General Biology MCAT

centrioles/ centrosomes/microtubule organization centers what is the 2nd one/ asters/kinet fibe

- Centrioles are the two units inside the centrosome which operate using alpha/beta tubulin dimers forming hollow tubes! the centrosome is one of two microtubule organizing centers (the other is in cilia/flagellum) - Asters form as many mircotubules sprout as spindle fibers from centrioles.. asters will anchor the centrioles to the cell membrane - Spindle apparatus produces kinetochore fibers which will attach and anchor at centromere kinetochores of sister chromatids!

Hypothalamus - BRIDGE b/w - location - type of regul (trop/direc) and type of signaling - portal system for transport interact w anterior vs posterior pituitary ant: hormones from hypo and stimu horm from ant pit 1. GnRH 2. GHRH 3. TRH 4. CRF 5. PIF ALL are regulated by??? definition of an axis (cortisol ex) hypothal control on the Posterior: 1. oxyto 2. vaso/ADH KEY: how is anterior controlled vs how is posterior controlled?!? type of communication

- Located above the pituitary and below the thalamus... in the FOREBRAIN. - Bridge between the nervous system and the endocrine system since it receives signals to nuclei (CNS neuronal cell body cluster) and transmits through hormone release to pituitary! - Accounts for tropic regulation of anterior pituitary by PARACRINE signaling into a portal system because the two tissues are so close --> portal system is called Hypophyseal portal system Anterior pituitary: 1. Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) -> Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone (LH) -> LH to interstitial cells for androgen secretion, FSH to sertoli cells and help spermatogenesis 2. Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) -> Growth hormone (GH) 3. Thyroid-Releasing Hormone (TRH) -> Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) 4. Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) -> Adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH) -> cortisol 5. Prolactin inhibiting factor -> decrease in dopamine release by inhibition of production of PROLACTIN in ant. pit. ------ ALL 1-5 are regulated by NEGATIVE FEEDBACK. The cortisol example: CRF -> ACTH -> aderenal cortex stimulates cortisol production! This is now called a hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal cortex (HPA) AXIS. Posterior Pituitary: 1. Oxytocin: stimulates uterine contractions, milk lactation, and is POSITIVE feedback 2. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): aka vasopressin, increases reabsorption of water in collecting ducts of kidneys! Secreted in response to high solute, high osmolarity in blood! -antidiuretic = suppress urination Oxytocin and ADH are MADE by the hypothalamus, secreted by the posterior pituitary Anterior vs posterior: 1. signaling comes from: Anterior uses hypophyseal portal system and paracrine signaling! Posterior uses JUXTACRINE signaling as hypothalamus neurons have axons extending into the posterior to directly signal release of hormone!

Growth hormone disorders... explain why this makes sense (puberty vs adult) - gigantism - dwarfism - acromegaly

- gigantism: overproduction of growth hormone at a YOUNG AGE, whole body is large - dwarfism: Underproduction of growth hormone at a YOUNG AGE, whole body is small - acromegaly: Overproduction of growth hormone at ADULT age (post puberty), results in SMALL bones growing like hands, feet, and head After puberty, growth plates lock, before puberty when GH high, people have no limit to height... After puberty growth plates lock and people only really grow SMALL bones.

1.1 Cell Theory- what dictates a cell as being alive

1. All living things are composed of cells 2. Cell is basic functional unit of life 3. Cells arise from pre-existing cells 4. Cells carry genetic info as DNA and pass it to daughter cells - viruses do not meet 3 and 4, need host to replicate, so are not living organisms

Vasculature of heart: arteries -> veins path (veins that deliever blood to RA?) linings of vessels are... three functions (immune and regulating size and damage (clot)) arteries/arterioles -- high resistance and drive movement of blood vs capillaries (how small?, bruise?) vs veins ^^^ key on elasticity and valves (gravity)

1. Arteries: move blood away from heart, largest is aorta 2. Arterioles: 3. Capillaries 4. Venules 5. Veins: move blood toward heart, using inferior/superior venae cavae to deliver deoxygenated blood to right side of heart *** arteries have way more smooth muscle coating than veins! Blood vessel linings are made up ENDOTHELIAL (NOT epithelial) cells, a single squamous layer. - can release chemicals aiding in vasodilation and vasoconstriction - White blood cells can enter through vessel into tissue during inflammatory response as well due to this layer! - Allow for sensing damage blood vessels to manage clotting and repair to stop bleeding! Arteries: - Highly muscular and elastic creating tremendous resistance to the flow of blood! - elastic recoil (resuming prior shape) as blood travels through arteries is what keeps pushing blood forward throughout body! Capillaries: - So small RBCs move in single file line! - Site of endocrine signaling (hormone diffusion), gas and glucose and waste exchange also! - Capillary damage results in bruising Veins: - thin walled inelastic vessels! - Much thinner smooth muscle wall, can hold much more volume of blood at once since less resistance! - Veins most often involve lower extremities and blood being pushed against gravity to the heart. This leaves tremendous pressure on veins! To help push in the right direciton, KEY on myogenic activiety vs neurological innervation, veins have valves - ALSO, veins have less smooth muscle, they need help combatting gravity, oftentimes they use skeletal muscle surrounding veins to push blood up to heart (like squeezing out toothpaste) - Veinuoles always have more blood at a single moment than arterioles do! Due to less smooth muscle!

Anterior and Posterior pituitary/hypothalamus and role in breast feeding 1. E, P, --> Dop high inhibit 2. drop = activate release of ___ from ____ 3. baby sucks nipple... hypo and post and oxy

1. During pregnancy, high levels of estrogen, dopamine, and progesterone. Dopamine from hypothalamus (PIF) inhibits release of prolactin. 2. Upon baby birth levels drop, dopamine levels drop, prolactin can now STIMULATE milk production and regulate supplies 3. Baby sucks on nipple, sensation triggers hypothalamus to juxtacrine signal POSTERIOR pituitary to release oxytocin, which causes smooth muscle of breast to contract and milk to come out. Prolactin: Ant pit, milk production Oxytocin: Post pit, smooth muscle contraction/project milk to babies mouth

Viruses - make up 2 parts and 3rd optional - also for those which inject and do not enter have tail sheath and tail fibers... (one example is bacter.) ... what are func they lack ___ which means they are ______ since they require a host cell to replicate and produce ____ which are "offspring" to infect more cells Genetic info in viruses... 1. DNA/RNA? 2. SS or DS? 3. number genes

1. Genetic meterial 2. Protein coat called a capsid 3. SOMETIMES have an envelope containing lipids like phospholipids, surrounding the capsid (easy to degrade with heat or detergent, so much easier to kill these viruses) -- Additionally for BACTERIPHAGES: never enter, but inject DNA into host... 4. Tail Sheath: the SYRINGE to inject DNA 5. Tail fibers: help with docking Viruses they lack RIBOSOMES which means they are OBLIGATE INTRACELLULAR PARASITES since they require a host cell to replicate and produce VIRIONS (viral progeny) which are "offspring" to infect more cells Genetic info in viruses 1. can be DNA or RNA 2. Single or double stranded 3. LARGE number of genes, or simply just one!

Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone axis (separate from pituitary) with the adrenal cortex aldosterone vs ADH/vasopressin vs ANP

1. Kidney juxtaglomerular Cells secrete Renin 2. Renin causes cleavage of inactive plasma protein angiotensinogen which is made by the LIVER 3. Angiotensinogen cleaved now activated to angiotensin I in blood when Renin present! 4. Angiotensin I converter to Angiotensin II through Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) in the LUNGS 5. Angiotensin II causes adrenal cortex to release ALDOSTERONE 6. Aldosterone increases Na REabsorption and takes water with it so osmolarity is same but Blood pressure increases Aldosterone made in response to LOW BLOOD PRESSURE -------- Aldosterone: increased Na reabsorption, water follows. Osmolarity same but higher blood pressure Atrial Natriuretic Peptide: increased Na secretion, water follows, osmolarity same but blood pressure DEcreases --- ANTAGONIST to aldosterone Vasopressin/Anti-diuretic hormone: Insert aquaporins in collecting duct, increase blood pressure AND lower plasma osmolarity

Bacteriophages specific cycles: 1. lytic cycle 2. lysogenic cycle (propha/provir) - 2 advantages (transd and superinf) Virulent: when a bacteria is in ____

1. Lytic cycle: virus replicates over and over causing bacteria to swell until it bursts and releases more viruses to go infect - When a bacteria undergoes this cycle it is deemed VIRULENT 2. Lysogenic cycle: virus infection enters the host GENOME and is termed provirus (virus in eukaryotic genome) or prophage (virus in bacterial genome) and continues replicating in new formed bacteria - Can be dormant for years! - SOME advatages: 1. virus DNA can exit the bacteria genome and TAKE some host cell DNA with it, infecting new cells and making them more diverse and mutated! 2. helpful to prevent SUPERINFECTION.. when one virus already in a bacteria prevents other from infecting

Review on fertilizaiton 1. fall tub (ampulla) 2. penetr 2 out laters (corona and zona pel) 3. acroso apparat and pronucleus 4. cortic rxn 5. depol prevents, and increase ma 6. new membr called fert mem

1. Metaphase II arrest in fallopian tubes WIDEST section (Ampulla) 2. Sperm penetrates through corona radiata and zona pellucida using acrosomal enzymes 3. Once in contact with the eggs cell membrane, it forms an acrosomal apparatus which extends and penetrates the cell membrane, allowing the pronucleus (sperm/egg nucleus prior to joining) from the sperm to enter the oocyte once Meiosis II has come to completion! 4. After pronucleus penetration, the cortical reaction occurs where calcium ions are released and DEPOLARIZE the membrane 5. Depolarization is what PREVENTS any other sperm from also entering egg! Also, depolarization increases metabolic activity of newly formed zygote. 6. New membrane depolarized is called the fertilization membrane Implantation occurs in BLASTULA phase!

Meiosis: MI (1. prophase 1 before) 2. Metaphase I (diff use tetr align) 3. Anaphase I (disjunction/segregation) 4. Telophase I: nucle enve forms around n ---> interkinesis MII 1. prophase II 2. Metaphase II 3. Anaphase II 4. Telophase II

1. Prophase I 2. Metaphase I: TETRADS align at the metaphase plate and each pair of chromosomes attach to a spindle fiber at its kinetochore --->>> DIFFERENCE: Mitosis: each chromosome attached to two spindle fibers, one each pole.. meisosis: each chromosome attached to one spindle fiber from one pole side --> law independent assortment: random alignment of maternal/paternal genes at the equatorial plate 3. Anaphase I: Homologous pairs separate to opposite pulls, this is known as disjunction... a more specific term segregation is used to name this process whereby the MATERNAL and PATERNAL chromosome are separated from each other! --> CENTROMERES do not break!!! They do in mitosis 4. Telophase I: nuclear envelopes reappear around the HAPLOID chromosomal sets and then cell divides -----> Interkinesis aka interphase II: time between cytokinesis I and prophase II, chromosomes may partially uncoil in lag time 1. Prophase II: same as Mitosis, but with 23 chromosomes not 46 2. Metaphase II: same mitosis 3. Anaphase II: Sister chromatids (23 chromsomes) separate 4. Telophase II: Same as mitosis, to form up to (not in oogenesis always) 4 haploid daughter cells with 23 chromosome/chromatids.

