GEO 1264 Final Unit Exam Study Guide
If a storm system is moving TOWARDS the equator, it will ___________
Fall behind, steering to the left. This is because the Coriolis affect is pushing it BEHIND, as the ground moves faster towards the Equator.
Analysis of daily weather maps: Weather station symbols
Practice reading this symbol:
Convergence zones: Polar Front
Polar Front - The boundary between cold polar air masses and warmer air masses from mid-latitudes. - Low pressure, bring signifigant and powerful weather development. ^ Can create mid-latitude cyclones.
Kamikaze Winds
"Kamikaze Winds" = "Divine Wind" The Kamikaze Winds were 2 typhoons that sank/dispered invading Mongol fleets. The typhoons occur between Japan and China. - These typhoons don't normally happen in that area during the season.
Renewable energy in Colorado
- 11th largest solar photovoltare market - The 8th largest wind market in the US - Home to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory - Significant pledges to cut emissions and switch to wind ^ First state to pass renewable standards
Centrifugal Force
- AS the Earth rotates on its axis, objects on its surface experience a force pushing them away from the surface. - Centrifugal force acts in the opposite direction of the Coriolis affect, which is especially noticable at the equator. ^^ As The Coriolis affect is deflecting wind to the right in the n. hem, Centrifugal force is pushing the wind to the left. - Coriolis Effect + Centrifugal force = Trade winds
Methods of achieving saturation
- Add water vapor - Mix cold air with warm, moist air (cooling the air to dew point)
Take away from Circualtion Cells
- Circulation Cells are what give us our larger climatic zones. Air Rising in cells = create areas of low pressure = wet, tropical zones. Ex: - Equator - Mid-latitude regions (Think North America, Southern tip of S. America) - This is why the rainforests are located near the equator, and why the UK has a relatively wet climate. Air Falling in cells = Areas of high pressure = clear skies & little rainfall = Dessert regions. ^ - remember that dessert regions include the Artic/Antartic. - This is why the poles, Sahara Dessert, Mexico/American Southwest, and Central Asia, Austrailia, etc, are so dry.
Santa Ana Winds
- Hot winds that blow east to west -- from the Rockies into Southern California in fall and winter. (Oct-March) - Bring dry hot weather and fuel wildfires. Form when: 1. High Pressure: - Cool, high pressure air builds over The Great Basin (between the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada) 2. Low Pressure - Sits over California's Coast 3. Wind - Westward wind pushes the cold air from the Great Basin towards California Causes: 1. Hot and Dry Conditions in Cali - As the air arrives to California from the Rocky Mountains, it begins to fall and warms up = low humidity, hot conditions 2. Increased Wildfire Risk - Strong winds + low humidity + dry vegetation = easy for wild fires to start and spread 3. Dry out agriculture - Low moisture + disruption of topsoil from wind gusts = damage to vegetation
Why do we call the storm on Saturn a hurricane?
- It mimics the movement and behaviour of a hurricane. - It is not a hurricane, it is a low pressure storm on Saturn. - There is no water, and no movement.
Jet Streams
- Narrow ribbons (hundreds of km wide, few dozen km thick) of strong winds. - Move West to East >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> - Stay just below the tropopause. How do jet streams form? - When warm air masses from the tropics collider with colder air masses from the North. 2 Main Jet Streams: Polar Front Jet - Created by strong contrast between cold, dense air from the N. Pole and warm air from Tropic of Cancer Subtropical Jet Stream
Atmospheric stabilities effect on pollution
- Stability is often associated with good weather and clear skies, however, this can contribute to the persistence of atmospheric pollution and the formation of temperature inversions, which over time negatively effect the ground below.
What does saturation point depend on?
- The amt. of water required for saturation to be achieved depends on the temperature of the air. + air temp = more water required to reach saturation (this means warm air contains more water vapor than cold air does) - air temp = less water requried to reach saturation
How are Rossby Waves and Jet Streams related?
- The comparitvely thick and slow movement of Rossby Waves are what create the narrower, strong band of the jet streams. - As Rossby Waves slowly and consistently pull hot air from the tropics and pull down cold air from the poles, The Jet Stream is formed at the edge of the Rossby Wave's Waveguide. Basically: - Rossby Wave's help us identify where the jet stream is - The shape of the jet stream is determined by the meandering edge of the Rossby Wave - Help us identify where low pressure systems will occur in the lower latitudes
Dry Adibatic Lapse Rate (DALR)
-1 degree C/100m -5.5 oF/1000 ft ^ This means that for every 1000ft (1km) that a dry air parcel goes up in the atmosphere without exchanging heat, its temperature will decrease by 5.5 degrees f. The rate at which the temperature of a parcel of dry air decreases as it moves vertically through the atmosphere.
