridges and furrows that can be described as billowing and it lacks a border aka there is no definitive edge that separates the symphyseal face from the ischial and pubic rami. However, in older adults, the horizontal ridges and furrows/billows disappear because a new bone appears on the symphyseal face. Then the symphyseal face becomes smooth and a distinct rim appears after an ossific nodule fuses to the upper portion of the symphyseal. In "old-old" adults, the smooth surface because more rigid and rough and porous. The rim also shows new bony projections called osteophytic lipping. Another method of age estimation is studying the edge of the ribs that connect to the sternum, specifically the fourth rib because of its easy accessibility during autopsy. However, one issue with this is that it has been found that most ribs experience similar changes and different rates of age. Nonetheless, Forensic Anthropologists focus on the shape and quality of the rib as age progresses. For example, the ends of the ribs (similar to the pubic symphyseal face) change from billowy to flat when young adult to flared cupped shape at middle adult, and finally to a wide shape with sharp margins in older aged adults. Also, the quality of the rib decreases as age increases as it becomes more fragile, brittle, and porous (like the symphyseal face). Though somewhat similar to the pubic symphysis, this method is far less used than pubic symphysis. In fact, the pubic symphysis method is the best age estimation method for adult skeletal remains (considering that it is significantly harder to age adults than subadults).

o Ontogeny (know and be able to define the differences between intramembranous and endochondral ossification)

Ontogeny is the origination and development of an organism, usually from the time of fertilization of the egg to adult. The term can also be used to refer to the study of the entirety of an organism's lifespan. Intramembranous ossification is the process of bone development from fibrous membranes. It is involved in the formation of the flat bones of the skull, the mandible, and the clavicles. Ossification begins as mesenchymal cells form a template of the future bone. Endochondral ossification is the process by which the embryonic cartilaginous model of most bones contributes to longitudinal growth and is gradually replaced by bone.

- Cell types. Osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts

Osteoblast - synthesize the bone: coordinate mineralization of the skeleton Osteocyte - are formed from osteoblasts: send signals of bone formation or bone resorption to the surface: respond to mechanical strain Osteoclast - breaks down bone tissue: initiates normal bone remodeling: mediate bone loss

- Ancestry and Race

Other than the biological impact one might have as a consequence of racism, race is a social construct that is derived from historical ideals (particularly stemming from Europeans and their differences with other people) such as slavery, oppression, colonialism, discrimination, empire, etc. Human biological variation is influenced by many things including environment and genetics, none of which can race be used to accurately depict ancestry. Race is not accurate as it is a classification system, not biology.Genetic ancestry tests can identify clusters of individuals based on patterns of genetic similarity and difference, but the particular clusters we infer depend on the individuals included in the analysis. Genetic ancestry tests also tend to equate present-day peoples and contemporary patterns of genetic variation with those that existed in the past, even though they are not identical. In this regard, ancestry tests often oversimplify and misrepresent the history and pattern of human genetic variation, and do so in ways that suggest more congruence between genetic patterns and culturally-defined categories than really existsBiologically, as homo sapiens, no group of people is homogeneous or pure nor is there independent lineages in terms of race (each race does not have its own lineage). This means that categories we have socially elected for specific races such as skin color, hair type, and facial features are not determined by "race" - black, white, asian, hispanic, etc. They are determined by biological factors that do not follow the rules of our socially constructed ideas. Therefore, biological variation such as genetics (DNA, diversity) and phenotypes (genome/environment) do not equate or correlate to whether or not a person is black or asian.While race does not accurately represent the patterns of human biological diversity, an abundance of scientific research demonstrates that racism, prejudice against someone because of their race and a belief in the inherent superiority and inferiority of different racial groups, affects our biology, health, and well-being. This means that race, while not a scientifically accurate biological concept, can have important biological consequences because of the effects of racism. While "race" is not biology, racism does affect our biology, especially our health and well-being. Interpersonal experiences of racism and structural racism include, but are not limited to, overt oppression, physical subjugation, dispossession or displacement, decreased access to health care, economic and educational discrimination, histories of segregation, and material deprivation. Genetic and phenotypic variation are connected to the physical differences we see in modern humans. Environment is one reason that may help explain the physical differences that exist within modern human populations because it is extremely critical in constructing phenotypic variation as it is closely related to adaptation and population history. Melanin is the pigment in the human body that results in skin color (it also helps protect humans from the harmful UV rays). The environment directly affects this as certain places in the world experience higher levels of ultraviolet radiation and the higher the UV rays, the more likely to evolve to have darker skin in order to stay protected from the sun. The migration of the species may also be linked to physical differences. An example would be as more populations migrated north of Africa (where humans originated) and the UV rays became less strong, the pigmentation in the skin - or lack thereof- became a prevalent change. Melanin decreased and lighter skin increased. Gene flow and genetic exchange can also be used as a reason for physical differences. There is more diversity in African populations than there is in other populations further from Africa because of human origination. Because there have been longer population histories in Africa, this allowed for more genetic variation there. Less genetic variation occurred in and, in fact, were repeated in populations further from Africa. "We are all, in essence, hybrids, with humanity emerging from many tangled lineages —lineages that cannot be separated into discrete units with clear reproductive barriers