Male reproductive anatomy: 1. testes two functional units (semin tub and Interstit cell leyd) - located where - produce male horm aka (andr) - temp control 2. storage of sperm in... ----> route upon ejaculation (2 vas def, 2 ejac duc, 1 ure) 3. Mixing sperm with sem flu with help of prostate gland, seminal vesicles, and bulbourethal (Cowper) - fructose, alkalinity, cleaner --> sperm + semin flu = ____ Diff b/w male and female... path of urine/reproductive system.... inside vs out

1. Testes two functional units: (Located in the scrotum, 2-4˚ C colder for optimal sperm development) A. Seminiferous tubules: produce sperm which is nourished here by the sertoli cells - stimulated bu FSH (follicle stim hormone) B. Interstitial cells (of Leydig): Secrete male hormones like testosterone and other androgens = male sex hormones - stimulated by LH (luteinizine horomone) 2. Epididymis: stores and MATURES sperm produced in seminiferous tubes -> ejaculation results in sperm exiting epididymis and enter vas deferens and then entering the ejaculatory duct, then the two testes sperm production enter the urethra and exits the penis! NOTE: there are two testis and ducts which come togther to form the URETHRA 3. Sperm is mixed with seminal fluid as it passes reproductive tract. - Seminal fluid made alkaline to combat acidic female reproductive system using the prostate gland and seminal vesicles. Seminal vesicles also add fructose for sperm nourishment. The Bulbourethal (Cowper's) gland is used ti clean our urine and other remnants while lubricating the Urethra via a clear viscous fluid! Sperm + Seminal fluid = SEMEN Males: pee and sperm share a common exit point and pathway... EXTERNAL system Females: reproductive and urinary systems are SEPARATE... INTERNAL system

Pedigree inheritance patterns... 1. X link dom (fath/son ... daughters) 2. X link recessive ( 3. Autosomal dominant 4. Autosomal recessive 5. Y linked 6. mitochondrial inheritance

1. X linked dominant: - disease NEVER transfers from father to son! - All daughters of affected father will be affected 2. X linked recessive: - males are more affected! - Disease transfers more from mother to son and father to daughter 3. Autosomal dominant: - If it does not appear to skip generations! - mom and dad BOTH affected can have unaffected offspring! 4. Autosomal recessive: - Skips generations - mom and dad affected will always have affected offspring - unaffected parents CAN have affected offspring! 5. Y = only men can have it 6. Mitochondrial inheritance: - ONLY children of affected moms can have it since only mom has mitochondria passed to offspring

Layers surrounding oocytes for protection (2 layers) 1. zon pell (bind + prot, type of stuff found here? 2. cor rad (breach using) Pronuclei vs zygote what egg contributes compared to sperm

1. Zona pellucida: acellular (no cells) mix of glycoproteins for protection and also required for sperm to properly bind egg. 2. Coronoa Radiata: outside the zona pellucida, layer of cells adhering to the oocyte during ovulation, Meisosis II finishes when a sperm breaches the corona radiata using acrosomal enzymes, Pronuclei is the nucleus in an unfertilized egg, when breached by sperm, cell then referred to as zygote Sperm contributes just 1/2 chomrosomes, egg gives cytoplasm, organalle, nucleus, RNA, etc.

fetal circulation... 1. explain diffusion use in babies and HbF (do bloods mix) 2. Placenta produces (horm)... classifying it as what type of organ? 3. special about umbilical artery / vein 4. unique about fetus lungs and liver (moms?) - shunts

1. babies use diffusion to get nutrients and gasses from mom! - this implies mom has higher level of oxygen (diffusion requires a gradient), and so the baby compensates using HbF, fetal hemoglobin with extremely high binding affinity for O2 resulting in baby getting O2 from mothers blood. - NOTE: Need this because blood CANNOT mix, baby may be different blood type! 2. Placenta produces estrogen, progesterone, and human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) making it an endocrine signaling tissue. - Also allows diffusion of antibodies from mom to help build immune system! 3. placenta is site of oxygenation! So umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood toward the fetus, artery carries doexoygenated blood AWAY from fetus. 4. Fetus has oxygenation from placenta, NO lung function prior to birth. Mom compensates. Diffusion accounts for toxins and nutrients enter/leave fetus, so MOMS liver works overtime, baby liver in NONfunctional ---> next notecard on the SHUNTS to ensure blood diverted from these unused organs!

Tissue formation and types 1. epithelial - basem memb - parenchy - apical/basolat - types by shape 2. connective - stroma - secrete and make the _____ - examples.... 3. and 4. muscle and nervous later

1. epithelial: cover the body and line cavities - protect from viruses - absorption and secretion - connected to one another and then at the bottom to CONNECTIVE tissue by the basement membrane (an ECM) - often constitute the Parenchyma! - the FUNCTIONAL tissue of an organ! - epithelial is stomach acid producing, nephrons in kidney, etc. - polarized by apical (lumen facing, absorb nutritents) and basolateral (faces blood vessels or ECM for transport through rest of body) types by shapte: - Simple epithelia: one layer of cells - Stratified epithelia: many cell layers - Pseudostratified epithelia: SINGLe later, but appear to have multiple layers due to differences in cel height - cuboidal = cube like - squamous = flate and scale like - Columnnar: long and thin like a column rectangle 2. connective tissue: - link and provide structure for the parenchyma (function tissue) epithelial tissue - are the STROMA: structural tissue - blood, bone, ligament, adipose - responsible for secreting and forming the extracellular matrix key: epithelial is functional production unit Connective is structural unit and secretes materials for ECM

Other types of cells in the nervous system: glial/neuroglia astrocytes ependymal (CSF) microglia (waste) oligodendrocytes/schwann

3 types neurons: sensory (afferent), motor (efferent), interneuron (b/w aff and eff) glial cells/neuroglia: any of the non-neuronal cells in the CNS or PNS astrocytes: nourish neuron's and form the blood brain barrier controlling solutes entering CNS ependymal: line ventricles of brain and secrete cerebrospinal fluid! microglia: ingest and breakdown waste products in the CNS oligodendrocytes/schwann: produce myelin around axons

Erythroblastosis Fetalis

AB- or O+, the + and - refers to Rh!!! Rh Factor coincides with the D allele - Positive is the dominant allele! (only need one Rh positivity to be positive) - Positive means you express the D-antigen on blood cells! - negative means no D-antigen is on blood cells! Anti-bodies are not pre-made like they are for ABO. - Rh+ = +,+ or +,- - Rh- = -,- Erythroblastosis Fetalis: - During child birth the baby will leak blood into the mom! If the mom is Rh- and the baby is Rh+, blood spillage will result in mom developing an antibody response targeting and destroying foreign cells but this takes a while and birth is quick! So, antibodies are not an issue for first baby which leaves... - SECOND BABY: Now that mom has antibodies for Rh+ blood, if the second baby is again Rh+ for D allele, the antibodies are pre-made in B-cells which may create the antibodies which diffuse into placenta and target the babies blood! this is erythroblastosis fetalisis note** Rh+ mom means maybe has - and +, so possibly not an issue here! note** Do not worry about antibodies response to ABO blood since this antibody is an immunoglobin IgM which cannot cross placenta membrane so cannot harm baby! The IgR (Rh factor antibody) can!

Adrenal gland overall found and 2 parts... Adrenal cortex: secretes ____ which composed of 3 subtypes - gluco (corti and one), effect on gluc/prot, how it is released (hypo -> ant pit -> now) - mineral: aldosterone (effect on BP, mineral content, etc.) - cor sex hor (male or female affected more)

Adrenal glands = near the kidneys, located at top of them. - Adrenal CORTEX and adrenal MEDULLA are separate! Adrenal cortex: secretes corticosteroids like glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and cortical sex hormones 1. Glucocorticoids: regulate glucose levels and protein metabolism - cortisol and Cortisone: Increase blood glucose via gluconeogenesis and decreased protein synthesis, providing source of fuel and decreased inflammation = STRESS HORMONES - Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) -> ACTH -> glucocorticoid production in adrenal cortex make cortisol and cortisone 2. Mineralocorticoids: Influence the salt and water levels in the body - aldosterone: increases reabsorption of SODIUM in nephron of kidney... water follows. The overall osmolarity of plasma is UNCHANGED but the blood pressure increases - Antidiuretic hormone from posterior pituitary also increases BP, but no Na is reabsorbed. And Blood osmolarity decreases in this case. 3. Cortical Sex hormones: Adrenal cortex also synthesizes androgens and estrogens (small amount relative to gonads)... females affected more since androgens (testosterone) in female can make them more male like

Chapter 6 respiratory: Anatomy of breathing tract - nares, nasal cavity, vibrissae, pharynx, larynx, glottis and epiglottis and vocal cords in larynx), trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, surfactant(how it works)/detergent, capillaries, DIAPHRAGM (somatic or autonomic?) Thoracic cavity makeup... pleura (vis and parie) discuss SA Where are there cilia?

Air enters external Nares of the nose into the nasal cavity. In the cavity mucous and hairs (vibrissae) help filter it. Next, air enters the Pharynx, the common path for BOTH food and air, then into the larynx where only air can exist. - The opening of the layrnx/pharynx is the glottis covered by the epiglottis to protect food from going down into the larynx. - Larynx also has 2 vocal cords maneuvered with skeletal muscle and cartilage from the larynx, air passes into the trachea and then into one of two bronchi. - The trachea and bronchi have ciliated epithelial cells to catch any dust particles or pollutants the nasal cavity failed to catch Diaphragm is muscle separating thoracic cavity and abdominal cavity and is a skeletal muscle SOMATICALLY controlled which creates negative pressure in lungs for air to fill. Bronchi get smaller and smaller: Bronchi -> Bronchioles -> Alveoli coated with surfactant (a detergent that lowers surface tension and prevents alveolus from collapsing on itself) -> Capillaries surround each alveolus allowing for gas exchange. Alveoli extensive branching increases SA for optimal gas exchange. --- Lungs in thoracic cavity along with the heart. Surrounded by pleura. Visceral pleura in direct contact with lungs, interpleural space is filled with a fluid, then the parietal pleura touches the chest wall. Serve as a small lubricant to lungs as they expand/contract and helps set up pressure gradients!

Chapter 2!!!! Cell division cycle Go -> G1 presynth gap -| or -> S (chromatid/centromere) -> G2 (postsynthe gap) -> or -| M -checkpoints and their regulators! (key cancer agent if its missing... the mutant is called ____) ----- Molecules responsible for inducing the cell cycle... - transcr factor -> neces prot

All cells besides germ cells (so all autosomal cells) are diploid 2n = 2 sets of each chromosome... germ cells are haploid Cell cycle Interphase: G1, S, and G2 phase, 90% of the time Mitosis: actively dividing cell 1. Go (presynthetic gap)= Cell living and serving normal function, DNA seen as CHROMATIN (non condensed) so it is available for transcription by RNA polymerases 2. G1 stage = cells now create additional organelles for energy like mitochondria, ER and ribsomes... Also grow in size! RESTRICTION point exists at G1 to enter S-phase 3. S-phase: Involved replication of entire genome so daughter has identical copies! Chromatids will duplicate into sister chromatids combined at the centromere! - Even here humans still considered to have 46 chromosomes!!!! 4. G2 (postsynthetic gap) = All DNA is duplicated, another checkpoint as cell grows and check everything is present and DNA is in PROPER condition before fully initiating division! 5. M stage (mitosis): Mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase) and cytokinesis to produce two IDENTICAL cells (germ cells are non-identical) Checkpoints: 1. Gs/1 aka restriction point: ensure DNA is good quality to duplicate! P53 is enzyme that can regulate this point 2. G2/m checkpoint: ensure DNA was properly duplicated, ensure organelles present and cell is large enough size. P53 also used here ------>>>>>>>> TP53 is one of the most common cancer agents as P53 gene is mutated and so no control of checkpoints avialable... non-stop cell division! ------ Key culs: - Cyclins and Cyclin-dependent kinases: cyclins ACTIVATE CDK's and will promote the next stage of the cycle by phosphorylating transcription factors that promote gene transcription of proteins to induce next stage - ex: M-cyclin activates mitosis stage!

Nutrients, wastes, and hormones entering blood system...: - Amino acids and carbohydrates: - fats form digestion - hormones

Amino acids and carbohydrates: mostly made by the liver! Will enter blood capillaries via hepatic portal system to reach other tissues Fats form digestion: intestine breaks down fats, lipoproteins then carry fatty acids Hormones: exocytosis into blood stream, either carried or travel in plasma to target cells

Cell-death programming apoptosis vs necrosis vs senescence (result of telom... telomerase function in babies?)