Tropical Distrubance
1. A convective showers (a type of thunderstorm that forms when warm, moist air rises 2. Forms in tropics/subtropics 3. Lasts for 24+ hours 4. Organized thunderstorms with a defined circulation pattern. However, it lacks the closed circulation and organized wind speeds necessary to be classified as a tropical depression.
How do continents effect global wind patterns?
1. Differential Heating - Remember Latent Heat Effect - Land heats up faster than water during the day. - Because of this, areas of high pressure form over continents. - This high pressure will move to areas of low pressure, creating day to day local wind patterns. 2. Land-Sea Breeze - Warm (high pressure) air over land rises, and low pressure, cooler air from the ocean moves in to replace it. ^^^ This creates a seabreeze. 3. Monsoons - DRY NE Air - WET SE Air - Presence of large landmasses, (like India's subcontinent) = development of seasonal monsoons - Summer = land heats up more than the ocean (remember, water stays relatively stable b/c of Latent Heat Effect) = low pressure area - This draws in moist low pressure air from the sea = lots of rainfall 4. Dry seasons - The opposite occurs during the winter. - Land cools down quicker than land, creating a high pressure area. - Dry air flows from the land to the ocean 5. Polar Jet Streams - The existence of larege landmasses at high latitudes (North America, Eurasia) = formation of polar jet stream. How?: Temperature contrasts between these landmasses and the surroudning oceans = strong, quickly moving upper-atmosphere winds.
The Hydrologic Cycle
1. Evaporation - surface water molecules from lakes, oceans, streams, etc, absorb energy and enter the atmosphere. - As water begins to evaporate, there is a small increase in temperature in the air above the surface water. - +evaporation = + air pressure 2. Condensation Saturation/100% RH is achieved (the air is holding the most moisture it can at the given temperature) - As water molecules increase in elevation, the temperature of their surroundings decreases. - Water droplets form around condensation nuclei (tiny nuclei that water vapor form around - aka cloud seeds) Saturation/100% RH = when evaporation rate = condensation rate (i.e. the amt. of water molecules escaping the surface = the amt. returning, saturation is achived) 3. Transportation - The movement of water from the ocean, to the atmospehre, back to land. Ways water transports: 1. Precipitation - Condensed water droplets around their condensation nuclei combine and eventually fall back to earth as: - Rain - Snow - Sleet - Hail ^ All depending on atmospheric conditions 2. Evaporation 3. Transpiration (see below) 4. Transpiration - Plants take up liquid from the soil via roots and release water vapor into the atmosphere as a byproduct of photosynthesis 6. Uptake - As precipitated water hits the Earth, it will be taken in via plants, groundwater, percolated into the soil from lakes, snowmelt runoff, etc.
What are some inefficent technologies we are using that we should move away from?
1. Incandescent light bulbs 2. combustion engines 3. coalfire plants
Tropical Depression
1. Less than 40mph winds 2. Organized -- Closed circulation with sustained windspeeds
WILKE PRESENTATION REVIEW: Wildfire Solutions
1. Prescribed Burns - deliberately burning some areas to: - reduce amt. of burnable vegetation - encourage growth of burn scars on older trees 2. Vegetation Management - Cleaning flammable vegetation around homes and residental areas, so risk of electrical fires is low. 3. Forest Thinning - Thinning out the small, dry, underbrush of forests to prevent unneccesary fuel. 4. Climate Change Mitiation and Adaption - Climate change is the root caue of the increase in wildfires, because as the world warms, hot air pressure systems will dry out forests. - More extreme storms = less consistently moist and unflammable forests
What are the atmospheric driving forces?
1. Pressure Gradient Force - Closer spaces between isobars = faster winds - Air naturally moves from regions of high pressure to low pressure - This movement of air is that creates the initial flow of air across the globe. 2. Coriolis Force - Generated by the rotation of the Earth. - Objects at the equator move faster than objects at the poles, therefore, storms, winds, and air move faster at the Equator than elsewhere. - The Coriolis effect is the main influence of the direction of winds in the N. or S. Hemisphere and the formation of large scale circulation patterns, such as trade winds, westerlies, and polar easterlies. Coriolis Effect: - force that causes objects (airplanes, wind jet streams, etc) moving over a sphere to move in a curve. Affect on wind: The Coriolis Affect causes winds to deflect in certain directions depending on latitude. N Hem = Wind deflects to the right S Hem = Wind deflects to the left Equator = no deflection Poles = Maximum deflection 3. Friction Force - Friction from Earth's land (mountains, valleys, forests, etc) slows down the movement of air. - This can disrupt the straightforward motion of pressure gradients, and change how air moves even with the Coriolis affect. - This is why winds at the surface often blow across isobars (lines of equal pressure) at an angle. 4. Gravity - Gravity is constantly affecting air density, the vertical movement of air, and the formation of clouds, precipitation, and the verticle structure of gasses & particles in the atmosphere. 5. Centrifugal Force - As the Earth rotates on its axis, objects on its surface experience a force pushing them away from the surface. - Centrifugal force acts in the opposite direction of the Coriolis affect, which is especially noticable at the equator. ^^ As The Coriolis affect is deflecting wind to the r
How are we redrawing maps due to climate change?