- Paranasal sinuses (frontal, ethmoidal, sphenoidal, maxillary)

Paranasal sinuses are a group of four paired air-filled spaces that surround the nasal cavity. The maxillary sinuses are located under the eyes; the frontal sinuses are above the eyes; the ethmoidal sinuses are between the eyes and the sphenoidal sinuses are behind the eyes.

- Medicolegal death investigation system in the US. What is it and what is it responsible for?

Performed in accordance with state law - Responsible for conducting death investigations and certifying the cause and manner of unnatural and unexplained deaths (including homicides, suicides, unintentional injuries, drug-related deaths, and other deaths that are sudden or unexpected) - Medicolegal death investigations represent ~20% of the 2.4 million deaths in the US each year - Conducted by Coroner Systems or Medical Examiner Systems

- Monogenism & polygenism

Polygenism is a theory of human origins which posits the view that the human races are of different origins (polygenesis). This view is opposite to the idea of monogenism, which posits a single origin of humanity.

Secular changes in height

Secular changes are biological changes that occur over decades or generations, purportedly due to environmental factorsSecular change is a change in trends over time o There has been a significant increase in height during the course of the last century. Changes in adult stature have been found to correlate with variables such as income distribution, nutrition, sanitary conditions, and medical care

- Sex estimation methods. Which bones and features are most informative and why.

Skull- Nuchal Crest Male large, prominent Female small, not as prominent Mastoid Process Male wider, longer Female smaller, shorter Supraorbital Margin Male thick, blunt Female thin, sharp Supraorbital Ridge/Glabella Male robust, pronounced Female flat, small Mental Eminence Male square, protuding Female less prominent, continuation of mandible Pelvis - Ventral Arc Male mostly absent Female always present Subpubic Concavity Male little to none Female large Ischiopubic Ramus Ridge Male wide Female narrow region Greater Sciatic Notch Male U-shaped Female wide and V-shaped Preauricular Sulcus Male none to narrow and shallow Female large and wide Sacrum Shape Male long, narrow straight Female short, wide, curved Section Points for long bones - Humerus and Fibula Scapula, Clavicle, calcaneus, Ischium length, ulna, os coxa

- Importance of population-specific standards

Standard populations, often referred to as standard millions, are the age distributions used as weights to create age-adjusted statistics. For the 5-year age groups, the single year of age populations are summarized from the five single-year of age populations. A "standard" population distribution is used to adjust death and hospitalization rates. The age-adjusted rates are rates that would have existed if the population under study had the same age distribution as the "standard" population.

o Which bones and features are most informative and why

Stature estimation is obtained from measurements of long bones; namely the humerus, femur, and tibia. If these bones are unavailable, the ulna, radius, and fibula can also provide a good range for the expected height of an individual. cranium vertebrae sacrum sternum scapula tarsals metatarsals metacarpals phalanges Foot length, shoe length and footprints may be used to estimate stature

- History of Forensic Anthropology. Know the four main periods and the main contributions, events, and people within each of them