Apoptosis: organized cell death initiated by cell, forms apoptotic blebs, the bodies, the engulfed to get rid of it all! - NO leakage of harmful chemicals/toxins necrosis: cell damage results in cell death and spillage of cellular make up, can be toxic and messy Senescence: cellular aging, humans = 50 cycles... Result of telomeres becoming short (G and C cluster ends of chromosomes, preventing mutations, shorten with each replication since they are so hard to replicate). Loss of cell division and growth - telomerase in fetus helps prevent aging as telomeres get replicated for dividing cells... thought to also explain cancer cell survival

Cleavage - marks the creation of an ___, this tage ends forming a morul - what two things increase as ratios? (SA and N:C) and benefit

As the zygote moves for implantation (only implants in blastula form) in the uterus endometrium lining, Cleavage occurs! Cleavage is the rapid dividing of the zygote into smaller and smaller cells without increasing overall volume! --> marks the creation of an EMBRYO since the specimen is no longer a single cell! ----> Occurs until the embryo forms a morula which is the most dense and compact embryo prior to blastulaiton Two things increase with rapid cell division (short interphase)... benefit to it: helps faster absorb nutrients and gasses: - Nuclear : cytoplasmic (more nucleus) - Surface area : volume (more SA) determinante cleavage: cells are determined to be formed into a certain type of cells indeterminante: cells can become any cell tip: morula comes from latin term mulberry, same look!

Cell-Cell communication

Autocrine: cell releases signal itself responds to Paracrine: cell releases signal and act on nearby cells Juxtacrine: direct messaging between connected cells Endocrine: hormone secretion in blood traveling all around body

types of summation of postsynaptic potentials

Axon hillock receives excitatory (raises potential, more +, depolarization) and inhibitory (lowers potential, more -, hyperpolarization), the SUMMATION of all of this determines of an AP will fire. Two types: 1. Temporal summation: multiple signals are received from one messenger at short enough intervals apart to continually add up and depolarize enough for AP to fire 2. Spatial summation: one signal is received but from many messengers so adds up to fire an AP, also involves location signal received at (further up dendrite or closer to axon hillock = stronger signal)

Blood pressure: units, tool to measure - what is actually measured (x/Y) - greatest pressure change between the _______________ and lower in ____________, always... KEY equation relating to ohms law! - properties determining TPR / resisance in arteriole vs veinuole? - contract vs dilate What happens based on resistivity and wanting a normal BP if capillary beds dilate? - they are in ______ with each other in physics terms

BP is the force per unit area! (N/m^2) Measured by a sphygmomanometer - Highest pressure change is in arteries to veinuoles ... blood pressure ALWAYS lowers as soon as it leaves the heart! 90/60 -> 120/80 is normal - Systolic (ventricular contraction) / Diastole (ventricular relaxation and diffusion) Ohm's Law: V = IR, in circulation MAP = CO x TPR - MAP = mean arterial pressure - CO = cardiac output (volume blood/ min, like current) - TPR: Total peripheral (vascular) resistance TPR resistivity determined by: - in physics R function of material, length, and corss sectional area! TPR is based on length and cross sectional area!... A. length: longer = more resistance since much travel greater distance B. Thinner tube: More resistance singe more congested for all of the parts needing to pass through Arteries are highly muscular and contract as needed to change resistance of blood! - arterioles also can contract slightly to decrease blood reaching capillaries, or increase dilate to increase blood flow and LESS resistance Veinuoles and veins are not muscular and cannot contract. = low pressure -------- Capillary beds (besides 3 portal systems) are in Parallel with each other! Meaning, opening capillary beds will DECREASE capillary resistivity. To compensate, cardiac output would need to increase (usually heart beat).

1.4 Prokaryote cell growth/division - binary fission - plasmids - virulence fact - episomes genetic recombination - tranforma - sexual reproduction aka conju (sex pilus, +/- M/F. ex w Fert fac in ecoli, high freq of recom) - transduction - transposons (also in euk)

Binary fission: circular chromosome attached to cell wall duplicates, cell grows and then pinches and separates into 2... MUCH faster than mitosis/meiosis Episomes: an extranuclear/outside chromosome DNA element which can become part of the chromosome! SOME plasmids are an example! Can replicate outside of chromosome on own, often in cytoplasm subcategories: A. plasmids contain evolutionary benefit trait... - can also carry VIRULENCE factors: increase the pathogenic properties of a bacteria (evade immune response, more toxin production, etc.)... SOME which can integrate into chromosome DNA are episomes B. Transposons: (jumping genes) can insert or remove itself from the genome! (ALSO in eukaroytes, not just prokaryotes! Insertion may interrupt other genes) another type of episome Genetic recombination: - Transformation: insertion of outside/foreign DNA from the environment into the bacteria DNA chromosome (ex would be episomes) - conjugation aka SEXUAL reproduction: the MALE (donor, +) forms a sex pili appendage (conjugation bridge) with the female (receiver, -) of DNA. Require sex factors. Sex factor is replicated and given as a PLASMID to the female to become +. EX: e. coli have F (fertility)factor.. F+ -> F- to form more F+ - When plasmid incorporates into chromosome, it is termed Hfr, high frequency of recombination - Transduction: BACTERIOPHAGE (virus that infects a bacteria) can uptake DNA from host, and deliver/integrate it into new bacteria... requires viral vector!

blood (a connective tissue) make up! - % liq/cell - cells originate from? what is the liquid? Three types of cells in blood: 1. eryth (key function and cul they have inside, shape (biconcave) imporan for capil and SA, - do NOT contain what organelles? Why make sense (thing oxidative phosphorylation) - what mechanism for energy based on what is missing? - hematocrit content? what else is measured in a blood count? 2. Leuko: total blood conent about?, 5 total types of subdivided granulo vs agranulo (which is vaccine use/memory bank, which is exocytosis) within agran -> phagocytic vs antibody generation -> also one of the types is aka (in cytoplasm) as... diff locations = diff names too - nuclei? - what type is mast cell? 3. platelets - Megakaryocytes origin - function - nuclei?

Blood is 55% liquid and 45% cells! - Liquid = plasma: made up of hormones, nutrients, ions, gases, etc. - Cells = originate from stem cells in bone marrow (hematopoietic)... erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets (thrombocytes) 1. Erythrocytes: Red blood cells - The O2 carriers... remember oxygen is NONpolar, needs a carrying molecule which is hemoglobin. Each RBC has 250 million of these enzymes and each enzyme can carry 4 O2 culs each. - Shape: RBCs are biconcave - two indents, one on each side - allowing for travel through capillaries and increase surface area for greater gas exchange - LACK: RBCs lose mitochondria, nuclei, and ER. Allows for more space of hemoglobin, AND makes sense since mitochondria metabolize O2, but we want it stored!!! - energy source: No mitochondria = GLYCOLYSIS only for energy, lactic acid builds up. - Senesce every 120 days - Hematocrit: measure of how much RBCs in a sample of blood (normally 40-50%). Hemoglobin usually measured g/dL and around 15 2. Leukocytes: White blood cells - <1% of blood content - The only nuclei containing blood component Granulocytes: contain granules visible under light microscopy. Granules contain toxins that can be released via exocytosis to fight off microbes! Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils use in allergic reactions, inflammatory response, pus formation. Agranulocytes: NO exocytosis since no granules present. Lymphocytes and monocytes used in specific immune response body uses to fight off pathogens and bacterias! Either the information bank on past infections, or first responders to those specific know infections! - Help fight repeated pathogen responses efficiently! - how vaccines are made! Train agranulocytes! - Lymphocytes: B cells or T cells make antibodies - Monocytes: phagocytosize foreign matter... in cytoplams they are renamed macrophages - each organ has its own macrophage name Microglia (CNS), Langherans (skin), Osteoclasts (bone) - Include mast cells 3. Thrombocytes: Platelets - BLOD CLOTTING, are shards or cell fragments from bone marrow known as megakaryocytes - HIGH concentration in blood - do NOT contain nucleus!

Bohr Effect (dissociation curve for Hb/O2), temperature, and BPG Also, altitude explanation!

CO2 + H2O <-> H2CO3 <-> H+ + HCO3- An DEcrease in pH, increased acidity, results in more protons available to bind oxyhemoglobin and decrease Hb affinity for oxygen!!! Bohr effect = Decreased pH = rightward shift on dissociation curve (more unloading of O2) Rightward shift: Kd Increases, more [ ] or P is needed to reach 1/2 Saturation. therefore, at the same pressure, the non-shifted curve will hold onto much more oxygen then the right shift. THEREFORE, the right shift means a unloading of O2 at tissues during low pH and high [H]+ and high [CO2] conditions, often during exercise. Temperature: Higher temperature = rightward shift BPG = rightward shift (blocks hemoglobin center site favoring T (taut)-state Leftward shift: bind O2 more tightly 1. Decreased temperature, decreased CO2, decreased H+, increased pH, decreased BPG 2. Fetal hemoglobin HbF is LEFTWARD shifted from adult hemoglobin HbA (baby must fight mom for it!) Altitude: Higher altitude, lower pO2 = less unloading at tissues! - Compensation: Increase 2,3-BPG to 8 mM at high altitudes, curve shifts RIGHT and more unloading to overcome effects of low pO2!

Linking respiratory and renal system together through the bicarbonate buffer system!

CO2 + H2O <-> H2CO3 <-> H+ + HCO3- Metabolic Acidosis: 1. Kidneys fails to excrete bicarbonate acid effectively (get rid of), this leads to high levels of CO2 -> H+ increase and pH decrease OR Diarrhea results in bicarbonate leaving body, shift system right, more acidic! 2. Body compensates through hyperventilation to blow off more CO2! Respiratory alkalosis: 1. Hyperventilation leads to exhaling too much CO2, shift bicarbonate system left! 2. Kidneys compensate by increasing EXCRETION of bicarbonate, driving the system right and decreases pH 3. If hyperventilation stops, metabolic change is slow so pH may not keep lowering 4. Secondary acidosis results!

Prokaryotes make-up cell wall - gram +/- and pepti and the acid (lipotei) which activates ____ diff in organelles freom eukaryotes - mitocho - cytoske - ETC location - ribsom

Cell wall: protective outer layer which controles solutes allowed through, inner layer is the cell membrane AND this holds either lipoteichotic (gram+) or lippolysaccharides (gram-) which trigger immune response -> wall+membrane together form the envelope -> GRAM POSITIVE bacteria: cell wall composed of peptidoglycan (sugar backbone crosslinked with peptides) (no periplasmic space)... NO outer membrane -> also contain Lipoteichoic acid, what activates humans immune system -> GRAM NEGATIVE: much lower amount of peptiodglycan, there is a periplasmic space between cell wall and cell membrane. HAS a outer membrane -> Cell wall of gram - are similar to a typical cell membrane, and posess lipopolysaccharides which are what human immune system picks up ---- Immune system of humans is MUCH more sensitive Gram - bacteria with lipopoly than to gram + with lipoteichoic acid Dye staining: gramp positive = purple! Gram negative = pink/red ---------- difference in organelles from eukaryotes: - mitochondria: NOT present in prokaryotes - cytoskeleton: much less complex than euk - ETC location: in the Cell membrane! - ribosome: smaller for bacteria

Overall structure of human NS: start with CNS and PNS - CNS: parts, white vs grey matter in both - spinal cord route of signal PNS: - auto vs soma - key diff pregang vs postgang neuron

Central nervous system: Brain and spinal cord - Brain made of white matter (axons in myelin sheaths) and grey matter (cell bodies and dendrites)... Grey matter on periphery of brain, white matter inside! - Brainstem: responsible for basic life needs... breathing, heart beating - Spinal cord: Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral-- provide sensory info to all parts of body below the neck. - white matter lies on outside, grey on inside (cell bodies in, send messages out) Route of signal with spinal cord: 1. Afferent neuron picks sensory signal and sends it to DORSAL root ganglia (ganglion since the cell bodies are outside the CNS) 2. Signal may be sent to brain (supraspinal) or may just result in message right to motor ventral Root which carries movement response back down TRACT from the NUCLEI to the effector cells. --------------------- Peripheral nervous system: Somatic and autonomic - All NERVES (not ganglia!) and fibers outside the brain and spinal cord. - Consists of somatic sensory and auotnomic sensory - connects CNS to rest of body A. Somatic NS: Controls responses to muscles, joints, and skin! Involves afferent and efferent fibers to respond B. Autonomic NS: control respiration, heartbeat, digestion, and temperature control. KEY difference b/w somatic and autonomic: - Somatic has ONE long efferent neuron extending from spinal cord to the effector - Autonomic has TWO efferent neurons, the preganglionic (in CNS) and postganglionic (attached to vital organ) neuron

Coagulation... - clot site features.... (thrombus formation) method 1. damage, connect tiss, tiss fact prot/COLLAG expos 2. a. platelets b. liver coag fact 3. a. aggreg b. coag fac-> plate secrete ___plastin convert proth to thr 4. b. thr converts ____ogen to fibr 5. b. fibr creates web 6. Breakdown of clot by... (______inogen -> plasm scab =

Clot = combination of Platelets and Coagulation factors (proteins)! helps minimize bleeding Clot aka THROMBUS formation Method: 1. Damage to a blood vessel exposes underlying connective tissue under the endothelial tissue, which contains COLLAGEN and protein called tissue factor 2. a. Platelets in contact with collagen sense injury! b. Liver secretes coagulation factors and when they come into contact with tissue factor they will initiative a complex activation cascade. 3. a. Platelets release contents causing aggregation together at open site b. Coagulation factors activated will activate the platelets to release the enzyme thromboplastin which converts prothrombin to active thrombin 4. b. Thrombin can convert fibrinogen to fibrin 5. b. Fibrin will form webbed structures almost like a net to capture platelets and blood by site of injury to form clot 6. Plasminogen converts into plasmin to breakdown clot over time so wound can be repaired! Scab = clot on surface of a vessel

Nucleus features DNA inside nucleolus and rRNA purpose compartmentalizing...