1. Tropics are getting bigger - expanding N/S 2. Sahara Desert has expanded 3. 100th Meridian has shifted East - Larger dry area - Pushed Tornado Alley farther East 4. Permafrost line has moved Northward 5. mediterannean Climates have moved Northward - Will soon include Oregon, and perhaps the UK
100% Relative Humidity =
100% RH means the air contains the maximum amount of mositure possible at that specific temperature. When saturation point is achieved i.e. condensation begins to occur, forming clouds!
What is the air pressure at sea level?
1012.25 mb
What is the rate of gravity?
9.8 m/s^2
ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone)
A belt of low pressure area and zone of converging trade winds (winds that are relatively straight due to Coriolis vs. Centrifugal winds fighting) at the equator. Movement: Flows North during summer Flows South during winter - Takes 6 months for one movement. - This is why there are 6 months of dry/wet seasons (Monsoons) in India Location: - Near the equation, approximately 5 degrees N/S. - Exact location varies depending on season and ocean temperatures Convergence of Trade Winds: - Trade winds from the NE and SE converge at the ITCZ. - When the NE and SE Trade Winds converge, they are forced to rise and create areas of low pressure at the equator. Rising Air and Convection: - When air rises at the ITCZ, it cools, and moisture in the air condences, leading to the formation of huge cumulonumbus clouds and heavy rainfall. - The ITCZ has frequent thunderstorms that sometimes don't have wind, called "doldrums." Influence on Climate: - ITCZ plays a crucial role in redistributing heat energy around Earth. - Plays a huge role in forming Hadley Cells, Ferrel Cells, and Polar Cells. - Helps form tropical cyclones by taking warm sea surface water and forming low pressure cells Impact on weather: - The ITCZ is a region of active and variable weather. - Lots of rainfall, thunderstorms, clouds, etc. - Frequent precipitation contributes to the lush rainforests found in some equitorial regions
Enhanced Fujita Scale
A classification scale of tornado strength. EF-0 = weakest tornadoes EF-5 = the most powerful. before 2007, the regular Fujita scale capped used F-# scale (instead of EF-#) and capped it at 318mph. The new scale accounts for faster tornadoes.
What is a storm surge?
A storm surge is a rise in sea level that occurs during storms, especially tropical cyclones, hurricanes, or typhoons. Caused by the winds of the storm pushing water onshore. It can lead to flooding and damage in coastal regions. The height of the storm surge depends on the characteristics of the storm and the shape of the coast and the sea floor.
Chinook Winds
A warm and dry wind that blows down the east slope of the Rocky Mountains. - Moisture rich air rises up the mountain, forcing it to cool, condense, and dump water at the top. - As the wind moves down the mountain, it is warm and dry.
Atmospheric Rossby Waves
ATMOSPHERIC: - High altitude winds that occur in the mid-latitudes (above the equator, not quite at the poles) - Also move in a wavelike pattern in the atmosphere How are the "wave" shapes of Atmospheric Rossby Waves created? - Cold air from the poles meets hot air from the tropics along the jet axis in the mid-latitudes, and then they do a little jiggle. - Unjulations occur as the cold air sinks and hot air rises, creating big waves. - Strong winds develop. - Cold air begins to form into large cyclones at lower latitudes. ^^^^ This is the origin of the areas of low pressure that become tropical cyclonic storms
Why are there no hurricanes within 5 degrees (500km) of the equator?
Abscence of strong enough Coriolis Effect to create rotational pattern. At the equator, the Coriolis effect is minimal, and the rotation of the Earth does not impart a significant force on air masses moving directly over this region. Why is the Coriolis effect weaker at the Equator? - Basically, because the Earth is not a perfect sphere, and it kind of flattens towards the equator, there is a bulge created by the centrifugal force from Earth's rotation.
Air Falling in Cells Visual
Air Falling in cells = Areas of high pressure = clear skies & little rainfall = Dessert regions.