The Formative Period 1800 - 1938 Thomas Dwight, the "father of Forensic Anthropology", wrote "The Identification of the Human Skeleton: Medico-Legal Study" in 1843. 1849 Dr. George Parkman's Murder Drs. Oliver Wendell Holmes & Jeffries Wyman investigated the murder George Dorsey 1839-1931 Curator of the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago - Consulted on the Luetgert case Ales Hrdlicka became the founder of the T. Wingate Todd (1885-1938) - Anatomist, Western Reserve University - Hamann-Todd collection (>3,000 human skeletons) - Cleveland Museum of Natural History Robert J. Terry (1871-1966) - Anatomist, Washington University Medical School - Terry Collection (now ~2000 human skeletons) - Smithsonian Institution American Journal of Physical Anthropology (AJPA) in 1918 as well as the founder of the American Association for Anthropologists in (AAPA) in 1928. The Consolidation Period 1939 - 1971 Wilton Krogman (1903-1987) Guide to the Identification of Human Skeletal Material. Published in the FBI's Law Enforcement Bulletin in 1939 W. Montague Cobb (1904-1990) - Howard University, DC - W.M. Cobb Collection - President of AAPA The Central Identification Laboratory in Hawaii (CILHI) was formed. Wilton Krogman's Guide to the Identification of Human Skeletal Material was published in the FBI's Law Enforcement Bulletin in 1939. Mildred Trotter (1899- 1991) - Anatomist at Washington University in St Louis - Succeeded Snow at the CILHI - Estimation of stature The Modern Period 1972 - 2007 The Physical Anthropology Section of the American Academy of Forensic Science (AAFS) was founded in 1972 William Bass (1928- - Founded the Anthropology Research Facility (ARF), University of Tennessee in 1980 to study human decomposition - Bass Skeletal Collection (human skeletons of known age, sex, ancestry, stature, weight, & cause of death)The ABFA, aka the American Board of Forensic Anthropology was founded in 1977 and 131 Forensic Anthropologists are certified. The Modern/Validation Period 2008 - Present The Scientific Working Group for Forensic Anthropology (SWAGANTH) is formed in 2008.

Location differences between the appendicular and axial skeleton (be able to identify which bones belong to each)

The appendicular skeleton is the portion of the skeleton of vertebrates consisting of the bones that support the appendages. There are 126 bones. The appendicular skeleton includes the skeletal elements within the limbs, as well as supporting shoulder girdle and pelvic girdle. The axial skeleton includes all the bones along the body's long axis. The axial skeleton includes the bones that form the skull, laryngeal skeleton, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. The bones of the appendicular skeleton (the limbs and girdles) "append" to the axial skeleton.

- Difference between cause and manner of death

The cause of death is the specific injury or disease that leads to death. The manner of death is the determination of how the injury or disease leads to death. There are five manners of death (natural, accident, suicide, homicide, and undetermined).

- Medical Examiners and Coroners: advantages and disadvantages, and when they were introduced in the US.

The first American coroner was Thomas Baldridge of St. Mary's, Maryland Colony, appointed on January 29, 1637. He held his first death inquest two days later. It was not until 1890 that Baltimore appointed two physicians as the United States' first medical examiners. Medical examiners - An advantage would be that medical examiners are required to be doctors. Good medical examiners can be hard to find because it is not a job most doctors want. State funded medical examiners make around half the salary they could in other medical professions. There is a shortage of forensic pathologists and only 500 are practicing in the whole US which is less than half the number needed. Coroners are not medically trained at all. Out of 150 coroners is Georgia only one is an actual physician. Coroners are elected and the bar is extremely low. One can have 0 medical knowledge and be a coroner. Elected officials with no medical training can sign off on death certificates. In some jurisdictions the coroner is also the county sheriff which has led to some serious problems. In cali, one coroner/sheriff repeatedly interfered in cases where the police had used deadly force. Since 1857, they have been trying to abolish the coroner system because the person appointed should be a doctor. The funding and resources are depleted.

- Number of bones in the skull (in adult individuals and at birth)

The human skull is generally considered to consist of twenty-two bones—eight cranial bones and fourteen facial skeleton bones. In the neurocranium these are the occipital bone, two temporal bones, two parietal bones, the sphenoid, ethmoid and frontal bones. An infant's skull is made up of 6 separate cranial (skull) bones: Frontal bone. Occipital bone. Two parietal bones.