Contains all DNA, nuclear membrane/envelope is a DOUBLE membrane, has nuclear pores allowing exchange of material between cytoplasm and nucleus DNA wound around organizing proteins called histones, then further wound into chromosomes. - Nucleus compartmentalization allows doe DNA transcription separate from RNA translation Nucleolus found inside= deals with rRNA = ribosome synthesis occurs in nucleolus

Pineal Gland (where it is) and OTHER endocrine tissues not organs 1. dig tract ( secret, gas, choecyst) 2. kidney (axis from ealrier, erythtopoetin) 3. Heart and ANP 4. thymus and thymosin

Deep within the brain! Secretes Melatonin: involved in regulating circadian rhythms Decrease light intensity by RETINA = more melatonin secretion Light = less melaotnin = daytime OTHER: 1. digestive tract parts: secrete secretin, gastrin, cholecystokinin 2. Kidneys: renin-angiotensin-aldosterone axis AND Erythropoietin (stimulate bone marrow to make more erythrocytes in response to low O2 levels) 3. Heart: Atrial natriuretic peptide is ANTAGONISTIC to aldosterone! Increases absorption and excretion of Na, makes urine more volumetric. 4. Thymus (behind sternum) makes thymosin involved in T-cell differentiation

AP firing and the voltage gated sodium and K channels.. depol, repol, hyperpol refractory periods! (absolute and relative) what causes unidirect message

Depolarization upon enough excitatory signals at axon hillock: - voltage gated Na channels: open at threshold potential reached upon depolarization, and Na follows both electrical and potential gradient to negative and low [Na] inside cell. Repolarization: - Driven by Voltage gated K channels: in response to high voltages after AP, the potassium channels open and potassium flows down electrochemical gradient from high charge to low charge and high K to low K. - Voltage gated Na channels: At +35 mV, the voltage channels are inactivated. They remain inactivated until the cell again repolarizes and reach resting membrane potential. Hyperpolarization: - The Voltage gated K channels cause an overshoot of RMP and so go lower than -70 mV... but will then close Restoring gradients: Na+/K+ pump ----------- Refractory period: point in time where presence of signal can have no effect, comes after an AP was fired! Results from the K channel hyperpolarization and inactivated Na channel >>*** responsible for unidirectional messaging! Types: 1. Relative refractory period: Hyper-polarization WITH VOLTAGE GATED K CHANNELS makes reaching a threshold potential harder, so a greater stimulus will need to be supplied! 2. Absolute refractory period: When voltage-gated Na channels become INACTIVATED, no matter the stimulus, the channel even if open will not permit anything through! So NEVER can a AP be fired during this time ---------------------- Open: Channel is open at threshold potential Closed: At resting before any signals, channel is DEinactivated (no plug) but is still closed extracellularly Inactive: plugged by a pore, even if channel is "open", no Na can enter (+35 mV to resting) and plug is on CYTOPLASMIC side

Sex determination SRY gene hemizygous and disease determinant

Females: XX Male: XY Y has way fewer gene carriers, but code for testis and gonads for male.. has the SRY gene (sex-determining region-Y Male has ONE 23 chromosome being X, meaning it is hemizygous... so if X has recessive mutations, the male will express them wherease a female with XX may not since the other X may have the dominant non-mutant gene!

Key developmental event by trimester: 1. 8 weeks termed the 2. (more attractive...) 3. (antibo high, less move)

First trimester: - major organs develop then... - heart beat at 22ish days and then eyes, gonads, liver, limbs start to form - 5-6 weeks (10-25 mm) - cartilage turns to bone - 8 weeks: organs formed, brain mostly formed, embryo know now as fetus (zygote -> embryo -> fetus) - 3rd month end, 9 cm Second tri: - face appears human! - Movement in amniotic fluid with rapid growth - 30-36 cm long Third tri: LUNGS grow late - Antibody exchange from mother to fetus for protection against foreign matter (highest here but occurs throughout pregnancy) - rapid brain deveopment - rapid growth, less kicking since so big with little room

Flagella and chemotaxis make-up - hook, basal body, filament (made up of ____)

Flagella is swimmer tail allowing movement, bacteria can have >1. - Chemotaxis: ability of a cell to detect toxins/immune cells and move away make-up: 1. Filament: hollow, helical structure made up of flagellin 2. Basal body: complex structure anchoring flagellum to the cytoplasmic membrane AND is the motor - anchor and motor 3. Hook: connects filament to basal body, allows torque from basal body to be experienced bu filament so the flagella can spin = move filament = exteacell. -> hook -> rotor/membrane anchor BASAL BODY

Parathyroid gland effects... gland location and size three effects! (name of this hormone EASY) also two effects on P (bone/kidney) - mechanism w vit D Feedback inhibition

Four pea sized glands in back of thyroid... OPPOSITE effects from calcitonin! RAISES Calcium plasma blood levels. - Uses Parathyroid hormone (PTH) Parathyroid hormone three + two effects (antagonistic of thyroid) on CALCIUM 1. Decreased secretion in kidney 2. Resorption of Ca from bone, freeing up stores 3. Increased absorption in gut (as Vitamin D) - Vitamin D activated by PTH, will then be useful in absorbing more P and Ca in gut! PHOSPHORUS: effects cancel out 1. Prevent REabsorption in kidney, allow excreted in urine 2. Resorbing more phosphate from bone! - effects of 1 and 2 cancel out! P stays same feedback inhibition: more complicated chart but essentially just - FB

How twins work based on fertilization dizyg vs monozyg which is fraternal which is identical (think di vs mono) di - as diff as all other sib - process - each gets its own... (diff gen) mono: - genomes - conjoined

Fraternal twins aka Dizygotic: - two ovum are released during ovulation and so 2 sperm needed to fertilize each egg! - If these ovum are too close together in the fallopian tube, there can be growth issues... - Each zygote gets its own placenta, chorion, and amnion - these babies are just as different as any other two children since the sperm and eggs are both different! Monozygotic aka identical twins: - single zygote splits into two identical cells, so GENOMES are identical! - Conjoined twins results from the zygotic cells not fully dividing in meiosis II - Classified by number of structures shared (ex. monochorionic/diamnionic, etc.) the more they share the greater risk for complications chorion holds placenta and all, amnion is closer shell layer to baby

Cytoskeleton and 3 types microfilam tubb - flag/cili (ex w mucous) definitions of each - centrioles/ centrosome interm

Help with movement/transport products around cell and maintain shape! - microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments microfilaments: Made of solid poly,erized rods of actin - resistant to compression and fracture and protect cell - used in actin myosin for muscle contraction - help in cytokinesis - help in cleavage furrow formation Microtubules: hollow polymers of tubulin - radiate throughout cell and provide pathways for motor proteins Kinesin and Dynein - Make up cilia and flagella! Cilia projections from cell helping with movement of materials along surface of cell .... ex: cilia line resipiratory tract, and involved in movement of mucous Flagella move the cell itself (sperm) - Centrioles make up centrosomes. Organzing centers for microtubules! - involved in mitosis, connect to kinetichores and pull apart Intermediate filaments: Diverse group (lamisn, keratin, desmin, vimetin), but are RIGID and so used to reinforce cytoskeleton and in cell-cell adhesion - also help anchor organelles like the nucleus in a cell

Pituitary aka _______ Anterior pituitary: (hormones above notecard) FLAT PEG - 4 tropic and 3 direct hormones....

Hypophysis is another analogous term for pituitary Anterior: FLAT PEG (flat = tropic, peg = direct) Tropic hormones: - GnRH -> FSH and LH -> act on gonads - CRF -> ACTH -> act on adrenal cortex - TRH -> TSH -> Act on thyroid (notice FSH and LH = 2, so four total tropic hormones) Direct hormones: - PIF (dopamine) -| Prolactin -> lactation mammary glands - Endorphins -> mask and decrease perception of pain - GHRH -> Growth hormone (GH) -> beta-oxidation of fatty acids for glucose to aid MUSCLE and BONE production

Gonads: (ch 2 in detail) - path of secretion

Hypothalamus GnRH -> Anterior pituitary FSH and LH-> ... TESTES FSH -> Sertoli cells and spermatogenesis maturation LH -> Interstitial cells and androgen production OVARIES: FSH -> Progesterone and estrogen from follicle LH -> Estrogen production and trigger ovulation via LH surge and E + FB, maintains P from corpus luteum!

Adrenal Medulla (where its found) - derivative of .... produces these hormones effects 1. glycolys 2. BMR 3. HR, bronchi, vasoconstr/dilat Note: how cortisol affect catechol short vs ling term stress response path

INSIDE of the adrenal cortex! - ALL adrenal medulla hormones yield fight/flight response similar to sympathetic nervous system! Derivative of the nervous system! - Produces epinephrine and norepinephrine! - amino-acid derivatives, belong to catecholamine class Adrenaline/epinephrine affects: 1. Glycolysis: breakdown glucose and provide energy to body! 2. Increase basal metabolic rate (lower enzyme Km's = act faster) 3. Increase heart rate, dilate bronchi, dilate pupils, ALTER blood flow (vasodilation) to more necessary systems like heart, muscles, lungs, brain... vasoconstriction to kidneys and gut. --- NOTE: cortisol increases epinephrine/catecholamine release as well! Cortisol = long-term stress, epi= short term ---- Short term: CNS -> PNS -> autonomic NS -> sympathetic nervous system -> Adrenal medulla Long term: CNS / Hypothalamus CRH -> Anterior pituitary ACTH-> stimulate adrenal cortex glucocorticoids (cortisol/one)

Blastulation step of development - after morul developed, 1. blastula vs blastocyte, filled w fluid known as blstcl, 2. two noteworthy groups (outer ring trophy, inner... chori, placen, organism) Movement of blastula now.... implanta... - explain tropho gives rise to chorion (what is chorion) A. how baby breathes later, prepping! (villi and endomet) B. chorion -> placenta ... baby connected via the... (vein/artery has what?

Implantation occurs during this blastula phase! Zygote -> cleavage (many cells in small but same volume cell as before) -> Morula -> Blastulation Blastulation: - Upon formation of the tightly packed cells in a morula, blastulation next occurs... ^^^^ Blastula (the overall cell, in mammals its called the blastocyte) is formed with an inner fluid cavity comporised of blastocoel. TWO noteworthy cell groups: 1. Inner cell mass: cells protruding into the blastocoel fluid and gives rise to the organism itself 2. Trophoblast: Surrounds the blastocoel and gives rise to the placenta (and the chorion)... form the chorionic villi! Upon becoming a blastula (or mammals, blastocyte), the trophoblast will implant itself in the uterus cell wall lining.... - This results in the devleopment of the chorion: the extraembryonic membrane that later develops into the placenta A. The chorion developed from the trophoblast will form chorionic villi which anchor and attach to the endometrium LATER allowing for gas exchange between mom and fetus through placenta. B. Chorion develops into placenta, the placenta is a separate system from the fetus, but they are connected by the umbilical cord. - The umbilical cord has a vein and artery! - umbilical vein (toward, placenta gives oxygenated blood and nutrients) - umbilical artery, away, baby sends back deoxgyenated blood to be resupplied by the placenta!

Menstrual cycle:

In essence, growth of endometrium then shedding (bleeding) in response to ovulation prep... 1. Follicular phase: begins when the menstrual flow (shedding of endometrium) begins. GnRH from hypothalamus increases since estrogen and progesterone are so low... This causes FSH and LH production which induce ovarian follicle development. Follicles produce estrogen and progesterone which now will inhibit GnRH and levels of FSH and LH to level off and stabilize. Endometrial lining regrows. 2. Ovulation: As follicles secrete more estrogen, it reaches a point estrogen turns from negative feedback to POSITIVE of GnRH, FSH, and LH which increases all rapidly and causes ovulation, the egg released from ovary into abdominal cavity. ---- LH surge triggers ovulation 3. Luteal phase: After ovulation, ruptured follicle turns into the corpus luteum which secretes progresterone. More and more progesterone is made while estrogen remains high, but progrsterone is a negative feedback inhibitor so will inhibit GnRH, FSH, and LH, preventing ovulation of multiple eggs! --- note: progesterone maintains endometrium, estrogen causes it to regrow. 4. Mensturation: Assuming no fertilization takes place, corpus luteum loses LH stimulation, progesterone levels decline, and uterine lining bleeds and is cut off. High E and P levels drop off causing GnRH to not be inhibited for next cycle. Pregnancy: Implantation of zygote into utererus will result in release of Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (Hcg) which stimulates LH receptors to keep the corpus luteum healthy and producing progesterone... this is KEY since it is the corpus luteum which keep the uterine lining in place for the first trimester. --- eventually placenta takes over and will itself sectre progesterone and estrogen

monosynaptic or polysynaptic

In times of need, signal bypasses the brain! sends signal directly from afferent neuron back to efferent neuron to move! Brain still receives signal as well. Monosynaptic vs polysynatptic: 1. Mono: knee-jerk reflex, NO Interneuron 2. Poly: Step on a nail, but picking one foot up isn't enough or you fall, so simultaneous control of balance! Interneuron is at play here sending signal multiple directions!

Differentiation... induction, inducers, organizing and responsive cells and importance of this communicaton, competent, growth factors and reciprocal development

Induction: Act of one cell influencing what other cells in proximity differentiate into Inducers: the molecules or chemicals that affected what a cell differentiates to - response cells must be competent or able to respond to the morphogens/inducers secretions Organizing cells will send inducers to responsive cells to turn responsive cells into certain function. Help ensure cells working together in organ systems or in neuronal pathways are properly made. Growth factors: peptides that promote differentiation and mitosis in certain tissues (ex. Pax6 GF results in eye) Reciprocal development: Inducers triggering one differentiation or mitotic event then induce ANOTHER event... ex. Pax6 growth factor stimulated by inducer, which results in retina, and retina results in cornea.

Diabetes and Insulin type 1 and II hypoglycemia hyper diabetes mellitus-> polydipsia and polyuris

Insulin = cause cells to uptake glucose Type I (insulin-dependent) diabetes: Host cannot make their own insulin, but cells are responsive to it - treatment: insulin injections Type II (Insulin-non-dependent) diabetes: Host makes insulin, cells are just less sensitive to it - treatment: medications to help cells respond to insulin -- hypoglycemia: Low blood glucose levels often as a result of excess insulin in blood. -- hyperglycemia: High blood glucose levels often as a result of Type I or II diabetes -- diabetes mellitus: disease where body does not produce or respond well to insulin! Often results in hyperglycemia. >>>> High glucose in blood causes lots of absorption buy kidneys for excretion in urine, causing polyuria (frequent peeing) and also Polydipsia (frequent thirst) as body wants to dilute blood glucose.

Fluid balance in the blood vessels define interstitium (discuss Edema and lymph/thoracic duct) 1. hydrostatic pressure (units, what causes this pressure?, what is this pressure) 2. osmo/oncot explain process as blood moves arter -> veinu with pressure and which is more important when! BATTLE between two is called __________________

Interstitium: the cells surrounding blood vessels (will be the ones exchanging gases and nutrients) -- Accumulation of excess fluid in interestium results in edema (build up of fluids), some of this fluid will be found in the lymphatic system as lymphatic fluid or lymph, Lymphatic fluid is returned to the central circulatory system via thoracic duct Hydrostatic pressure: - Force per unit Area blood exerts on vessel walls - based on contraction of heart and elasticity of arteries - Forces blood out of capillaries since they are semi leaky by design! Osmotic pressure/ oncotic pressure: The sucking pressure solutes have to pull water INTO the bloodstream! Most attributable pressure comes from plasma proteins which is why it can just be called oncotic pressure Capillary bed travel: 1. Arterioles push blood with hydrostatic pressure dominating over oncotic/osmotic pressure. -> water efflux out of the capillaries 2. Towards end of the capillaries, hydrostatic pressure drops (see curve way earlier, always does from artery -> vein) and oncotic pressure remains same. Now, osmotic pressure dominates and an INflux of water occurs into the veinuoles. Starling forces: is the battle between oncotic and hydrostatic pressure which is described above and necessary for balance. - Movement of fluid and CO2/O2 is driven by pressure differentials!

Growth graph of bacteria lag -> exponent/log -> station -> death

Lag phase: bacteria adapt to new local conditions Exponential phase/log phase: Bacteria now adapted grow rapidly Stationary phase: plateaus due to recourse amount Death phase: depleted resources causes bacteria to die

Fetus do not use liver or lungs... three shunts to divert blood flow from these unused organs... 1. Lungs a. foramen ovale b. ductus arteriosis 2. Liver a. ductus venosus

Lungs: A. Foramen Ovale: One way valve connect right atrium to left atrium. This prevents any blood from being shipped to lungs via right ventricle pumping to pulmonary artery! - results in right side of heart being under higher pressure as more need to wait to enter left sife! B. Ductus Arteriosis: Shunt connection between aorta and pulmonary artery, preventing blood going through pulmonary to lungs, and be re-routed with aorta to rest of body! Liver: A. ductus Venosus: oxygenated blood in umbilical pass allows blood to bypass the liver! (umbilical vein to inferior vena cava)

Lysosomes: (and endos) - X-bound - relation to endos - autolys results in

Lysosomes carry hydrolytic enzymes to degrade substrates... they are a MEMBRANE BOUND organelle - Lysosomes function in conjunction with endosomes! - endosomes can transport materials to trans-golgi, cell membrane, or via lysosomal path for degradation, activated by acidificiation! - AUTOLYSIS: when lysosomes release hydrolytic enzymes into cell it signals APOPTOSIS, just like the mitochondria can by releasing enzymes from ETC! - in this case released enzymes = DIRECT degradation

Regulation of breathing: - controlled by (med obl, vent cent, contain what typen of receptors for sensing?, hypercarbia/hypercabnia, hypox)

Medulla Oblongata controls breathing at the ventilation center which contain chemoreceptors which sense CO2 levels, high CO2 means more ventilation! ALSO responds to O2 levels, but only at drastically LOW amounts. Hypercabrnia/hypercapnia: Too much CO2 in the blood/body... result in hyperventilation! Hypoxemia: low levels of O2 in blood! Results increased respiratory rate SOME non-autonomic control through cerebrum!

Meiosis: M1 is ____ division while MII is ____ division 1. Prophase I (same steps as mitosis but diff in crossover) - synapsis, tetra, synaptonemal complex - crossing over/recombination/linkage (by distance apart) Mendel's second law (of independent assortment)

Meiosis I results in reductional division-- A diploid cell is turned into a haploid cell! Meiosis II results in equational division: Sister chromatids separate from haploid cells to form 4 haploid cells with chromatids! 1. Prophase I: Nuclear envelope and nucloeoli disassembles, centrioles separate and chromosomes form-- nothing new... now what is NEW: Synapsis occurs which is when homologous chromosome pairs (ex. both chromosomes, now currently sister chromatids, of #21) come together forming a tetrad (4 total chromatids but 2 chromosomes). This tetrad is held together by a group of proteins called the synaptonemal complex. Chromatids of homologous chromosomes may break at these points of contact known as chiasma/chiasmata and result in crossing over! - Crossing over occurs NOT between sister chromatids (since they are already identical) but between homologous chromosomal pairs! Exchange EQUIVALENT pieces of DNA - This is a form of recombination which can unlink, LINKED genes, or genes commonly inherited together... the closed genes are together on chromosome the more linked they are Mendel's second law (of independent assortment): Inheritance of one allele does not effect the likelihood of inheriting certain alleles for other genes! Since crossing over randomizes what we can possibly inherit!

flagella and cilia (ex w mucous) definitions of each with examples how are they made up? (math x+y) (dimers out and monomers in) compare make up of flag/cil to centrioles

Microtubules and tubulin proteins result in a 9+2 structure for BOTH flagella and cilia, 9 outer dimer tubulins connected to 2 inner monomer tubulins Cilia: projections from cell helping with movement of materials along surface of cell - ex: cilia line respiratory tract, and involved in movement of mucous Flagella move the cell itself (sperm) Centrioles is 9 triplets with a hollow center, while flagella and cilia is 9 doublets with 2 monomers in center

Mitosis: 4 phases occurs in... 1. pro... centri separ, sindles form, nuc mem disapp, kinet fiber 2. met (equat plate or met plate) 3. ana 4. telo/cytok finite lifecycle = how many divisions in humans?

Mitosis occurs in SOMATIC cells (non-sexual reproduction) 1. Prophase: Chromatid is condensed into chromsomes! Centriole pairs separate and move to polar ends. Once at polar ends spindle fibers begin to form and will connect to the kientochore of sister chromatids (located at the centromere) VIA kinetochore fibers! Also the nuclear membrane DISAPPEARS so the fibers can even reach the DNA. 2. metaphase: Centrioles which are separated and connected to kinetochores will align all the chromosomes in the middle (equidistant from poles) of the cell (metaphase plate/equatorial plate). 3. Anaphase: centromeres split and so each chromatid has its own distinct centromere (sister chromatids -> chromatids)... kinetochore fibers shorten resulting in pulling toward opposite poles 4. Telophase and cytokinesis: Telophase = REVERSE of prohpase... the spindle apparatus disappears and nuclear membrane reforms around each SET of chromosomes. Chromosomes UNCOIL to interphase form. -> end telophase: cytokinesis separates cytoplasm and organelles! so each cell gets sufficient supplies to live on their own. PROGRAMMED death occurs after finite number of divisions! Human cells in 20-50

Final step in early development: Neurulation how does inside nervous cells get made when synthesized from outside ___derm? 1. notochord and meso 2. neural fold, neural groove -> neural tube 3. neural tube rise to 5. neural crest

Neurulation: forming the nervous system, which happens with the ECTODERM. - how does inside nervous cells get made on outside ectoderm? 1. Rod of mesodermal cells known as the notochord form along the axis of the organism like a primitive spine! Makes sense sinse mesoderm = connective, actually leaves remnants to form spine. 2. Ectoderm is forced by notochord INWARD forming a Neural fold surrounding a neural groove which eventually pinches off/fuse inside becoming a neural tube. 3. Neural tube will give rise to the nervous system now inside! 4. The neural tube also gives rise to neural crest cells which migrate out to form the peripheral nervous system (includng adrenal medulla! mesoderm makes adrenal cortex). notochord: later = vertebrate coumn

Posterior Pituitary Gland 1. ADH effect on BP 2. oxy

Nuceli in hypothalamus have tracts extending to posterior pituitary! Juxtacrine signaling Both are direct hormones! 1. ADH: Osmoreceptors (osmolarity in blood) and baroreceptors (stretching of heart)... adds aquaporins to collecting duct, more water reabsorbed into nephrons, raises blood pressure 2. Oxytocin: positive feedback, coordinates uterine contractions and smooth muscle in mammary glands for lactation.

Ch 5 endocrine system Organs in the endocrine system are termed _____ - list 8 organs in the endo system Types of hormones - blood travel - receptors -length and time of response amino acid special... (catechola) --------------- classification of hormones by target tissue 1. direct 2. tropic (usually stem from where.)