- Cranial sutures (4 main sutures covered in class)

The main sutures of the skull are the coronal, sagittal, lambdoid and squamosal sutures.

- The subfields of Physical/Biological Anthropology

The six subfields of biological anthropology—primatology (study of biology evolution and behavior of primates.), paleoanthropology (human evolution and the fossil record.), bioarchaeology (the analysis of human remains from archaeological point) molecular anthropology (also known as genetic anthropology, molecular analysis is used to determine evolutionary links between ancient and modern human populations, as well as between contemporary species), forensic anthropology (crime, accidents, identification, specialist in tissue, cause of death), paleopathology (the study of ancient diseases and injuries in organisms through the examination of fossils, mummified tissue, skeletal remains, and analysis of coprolites), and human (biologygenetics, anatomy, physiology.)—all help us understand what it means to be biologically human. Osteology represents the most traditional term used, with its accent on comparative morphology. Skeletal biology also refers to comparative morphological study but recognizes the dynamic nature of skeletal growth and maintenance, as well as biomechanical and environmental factors that shape bone morphology.

- The human skeleton. How many bones are found in the adult skeleton? What is it composed of (organic and inorganic components)? Main functions of the skeleton

The skeletal system works as a support structure for your body. It gives the body its shape, allows movement, makes blood cells, provides protection for organs and stores minerals.The adult skeleton has 206 bones. These include the bones of the skull, spine (vertebrae), ribs, arms and legs. Bones are made of connective tissue reinforced with 39% calcium and specialised bone cells. Most bones also contain bone marrow, where blood cells are made. 0.2% Potassium, 0.7% Sodium, 0.5% Magnesium, 9.8% Carbonate, 17% Phosphate, 67% inorganic components, 33% Organic compounds (mostly collagen) • The subadult skeleton has more than twice as many bony elements (~450 ossification centers).

- Know the differences between skull, cranium, calvaria, and calotte

The skull is a bone structure that forms the head in vertebrates. It supports the structures of the face and provides a protective cavity for the brain. The skull is composed of two parts: the cranium and the mandible. Cranium - the skull, especially the part enclosing the brain. The calvaria is the topmost part of the neural cranium, which protects the cranial cavity that houses the brain. The skull roof then becomes hard at the junctions and much more difficult to penetrate. Calotte is the autopsy cut of the top of the head.

- Age estimation methods. Which bones and features are most informative and why.

The skull is the most useful area of the skeleton for assessing ancestry and is typically assessed using either morphoscopic or metric approaches. • Morphoscopic approaches for estimating ancestry include OSSA and Decision Tree Modeling, which apply statistical analyses to character states assessed from the cranium. • Craniometric approaches are often more objective and less subject to observer error. Craniometric programs such as Fordisc provide statistically based estimates for assigning group membership. • (hu)MANid is a software application that uses metric and morphoscopic analysis of the mandible to estimate ancestry and sex. • Metric and nonmetric approaches for ancestry estimation from the postcranial skeleton have had limited success. This may be because geographic adaptations are less strongly correlated with postcranial morpholog

SHORT ANSWER - You, a Forensic Anthropologist, were commissioned to examine some human remains found in a garbage dump in NYC. The medical examiner in charge of the case asks you to submit the report of your analysis in no longer than a week after the reception of the remains. When you receive the package containing the remains you notice that there is a significant amount of soft tissue and dirt adhering to the bones. Describe the three main methods for processing (cleaning) bones with adhering soft tissue. Be sure to indicate which method you will consider the most appropriate to use on the remains considering time constraints and the forensic nature of the case. Use full sentences. Note: This question is asking you to address two aspects: (1) Describe the three main methods for processing (cleaning) bones with adhering soft tissue. (2) Indicate which method you will consider the most appropriate to use on the remains considering time constraints and the forensic nature of the case