Organs in the endocrine system are termed GLANDS - Pancreas, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, parathyroid, thyroid, gonads (testes and ovaries), pineal gland, adrenal glands Hormones: signaling molecules that travel through the blood stream (endocrine signaling) Types of hormones: 1. Peptide: synthesized by ribosomes, modified in golgi and shipped to where it needs to go via exocytosis, traveling through blood. - POLAR, therefore, peptides are 1˚ messengers, require surface receptor at target cell to transduce message inside the cell using 2˚ messengers! - Can travel by itself through polar blood - examples: insulin (adenylyl cyclase, cAMP, PKA pathway) - response is transient! Next signal present for desired response 2. Steroid: cholesterol derived, made by adrenal cortex (mesoderm derived) and gonads! NON-polar - Non-polar = easily cross membrane and bind INTRAcellular receptors or intranuclear! Can directly bind DNA or stimulate transcription factors to cause transcriptional response! - LONG lived - protein carrier needed for bloodstream 3. Amino acid derivatives: consist of 1-2 amino acids! - Tyroxine and triiodothyronine are LONG lived and bind to INTRAcellular receptors! - Norepinephrine and epinephrine (catecholamines) are SHORT lived and need a cellular G-protein coupled receptor - iodine added to tyrosine in thyroid hormone production ----------------- classification of hormones by target tissue 1. direct hormone: hormone itself directs response on the target tissue non-endocrine gland! Insulin binds muscle cells to cause uptake of glucose. 2. tropic hormone: require an intermediary to act, will itself act on an endocrine gland! For example, GnRH stimulate FSH and LH, LH stimulates interstital cells to secrete androgens for sexular maturation. - Usually originate in the brain and anterior pituitary glands!

Mitochondria make-up - what makes diff from all other organelles - how they replicate, they carry own - theory of engulfment (ana/aer) Capable of releasing enz to kick start... apo

Outer membrane, IMS, then inner membrane which forms cristae invaginations is where the ETC proteins are! Inner lumen is MATRIX *** semi-autonomous organelles! Explains evolutionary theory of engulfment, anaerobic prokaryote engulfs a aerobic prokaryote establishing a symbiotic relationship! Diff from all other organelles - they carry their own DNA and so they replicate on their own via BINARY FISSION Capable of releasing enzymes synthesized during aerobic respiration and ETC to kick start APOPTOSIS

Female reproductive pathway: 1. ovaries (ova, follicles, hormones prod) - def of gonad Steps for monthly egg fertilization... 1. one egg ovulated into perito sac, then fall tubes covered in ___ to push egg to fetal dev site of _____ 2. Baby delivery then ut->cerv->vag can KEY differences and notes on Oogenesis!!!! (compared to spermatogenesis) 1. stay in pro I, complete S 2. upon menarche, uneq cyto result in pol bod, this explains oogen resulting in ____ gametes 3. in ____ until fertiliza 4. fertiliz, new polar body, form zyg

Ovaries (gonad=produce gametes): produce estrogen and progesterone, contain thousands of follicles which are sacs that nourish immature eggs (Ova) 1. ovulation: Egg enter fallopian tubes / oviduct lined with cilia to propel the egg forward! Fallopian tubes cilia push into uterus, the site of fetal development 2. Uterus -> cervix -> vaginal canal (vagina) --> Vulva is the external small part of female reproductive system Oogenesis: 1. A female is born with all the eggs she will ever have, and they are already DONE with S-phase, so are sitting in ovaries as primary oocytes (also 2n like primary spermatocytes) 2. Primary oocytes are ARRESTED in prophase I until menarche (female first menstrual cycle). At this point ONE egg per month will be fertilized and enter meisosis I producing a secondary oocyte and polar body. The polar body is not given much cytoplasm, the secondary oocyte is ample cytoplasm in this UNEQUAL CYTOKINESIS. The polar body NEVER produces functional gametes and seldom divides in meiosis II. 3. Secondary oocyte is now SUSPENDED in metaphase II until fertilization, waiting to complete! 4. upon fertilization by sperm head acrosome entering through corona radiata and zona pellucida, meisosis completes. Another polar body genertated which will be broken down and the mature ovum will become the zygote (fertilized sperm/egg)

Sacs supporting the baby... 1. yolk 2. allantois --- what forms the umbilical cord 3. amnion (shock) what forms around the amnion? What causes this? purpose?

Ovulation, fertilization/cleavage to form Morula, form blastula, implant, form chorionic villi... 1. Until chorion develops into the placenta, the yolk sac supports the embryo, and is the site of early blood cell development. 2. The allantois is another extraembryonic membrane involved in early fluid exchange between the embryo and the yolk sac - Umbilical cord forms from remnants of yolk sac and allantois 3. The allantois is surrounded by the Amnion which is a thin tough membrane filled with amniotic fluid, the shock absorber during pregnancy! The chorion develops an ADDITIONAL sac around the Amnion forming an additional layer of protection, as well as the chorion develops into the placenta!

Gas diffusion at capillaries oxygen - carrier, prothetic group, some travels in...PaO2 normal amt, o2 saturar and normal amt, curve of O2 saturat x PaO2 explain what happens to curve with exercise CO2 (three carry/transport methods) 1. most common, enzyme used to convert it to? 2. Hb 3. free

Oxygen: - Carried via hemoglobin of red blood cells! Hemoglobin has four cooperative prosthetic heme groups which carry oxygen. The binding results in an oxidation-reduction reaction! - Some oxygen does dissolve in blood and travel with plasma - Blood oxygen content measured by partial pressure... via PaO2: normal level is 70-100 mmHg - Oxygen Saturation: Amount of oxygen being carried by hemoglobin ... usually >97% in healthy normal people - Cooperative binding results in Sigmoidal shape of oxygen saturation x partial pressure curve! - with exercise partial pressures in tissues decrease as O2 is used up, this means more O2 will be released from Hb to tissues (100% -> 30% = 70% released to tissues) Carbon dioxide: 1. CO2 MOST COMMONLY is transported through blood as bicarbonate ion! CO2 from tissues after respiration using carbonic anhydrase in a combination reaction with water gives bicarbonate, spontaneously hydrolyzes to proton and ion. Easier now and more soluble for blood transport to undergo reverse reaction at alveoli capillary beds to be exhaled from lungs. - CO2 + H2O <-> H2CO3 <-> H+ + HCO3- 2. Carried by Hemoglobin 3. Some CO2 remains and is transported in plasma of blood 75% in RBC and 25% in plasma

Pancreas (endocrin vs excocrine) functional cells... three types and what they produce (A real G, BI) Purposes... 1. gluc 2. ins 3. somato aka GHIH

Pancreas is both endocrine (secrete hormones without use of ducts) and exocrine (secrete hormones WITH Ducts use) Endocrine function uses islets of Langerhans cell clusters: 1. Alpha cells: make glucagon 2. Beta cells: make insulin 3. Delta cells: make Somatostatin Purpose of the hormones: 1. Glucagon: in times of FASTING, low glucose stimulates glucagon release -> Glucagon RAISES blood glucose (increase gluconeogenesis, fatty acid beta-oxidation, and glycogen break down) 2. Insulin: In times of high glucose, insulin stimulates glucose uptake by cells... higher glycolysis, higher fatty acid B-reduction, higher glycogen synthesis --- Diabetes notecard next 3. Somatostatin: Inhibit insulin and glucagon secretion! Also in hypothalamus, inhibits growth hormone secretion! AKA growth-hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH) - Active in high glucose and high blood [amino acids]

Birth... aka (partu) prostaglandins and oxytocin afterbirth

Parturition: normal vaginal birth - ryhtmic contractions of uterine muscle, coordinated by prostaglandins and the peptide hormone oxytocine (+ feedback) 1. cervix stretches and amniotic sac breaks (water breaking) 2. Uterine concractions push fetus to birth 3. AFTER baby, placenta and umbilical cord come = Afterbirth

Breathing (physics/chem gas basic equation) 1. inhalation (intercostal muscl, intrathoracic volume) - KEY note on intrapleural space --> KEY: _______ drop in pressure triggers _______ to expand 2. exhalation (active uses internal interc muscl)

Physics PV = PV ---> increase volume, lower pressure, air comes in. ---> Decrease volume, increase pressure, air floods out 1. Inhalation: The ACTIVE process where our diaphragm somatically controlled will contract and FLATTEN and the external intercostal muscles (muscles between ribs helping w breathing) allow chest to expand outward. This increases the intrathoracic volume. - note: intrapleural space experiences volume change first since it is closest to chest wall! Now the lungs with higher pressure than Pleura will expand into the intrapleural space! Intrathoracic pressure drops! Higher pressure in atmosphere causes air to flood lungs! --> KEY: intrapleural space drop in pressure triggers lung to expand --> Called Negative-pressure breathing 2. Exhalation: Can be a passive process, relaxation of intercostal muscles and diaphragm. As these relax, volume decreases, interpleural space volume also decreases which increases the pressure in the lungs, now the gradient will favor air moving out into the atmosphere. -> ACTIVE exhalation uses internal intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles and pull the ribcage down

The Synapse - EFFECTOR - chemical vs electrical... path of neurotrans release 1. AP register 2. Ca chan/neuro diffuse - signal type? 3. how to stop neurotrans signal (a. degr, b. reup, c. diff out

Presynaptic neuron and postsynaptic neuron at ends of synapse... --> EFFECTOR is a postsynaptic cell NOT in the central nervous system which does the response! (muscle or glands) Chemical: messaging at synapse with neurotransmitters Electrical: messaging passed down length of an axon Neurotransmitter release: 1. AP regiested at axon hillock, fire AP down axon 2. at synaptic terminals, voltage gated ca channels open, which bind and facilitate pouches of neurotransmitters to undergo exocytosis. -> excitatory or inhibitory, usually bind GPCRs or ligand gated ion channels. -> Paracrine signal example 3. Get rid of neurotransmitter by: A. Degrade it! Acetylcholine degraded by acetylcholinesterase B. Re-uptake using reuptake carriers! Serotonin (5-HT), Dopamine (DA), and norepinephrine (NE) is classic example C. Neurotransmitters can diffuse out of cleft (ex is nitrous oxide)

Disease causing agents... the smallest infectious particles Prions (prot, misfold) how? a->B Viroids (siliencing funct of rna) which disease is an example

Prions: Nonliving things, just proteins which cause OTHER proteins to misfold (most commonly alpha-helices form beta-pleated sheets causing changes in solubility of protein) and form PROTEN AGGREGATES leading to disease Viroids: Small pathogens of very short circular strands of RNA that infect plants and humans! They bind to necessary RNA strands and silence them! Prevent formation of key proteins. - HDV and HBV tog in humans (hepatits D)

Spermatogenesis and mature sperm make up 1. start gonia 2. S phase to 1˚ cytes 3. MI 2˚ cytes 4. MII Tids 5. mature zoa Make up 1. he (covered in acro), 2. flag, 3. midp

Produced in seminiferous, MATURED IN EPIDYDiMIS Formation of sperm: 1. Diploid stem cell = Spermatogonia 2. Spermatoagonia undergo S stage and replicate to become primary spermatocytes 3. Primary spermatocytes undergo meisosis I to become secondary spermatocytes HAPLOIDY 4. Meisosis II results in haploid spermatids 5. Maturation leads to ready spermatazoa Spermatagonia -> Primary spermatocytes -> 2˚ -> spermatids -> spermatozoa Spermatozoa Make up: 1. Head: covered in a acrosome cap necessary to penetrate the ovum! A MODIFIED golgi apparatus! 2. Midpiece: contain Mitochondria to produce ATP from fructose made by seminal vesicles 3. Flagellum: 9+2 tubulin build for swimming

1.3 prokaryotes include ALL and some... - DNA (and plasmid(ant resis)?) - membrane bound... compare/contrast Archaea vs Bacteria (some have ___ ... like cilia) - three types of shapes! coc, bac, spir - req oxygen vs do not (and types of do not) (one with both) (oblig aero/anaer, aerotol, fcaulta

Prokaryotes: - Singluar CIRCULAR DNA in the nuceloid region -> PLASMID: not considered essential for survival, so not in the nucleoid region, but may give evolutionary advantage like antibitotic resistance! - NO membrane bound organelles - ALL bacteria are prokaryotes! Some archaea are prokaryotes - SINGLE CELLED... can communicate in colonies to learn about environment. compare/contrast: - Bacteria and archaea: single-celled, singlular circular DNA, no membrane bound organelles, divide by bud or binary fission, - Archaea and eukaryotes: start DNA with a methionine, contain similar RNA polymerases, associate DNA w/ histones Archaea: extremophiles, complex and weird uses of energy sources diff from eukaryotic, singular circular DNA Bacteria: All con a cell membrane, cytoplasm, and some have flagellum or fimbriae (like cilia) - Cocci: spherical bacteria - Bacilli: rod-shaped bacteria - Spirrili: spherical shape - Obligate Aerobes: bacteria requiring oxygen - Anaerobes: do not require oxygen and a few types... - obligate anaerobes: cannot surive in O2 environment - Aerotolerant anaerobes: do not use O2, but can survive in the envrionemnt - Facultative anaerobes: can do aerobic or anaerobic

Blood antigens - def of antigen, two major types, def of antibody ABO, recessive, types, effect on donor w wrong blood, universal? How blood is sensed - universal donor vs universal recipient For O, AB, and A Antigens produced: Antibodies produced: Can donate to: Can receive from:

Red blood cells express surface proteins called Antigens which are just any protein target the immune system can amount a defense to. Antibodies are the proteins targeting enzymes labeling as foreign! - two major types are ABO antigens and Rh Factor ABO Antigens: A and B are dominant, O is recessive - can also be written I^B, I^A, i. - four blood types: AB, A, B, O - O is recessive so must be ii aka homozygous recessive allele. - A can be Ai or AA, same with B... but AB must be I^A,I^B - O is a universal donor! This is because it posesses NO antigen A and antigen B so the body does not amount an immunal response to it! - A-blood type has antibodies to AB and B, so could die if given the wrong blood type transfusion. - Universal recipient: AB blood type, since it has A and B antigens, it will not initiative immune response to A, B, or O blood types! So remember... For O: - Antigens produced: i - Antibodies produced: anti-A and anti-B - Can donate to: universal donor is O- (- from Rh factor) - Can receive from: only O For A: - Antigens produced: I^A and i, or I^A I^A - Antibodies produced: anti-B - Can donate to: A and AB blood type - Can receive from: O and A For A: - Antigens produced: I^B and i, or I^B I^B - Antibodies produced: anti-A - Can donate to: B and AB blood type - Can receive from: O and B For AB: - Antigens produced: I^A, I^B - Antibodies produced: none - Can donate to: AB only - Can receive from: universal recipient

Membrane potential of Neurons... Na, K, leak channels, and how RMP is established

Resting membrane potential= -70 mV - determine from K and Na leak channels, since K leak channels are more permeable on membrane they have greater influence! - also involve Na+/K+ ATPase, pumps 3 Na out and 2 K in! = #1 leader in setting the RMP Potassium Leak channels: allow K to flow out (outside 5 mM and inside more K with 140 mM), as - charge builds back up inside, K eventually follows electrical gradient inward... - equilibrium potential of potassium= -90 mV Sodium leak channels: allow Na to flow down gradient (INWARD) since Na has 145 mM outside cell, and about 12 mM inside. Balances with electrical to produce... - equilibrium potential of sodium = +60 mV

Circulation route of blood Three portal systems in body (capillary usage) 1. hepatic (uses gut!) 2. Hypophyseal

Right atrium dexoygenated blood from superior vena cava (from upper extremities) and inferior vena cava (from lower extremities) -> Triscupid valve into right ventricle -> Pulmonary valve to pulmonary artery -> Reach lungs, and enter arterioes to capillaries then to pulmonary venuoles and pulmonary vein returns blood to left side of atrium oxygenated -> through mitral/bicuspid valve into left ventricle -> through aortic valve into aorta then arterioles, capillaries, veinuoles, veins -> SVC and IVC again to right atrium. All valves are tricuspid besides mitral valve Portal system is when 2 capillary beds are in SERIES. -------- 1. Hepatic portal system: Oxygenated blood delivered to gut, and waste products are picked up at this capillary bed, deoxygenated remnants pass into the hepatic portal vein, then enter the second capillary bed where it drops off waste and toxins! 2. Hypophyseal portal system: blood from hypothalamus branches and leaves entering the anterior pituitary to allow for paracrine signaling! 3. Renal Portal system: Blood leaving glomerulus travels through efferent arteriole before reaching surroidning capillary network Vasa Recta

Gas exchange using capillaries and chambers and art/vein of heart what drives gas exchange (press)

Right ventricle sends deoxygenated blood into pulmonary artery to lungs! At the lungs, gas exchange at the one cell thick alveoli cell walls allows oxygen to enter the blood and CO2 to leave the blood. - Partial pressure of oxygen in lungs is high, pressure in blood is low and CO2 there is high causing diffusion CO2 out and O2 in. Then, the pulmonary vein carries oxygenated bloog to the LEFT atrium of the heart.

Viral genomes... SS-RNA for ALL 1 and 2. what is positive sense vs negative sense? (RNA replica) 3.. Retrovirus (rev transc) ^^ which is indefinite? viruses use what from host cell (3 things, think of translation) methods to exit... 1. lyse (disadv) 2. extrus (productive cycle) 3. cell deat

Single-stranded RNA viruses are either: 1. Positive sense: RNA can directly be translated by host cell ribosomes 2. Negative sense: RNA must have a COMPLEMENTARY strand synthesized by a RNA replicase the virus must carry, the complementary strand will be translated by host ribosomes 3. Retrovirus: ENVELOPED single-stranded RNA which injects into host cell, also have REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE which allow RNA to be converted back to DNA which then enter host cell nucles/DNA making this infected indefinitely... only way to kill virus in cell is to kill cell itself - HIV! Insert, reverse transcriptase to form DS DNA, then integarse then replicated by host to produce virions viruses use: tRNA, enzymes, and amino acids of host cell! methods to exit host cell... 1. lysis: host cell swells w filling of virions, and so dies by explosion of self and releases contents... virus disadvantage no longer using cell as host 2. extrusion: Virus contents exocytosed, host cell is intact so can keep replicating virus... virus said to be in productive cycle 3. cell death: can be initiated by virus, releasing contents

Electrical conduction of heart: 1. sa - X bpm, causes what, located where - even though most blood is ______, this creates extra pressure for more active... atrial kick accts X-Y% 2. av - signal delat, location, 3. av bundle: septum 4. purkin **** how signal can be coordinated!?!?! connection of cells - effect or use of Vagus nerve? (which part of NS?) KEY on myogenic activity vs neurological innervation

Sinoatrial node (SA node) -> atrioventricular node (AV node) -> Bundle of His (AV bundle)-> purkinje fibers 1. Sinoatrial (SA) node: Electrical impulse begins here WITHOUT any nervous system input, 60-100 beats per minute. Impulse causes Atrial contraction! - located in cell wall of right atrium - Blood from atria mostly passively enters the ventricles but the SA contraction signal helps push even more to generate a greater pressure in ventricles! This is known as the atrial kick and accounts for 5-30% of ventricular pressure! ---- "the pacemaker" aka SA node 2. Atrioventricular (AV) node: Signal from atria sent down and now reaches AV node at the junction of the atria and ventricles. - signal is delayed here to allow ventricles to fully fill up! 3. Bundle of His (AV bundle): AV electrical impulse after delay reaches his fibers located in the interventricular septum (wall) -- septum = large barrier 4. Purkinje fibers: Distribute electrical charge throughout the ventricular muscles! **** muscle cells are connected via intercalated disks via gap junctions, cytosol of adjacent cells are connected, for the electrical signal to spread quickly and to all cells for coordinated contraction. - Vagus Nerve: Peripheral nervous system -> autonomic nervous system -> Parasympathetic nervous system -> slow down heart rate KEY on myogenic activity vs neurological innervation: - SA node has myogenic activity, 60-100 bpm without neurological input! Even if autonomic connection severed, baseline in tact - Neurological needed to raise or lower heart rate.

Ch 4 nervous system Neuron structure/anatomy: - soma, dendrites, axon hillock, myelin (what makes it in CNS oligo and PNS schw), nerve terminal/synaptic bouton or knob, synpase KEY distinguish of: - Nerve (mixed, sens, motor, ganglia) vs tract (nuclei)

Soma: aka cell body, where ribosomes, nucleus, and ER. Dendrites: receive signals, connected to soma. Axon hillock: integrates all incoming signals and SUMS inhibitory/excitatory to decide response (AP) Myelin: forms sheath to keep electric gradient separate in axon, also increases speed of transmission - made from oligodendrocytes in CNS - made from Schwann cells in PNS nerve terminal/SYNAPTIC BOUTON: ends of axons have branches with increased SA for nuerotransmitter release Synapse: Nerve terminal, synaptic cleft, and postsynaptic membrane _______________ **** Nerve: PERIPHERAL nervous system grouped axons that extend to the CNS, groups of cell bodies in the PNS form GANGLIA can be: - motor, sensory, or MIXED (both) nerves - Tracts: CENTRAL nervous system stemming group axons extend outward, groups of cell bodies in the CNS form NUCLEI - Can only carry ONE type of information (motor or sensory)

Cell specialization process: 1. Specification 2. Determination -> different -- what influences this? (morph vs induc) stem cells - totipo - pluri - multi

Specification: Cell reversibly designated specific cell type Determination: commitment of a cell to a certain cell type (irreversible) - commitment, but NOT yet in the actual form of the cell to carry out function! - Inducers: cells releasing chemicals influencing what a cell type will become, these chemicals are called morphogens Differentiation: undertake changes to turn into determined cell type and perform specific functions. What a cell can turn into: dictated by... stem cell: ANY cell not yet differentiated! Can become other cells Totipotent: develop into anything, embryonic stem cells, and the 16-cell stage during cleavage, up to and including blastula stage Pluripotent: After cleavage and blastulation, gastrula forms three germ layers Multipotent: blood can diff. into red, white, or platelets by adult, almost any stem cells are multipotent

Gastrulation what happens to blastocoel> formin archenteron, blastopore, Example w balloon! deutrosome vs protosome

Sperm meet eggs, fertilize, form Morula (cleavage), form blastula from blastulation, implant and chorion forms with yolk sac (early dev. help) and amnion (hold amniotic fluid w shock absorber). here zoom in more... Morula from cleavage -> Blastula from blastulaiton, next is gastrulation Gastrulation: - Blastula implants into uterus cell wall, now can undergo gastrulation forming THREE distinct cell laters. Process: 1. The blastula begins invgatinating inward, cells grow in taking more and more space and less blastocoel is around until none is left. - imagine pushing in a balloon until it touches the other side of the rubber. 2. Then three germ layers form (next card) Opening = blastopore invagination hollow inner "tube" = Archenteron, eventually becomes cavity of digestive tract Deutrosomes: type of gatrula where the ANUS forms first, developed from the blastopore, such as HUMANS - menmonic: Deu = "doo-doo" poop = anus Protosome: type of gastrula where the MOUTH forms first from the blastopore (opening)

Measuring Lung functions... uses a spiro______ 1. TLC 2. RV 3. VC 4. TV 5. ERV 6. IRV

Spirometer used for lung function assessment: cannot measure residual volume (air in lungs after full exhale) Common measurements for lungs by doctors: 1. Total lung capacity (TLC): maximum amount of air in lungs at FULL inhalation -- opposite of RV 2. Residual volume (RV): minimum air volume in lungs after forced exhale completely 3. Vital Capacity: Total air in lungs calculated by TLC - RV, difference between minimum and maximum air in lungs 4. Tidal volume (TV): volume normally inhaled or exhaled in a normal breath 5. Expiratory reserve volume (ERV): the amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled AFTER a normal exhalation! 6. Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV): the amount of air that can be forcibly inhaled after a normal inhalation

Contraction of heart: systole and diastole Cardiac output

Systole: Ventricular contraction! Atrioventricular valves closed and blood pumped throughout body. - arteries during contraction Diastole: Relaxation! Atria blood will passively (and some actively with atrial kick) refill the ventricles through AV valves. - arteries during relaxation and heart filling Cardiac Output: total blood volume pumped by a ventricle per minute (L/min) CO = Stroke volume x Heart rate - SV = volume blood pumped per beat - HR = beats per minute

Thyroid! -2 major func - 2 major cell types (follic and paracol aka c-c) hormones for each function (3 total) 1. BMR hormones - where they produced from, aa deriv, modifica (dictate name t3/t4) - increase of these horm result in... - control pathway hypothyroidism (iodine) and hyper (cancer?) 2. Ca hormones - THREE routes of action (kidney, bone, gut) - made by what cells? - stimulated by what measure?