The three main methods for cleaning bones with adhering soft tissue are maceration, dermestid beetles, and chemical agents. Maceration is the softening of the soft tissue (and any other adhering material) by soaking the remains in water. This process can be done either through warm-water maceration or cold-water maceration. In warm-water maceration, remains are soaked in a warm bath using a slow cooker, hot plates, or a similar device. The process generally takes between 1 to 2 hours per bath, but the process may need to be repeated. Water temperature must be maintained below boiling, otherwise it might destroy the integrity of the bone. Once the remains are removed from the water, they should be let reach room temperature naturally. In cold water maceration, remains are soaked in a sealed container in cold water to allow soft tissue to decompose slowly through bacterial reaction. The process is slower than warm-water maceration and it may take weeks to clean remains. Water should be changed periodically, and bones should also be removed from the container periodically to pull out adhering flesh. Dermestid beetles feed on soft tissue, particularly dried skin. It is a slow, non-destructive method to clean bones. Beetle colonies are not easy to maintain and they should always be kept within a sealed container to avoid contamination to other collections stored in the lab. Cleaning remains through dermestid beetles is a lengthy process that may require months to clean an entire skeleton. Bone processing can also be done using chemical agents such as bleach and acids to degrease bones and remove soft tissue. It is a quick method, but it can degrade bone and the DNA contained in it. The use of chemical agents can also be hazardous to people. Considering time constraints and the forensic nature of the case, the most appropriate method to use on the remains is warm-water maceration. The method is relatively quick and safe to the bones. While cold-warm maceration and dermestid beetles are associated with good preservation of skeletal details, both methods are time consuming and thus impractical in most forensic contexts. The use of chemical agents is the least preferred option as the quality of bone and DNA can be seriously compromised.

- Teeth. Know the general dental anatomy discussed in lecture/readings

The tooth has two anatomical parts, the crown and the root. The crown is the top part that is exposed and visible above the gum (gingiva). It is covered with enamel, which protects the underlying dentine. The root of a tooth descends below the gum line anchoring the tooth in the mouth. Deciduous (baby teeth) dental formula - 2.1.0.2 (2 incisors, 1 canine, 0 premolars, molars) Developed (permanent/adult) dental formula - 2.1.2.3 (2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 pre molars, 3 molars) Four Quadrants (upper right, upper left, lower right, lower left)

Metric Methods (Ancestry)

Using craniometric points to measure the skull.

- Gender vs. biological sex.

What it means to be female/male is universal, what it means to be masculine/ feminine depends on culture. But underlying all of this is the perception that no matter the gender a person identifies as, they have an underlying sex they were born with. This represents a fundamental misunderstanding about the nature of biological sex. Science keeps showing us that sex also doesnt fit in a binary, whether it be determined by genitals, chromosomes, hormones, or bones.

o Dental tissues (types, definition, location, and composition)

Your teeth are composed of four dental tissues. Three of them—enamel (outer layering), dentin (beneath the enamel) and cementum (hard substance covers the tooths roots)—are hard tissues. The fourth tissue—pulp, or the center of the tooth that contains nerves, blood vessels and connective tissue—is a soft, or non-calcified, tissue. Enamel Enamel is the outer most layer of the tooth that protects teeth from the elements that cause cavities. It is the hardest surface in the human body and the first line of defense against cavities. It is the visual surface of the tooth, and usually stops around the gum line. Think of enamel as a barrier that shields your teeth from harm. Dentin The layer directly beneath enamel is dentin, which is made up of microscopic tubes! It is a sensitive layer that surrounds pulp, and plays a pivotal role in communicating sensations from the surface of your teeth to the nerves inside your teeth. Without dentin, our teeth wouldn't feel the difference between ice cream and hot soup! Cementum Cementum is layer between the root of teeth and gums. It is primarily beneath the gum line, and helps anchor teeth to the bones in the jaw. Cementum is really cool because it can actually repair itself! Think of Cementum as the foundation of a home that keeps the house (tooth) grounded and secure. Pulp Dental pulp is the living tissue at the core of teeth, and acts as an alarm bell that sends signals sent from the dentin to the brain. Pulp is soft and contains a large network of nerves and blood vessels. It is the most sensitive and important part of teeth, and can be very sensitive if it is ever exposed.

Forensic Anthropology as one of the subfields of physical/ biological anthropology

a special sub-field of physical anthropology (the study of human remains) that involves applying skeletal analysis and techniques in archaeology to solving criminal cases. Forensic anthropologists specialize in analyzing hard tissues such as bones.