TRH -> TSH -> stimulate thyroid to release T3/T4 -2 MAJOR functions: Setting basal METABOLIC rate and Calcium homeostasis - Follicular cells: T3/T4 production ... C-Cells aka parafollicular = calcitonin production! 1. Triiodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4) are hormones released by thyroid -> basal metabolic rate - T3 and T4 are amino-acid derived hormones through iodination of TYROSINE. This occurs in follicular cells of thyroid. T3 and T4 named according to how many iodine atom modifications are made! - Increase T3 and T4 = more oxidative respiration and higher basal metabolic rate - CONTROL: negative feedback, T3 and T4 high = block TRH/TSH Hypothyroidism: a lack of iodine in diet or inflammation means not enough T3 and T4 can be produced, so under working thyroid. This results in lethargy, slowed heart and breathing rate with decreased body temperature Hyperthyroidism: Overstimulation or a tumore results in excess thyroid hormone (T3/T4). Heightened activity level, increased body temp, increase respiration and heart rate, weight loss (high basal metabolic weight) 2. Calcitonin released for calcium control, will DECREASE plasma calcium levels in three ways: A. Decreased absorption of calcium in gut B. Increased secretion in kidneys (for excretion) C. Increased calcium storage in bone - C-Cells stimulated release of calcitonin by increased plasma Ca blood levels Calcitonin = thyroid and Ca decrease PTH = parathyroid and Ca Increase ^^ like insulin and glucagon... antagonistic

Problems in early development terat

Teratogens: substances interfering with development - external: alcohol, other chemicals from environment - Internal: mom has diabetes/hyperglycemia, baby born fat with way too high insulin and results in hypoglycemia at birth

hematopoiesis (aka hemopoiesis) - hormone triggers examples and where they stem from poietin

The generation of blood cells and platelets from bone marrow, this process is triggered by hormones from around the body! --> Erythropoietin: hormone triggers RBC creation in bone marrow, comes from the KIDNEYS --> Thrombopoietin: hormone triggers platelet creation in bone marrow, stems from kidney and liver

Lung functions besides gas exchange.... thermoregulation - vasodilation/constriction (thermal energy dissipation w Volume) - panting immune function - lysozyme + Vibrissae - mucociliary escalator - IgA antibodies, macrophage, Mast - where allergies come from? inflammatory response pH control -

Thermoregulation: super high surface area of capillaries at alveoli/capillary interface in lungs is a good vascular area to sense body temperature/heat. - Vasodilation: Capillary expansion causes greater volume of blood to pass through resulting in the dissipation and spreading of heat - Vasoconstriction: Capillary contracts and lower volume means less room for heat to spread, more insulated. Panting: respiratory system can transfer heat to environment through water evaporation and exhalation of this water. Immune function: Lungs breath many pathogens so need some defense! - Nasal cavity: Vibrissae in nasal cavity are small hairs capturing particles that enter. - lysozymes are an enzyme made by tears and saliva and the mucous membranes fighting off pathogens by attacking gram+ bacterial peptidoglycan cell walls - Mucociliary escalator: ciliated epithelial cells in bronchi and trachea can act as an escalator for the mucous coat which captures pathogens to be pushed up the respiratory system and swallowed or expelled. - Macrophages, IgA cells, and Mast cells: Immune system macrophage cells flood the lungs as well to swallow/engulf/signal invaders. IgA cells are ANTIBODIES also in mucous lining!, Mast cells which have preformed antibodies on their surface also in the lungs and upon activation by pathogen, release inflammatory response signaling immune response is needed - Mast cells are what pick up mold/pollen ... mast cells = allergies pH Control: ******** CO2 (g) + H2O (l)<->H2CO3 (aq)<->H+ (aq) + HCO3- (aq) -> Acidosis: Increased CO2 registered in lungs causes hyperventilation, more CO2 exhaled so equilibrium shifts LEFT (LESS acidic, raises pH)

Autonomic Nervous system subdivided into Symp and Parasymp symp para - pre vs postgang neurotransmitter

These are ANTAGONISTIC, they combat each other/have opposite effects. ---- - symp = fight or flight - para = rest and digest Sympathetic nervous system: - increase HR, dilate/relax bronchi, stimulate sweating, inhibit digestion, secretion of adrenaline (and noradrenaline) which is the SAME thing as epinephrine, stimulates orgasm - Preganglionic = acetylcholine, postganglionic synapse releases norepinephrine Parasympathetic nervous system: Slow the body down - Reduce heart rate, constrict bronchi, activate peristalsis (intestines push food out), stimulate bile release, contract bladder, promote digestion, eyes widen and salivation occurs - Acetylcholine is neurotransmitter responsible at BOTH preganglionic and postganglionic neuron synapses!

Ch 7: cardiovascular Three components... -pulmonary vs systemic circulation -atria vs ventricle (muscle and valves), L vs R - names and purposes and leaflet numbers of valves (semil/atrioven), lab rat mnemonic

Three components: Heart (pump), Blood vessels (delivery routes), Blood (carries package) Overall: - Right heart: receive dexoygenated from body vena cavae, send to lung (pulmonary artery) = pulmonary circulation - Left heart: receive oxygenated from lung pulmonary veins, sent out to body (aorta) = systemic circulation - The heart: four chambers with Cardiac Muscle which is actually a DOUBLE PUMP! Atria have LESS cardiac muscles than ventricles! - Makes sense since ventricles pump blood throughout body! - Left ventricle is more muscular than right, pumps all to body, left only to lungs. Valves: help build enough pressure to pump through body, help with backflow! - Semilunar valves: Ventricles to arteries - Right side: Pulmonary valve (3 leaflets) - Left side: aortic valve (3 leaflets) - Atrioventricular valves: Atria to ventricles - Right side: tricuspid (3 leaflets) - Left side: Bicuspid or mitral (2 leaflets) LAB RAT: Left atrium bicuspid, right atrium tricuspid Blood route: Right atrium -> tricuspid valve -> right ventricle -> Pulmonary valve -> pulmonary artery -> Pulmonary vein -> left atrium -> Biscupid/mitral valve -> Left ventircle -> aortic valve -> all of body -> Vena Cavae -> Right atria TWO arteries with deoxygenated blood: - pulmonary and umbilical!

Types of nerve cells (3)

Three types of nerve cells: 1. Motor neuron/Efferent neuron: brain/spinal cord transmit motor info to muscle/glands 2. Sensory/Afferent neurons: muscle and glands transmit sensory info to brain/spinal cord 3. Interneurons: MOST numerous, lie in between afferent and efferent neurons! Seen as small thing in the spinal cord

Blood pressure maintenance! - too low? - too high? what is monitoring? baro/chemo (related to endocrine system)

Too low blood pressure: sympathetic response and vasoconstriction, aldosterone and ADH Baroreceptors: specialized neuron cells in vasculature that detects mechanical forces on walls of circulatory vessels. Chemoreceptors: for too LOW BP - monitor the osmolarity of blood! If high (solute) osmolarity, might signal dehydration. This results in Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)/Vasopressin peptide hormone made in hypothalamus, stored in posterior pituitary, to be released, causing reabsorption of water into blood RAISING BLOOD VOLUMES and therefore pressure. OR - Renin-angiotensin-Aldosterone axis in kidney may register LOW (solute) osmolarity, aldosterone secretion by glomerular cells result in ions and water uptake increasing blood pressure! Too High blood pressure: LESS sympathetic response and vasoconstriction or ANP - Heart cells can release this endocrine peptide hormone atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) which will increase Na absorption in kidneys and water follows, lowering BP we have way fewer high BP coping mechanisms than we do low BP

Peroxisomes - b-ox - PPP _ H2O2

contain HYDROGEN PEROXIDE, primary function of peroxisome is B-oxidation of long chain fatty acids, synthesize phospholipids for membranes, and have some enzymes for the pentose phosphate pathway (glucose -> ribose or vice versa to generate NADPH) - fatty acid and amino metabolism - 2 H2O2 can -> 2 H2O and O2 - help neutralize free radicals - a detox organelle

eukaryotic (reproduce by) vs prokaryotic cells

eukaryotic: contain a nucleus - reproduce by MITOSIS prokaryotic: contain no nucleus, DNA littered in cytosol

extranucluear or cytoplasmic inheritance

genes used in replication independent of the nucleus, or genes outside the nucles passed down to offspring! EX: MOMS mitoch given to fetus, not dads

Golgi Apparatus

modifies proteins and other products from the ER... then re-packages and ships to correct location in cell or EXOCYTOSIS if needed.

Three germ layers from gastrulation attracto means of getting around linings Adrenal glands: Adrenal medulla is derived from the.... Adrenal cortex is derived from the...

morula -> Blastula -> Gastrula forming now... Primary germ layers: 1. Ectoderm: outtermost layer, gives rise to integument (protective outer layers) such as hair, nails, epithelia of nose, lower anal, eye lens, nervous system (adrenal medulla), inner ear. - 'Attracto' = what makes us attractive as humans, cosmetic features and SMARTS (nervous sys) 2. Mesoderm: develops many systems, musculoskeletal, circulatory, and most excretory systems, gonads, muscular and connective tissue of digestive/respiratory/adrenal cortex. "means" to get around... muscle/connective, gonads (sex joke), circulatory system (moves blood around), the heart "MAC" mesoderm adrenal cortex -also-the-kidneys! 3. endoderm: epithelial lining of digestive and respiratory tract including lungs, also fully derives pancreas, thyroid, bladder, urinary tracts, lungs, stomach, colon (LI) Adrenal medulla is derived from the ectoderm Adrenal cortex is derived from the mesoderm (MAC)

Endoplasmic reticulum

rER: has ribosomes fro protein synthesis and is connected to the nuclear envelope sER: no ribsomes, deals with lipid synthesis, or posion detox and shipping proteins to golgi from rER! Lumen is where finished proteins are sent, whole complex has many invaginations

speed of AP determined by... 1. length 2. SA Saltatory Conduction does a larger signal result in a larger response? if no, what does it result in?

speed of AP determined by... 1. length of AXON: longer axons have more resitance and slower conduction 2. Surface area: greater surface area means less resistance and faster propagation! Surface area has a greater significance than length! Fastest = short and thick! but, long and thick > short and thin --------- Saltatory conduction: Myelin =insulation blocks electrical signal so the exposed nodes of ranvier experience a "jump" of signal as it hops from node to node --------------- does a larger signal result in a larger response? if no, what does it result in? --> NO! Same potential difference in message, but MORE FREQUENT messages!

Sexual development control hypothal (gnrh)-> anter pit gland -> fsh/lh male: - FSH and sert (sperm) - LH and intersti cell (androg) female: (estrogen and fsh) (progest and LH, secre by corp lut, diff from estrog (endometrium))

the hypothalamus controls hormone release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) -> puberty begins, and GnRH is now released which stimulates to anterior pituitary gland to release follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH) Male: - Sertoli cells which nourish sperm in the seminiferous tubules stimulated to cause sperm maturation via FSH - Interstitial cells (of leydig) responsible for testosterone/androgen production stimulated by LH! - testosterone gives male secondary sexual characteristics (deep voice) Female: - Estrogens are stimulated and secreted in response to FSH... will help develop, grow, and maintain female reproductive system and female secondary sexual characteristics (breasts and wide hips) - result in enlarged endometrium (lining of uterus, get ready for egg) - Progesterone is secreted by the Corpus luteum remaining in the follicle of ovaries in response to LH - does NOT enlarge endometrium in beginning ovulation (only estrogen does), but is necessary for development and maintenance of endometrium