-Erasmus Darwin

an English physician. One of the key thinkers of the Midlands Enlightenment, he was also a natural philosopher, physiologist, slave-trade abolitionist, inventor, and poet. His poems included much natural history, including a statement of evolution and the relatedness of all forms of life. discusses the descent of life from a common ancestor, sexual selection, the analogy of artificial selection as a means to understand descent with modification, and a basic concept of what we now refer to as homology.

The 4 traditional fields of Anthropology

archaeology, linguistic anthropology, physical/biological anthropology, and sociocultural/cultural anthropology

- What is the Scientific Working Group for Forensic Anthropology (SWGANTH) and why is it important?

consists of scientific subject-matter experts who collaborate to determine best practices and to develop consensus standards. While each SWG has a unique charge and mission, the overarching goal is to improve the processes within a particular area of forensic science. The Forensic Anthropology Subcommittee focuses on standards and guidelines related to application of anthropological methods and theory, particularly those relating to the recovery and analysis of human remains.

- Clines

gradual shift in gene frequencies between neighboring populations. In biology, a cline is a measurable gradient in a single character of a species across its geographical range. a gradation in one or more characteristics within a species or other taxon, especially between different populations.

dental arcade

the curve of the row of teeth in each jaw. — called also arcade.

- Tree of life

the phylogenetic tree that includes all organisms. Darwin, who wrote On the Origin of Species, postulated that life on Earth evolved from ancient species that diverged over time — like tree branches from a single trunk.

- Objectives of Forensic Anthropologists

to aid in the identification of un-fleshed human remains in a legal context. It is the job of the anthropologist to identify whether or not the bones are human. If they are human, to develop a biological profile, which will aid in the identification of the person(s)

-Alfred Russell Wallace

was a British naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist, biologist and illustrator. He is best known for independently conceiving the theory of evolution through natural selection; his paper on the subject was jointly published with some of Charles Darwin's writings in 1858. proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection. He is best known for studying warning colouration in animals, one example being the golden birdwing butterfly (Ornithoptera croesus), as well as his theory of speciation .

-Georges Cuvier

was a French naturalist and zoologist, sometimes referred to as the "founding father of paleontology". Cuvier proposed that now-extinct species had been wiped out by periodic catastrophic flooding events. Cuvier believed there was no evidence for evolution, but rather evidence for cyclical creations and destructions of life forms by global extinction events such as deluges.

-George Louis Leclerc de Buffon

was a French naturalist, mathematician, cosmologist, and encyclopédiste. His works influenced the next two generations of naturalists, including two prominent French scientists Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and Georges Cuvier. According to Georges-Louis Leclerc, a set number of distinct types of life generated near a central point. He suggested that species then went under change as they migrated, affected by their new environments. In a way, Leclerc was proposing a sort of proto-evolutionary hypothesis nearly 100 years before Darwin.

-Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

was a French naturalist. He was a soldier, biologist, and academic, and an early proponent of the idea that biological evolution occurred and proceeded in accordance with natural laws. Lamarck believed that living things evolved in a continuously upward direction, from dead matter, through simple to more complex forms, toward human "perfection." Species didn't die out in extinctions, Lamarck claimed.

-Charles Lyell

was a Scottish geologist who demonstrated the power of known natural causes in explaining the earth's history. Lyell argued that the formation of Earth's crust took place through countless small changes occurring over vast periods of time, all according to known natural laws. His "uniformitarian" proposal was that the forces molding the planet today have operated continuously throughout its history.

-Carolus Linnaeus

was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, taxonomist, and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming organisms. He is known as the "father of modern taxonomy".

-Thomas Malthus

was an English cleric, scholar and influential economist in the fields of political economy and demography. noted for the Malthusian growth model, an exponential formula used to project population growth. The theory states that food production will not be able to keep up with growth in the human population, resulting in disease, famine, war, and calamity.

-Charles Darwin

was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution. His proposition that all species of life have descended from common ancestors is now widely accepted and considered a fundamental concept in science. the theory of natural selection. the process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring. The theory of its action was first fully expounded by Charles Darwin and is now believed to be the main process that brings about evolution.