Why does lightning jiggle?
Air is not a good, stable conductor of electricity. The charged ion channel that makes up lighting therefore "bounces" around until it finds its opposite charge inside the same cloud, a different cloud, or the ground.
Adiabatic Processes
An adiabatic process is a thermodynmaic process that occurs without the transfer or HEAT or MASS between a system and its environment. - The energy of the system only changes because of the energy transformed in the form of work (ex: when gasses expand or contract (water vapor))
Rainshadow Affect
An area having relatively little precipitation due to the effect of a topographic barrier, especially a mountain range, that causes the prevailing winds to lose their moisture on the windward side, causing the leeward side to be dry.
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Damage Potential Scale
An estimate of the potential damage of hurricane winds. Can be predicted well in advance, includes Tropical Storm/Depression classifications
If a storm system is moving AWAY from the equator, it will ______
Be pushed forward, to the right. This is because the Coriolis affect makes the storm system faster, and the ineritia it gained from originating at the equator will make it move faster than the ground at more extreme latitudes.
Positive geoengineering
Carbon Capture Could soak up 810 billion tons by 2100
Cold, Warm, Occluded and Station Front Diagrams
Cold Front = blue, triangles Warm Front = red, circles Occluded front = When a cold front overtakes a warm front -- This happens near cyclones, which separates warm air from the cyclones center. purple, circles and triangles.
Hadley Cell
Convection Currents that cycle around the equator. Transport energy from the tropics to the subtropics. - Create the extreme moisture a the equator and extreme dryness surrounding it. - Ascending dry air from the temperate zones around the equator pick up moisture, as the cell reaches saturation point high in the atmosphere, it deposits precipitation over the equator.
Polar Cell
Convection cells operating at 60-70 degrees N/S. - Smallest cells, meaning the sinking/rising motion. - Cold dense air in the polar regions descends downward. As it moves away and rises again, the air warms up.
For the love of god remember this: What is more dense? Cool or dry air? How does this affect atmospheric pressure?
Cool/Dry air = more dense = higher atmospheric pressure - Atmospheric pressure increases as gas in the atmsphere cools AND looses water vapor to precipitation. Warm/wet air = less dense = lower atmospheric pressure - this is because as individual gas molecules warm up, they expand, taking up more space. - Water vapor decreases the density of air - Atmospheric pressure decreases as gasses warm up and as humidity increases
Divergent Winds
Def: When winds move away from a central point, spreading outwards. This creates low pressure at the center. example: - Divergent winds are common at the equator. - Solar radiation heats the air, causing it to rise. - As it rises, the air diverges way from equator - The rising and diverging air create low pressure area near the surface, contribtuing to the formation of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) - This makes contributes to the formation of thunderstorms
Convergent Winds
Def: When winds move toward a central point, coming together. This creates higher pressure at the center. Example: - Convergent winds are common around subtropical areas (around 30 degrees latitude in both Hemispheres) - Surface air moves away from equator = cools sinks down = high pressure area - THEN, air converges towards the center of the new high-pressure system. ^^ All of this = - stable atmospheric conditions - less clouds and precipitation - subtropical areas = arid climates, such as the Sahara Desert
How do we measure wind?
Direction & Speed Direction: wind vanes (think of the roosters on top of houses) Speed: Anemometer - a spinning wheel with cups on it that catch the wind. The stronger the wind blows, the more rotations, which is used to calculate wind speed.
Analysis of daily weather maps: Weather prediction/forecast
Display Current Weather Information: - Air temp - Dew point temp - Humidity - Amt. and type of cloud cover - Air pressure and tendency - Wind speeds and direction
Pressure Gradient Force
Drives air from areas of higher barometric pressure to areas of lower barometric pressure, causing winds. The amount of pressure change occurring over a given distance. Image analysis: In the picture you can clearly see strong winds moving from the high pressure area in the West to the low pressure area in the East. How is the pressure gradient force produced? Imagine there is a column of hot and cold air. Cold air column = - more dense - Shorter ^ there are more air molecules in this column, in a more compact space. - Atmospheric pressure decreases MORE QUICKLY with height. (theres just more pressure per unit you move up) Hot air column = - less dense - Taller - Atmospheric pressure decreases SLOWER with height because there isn't as much air pressure per unit. ^^ These columns are exerting the same amount of surface pressure. In order for the hot air column to have the same amount of air molecules as the cold one, it needs to be taller. The Tropopause is at the same level for both of these columns. But where the tropopause is over the column of hot air, there will be LESS air pressure. Therefore, some balancing needs to occur. = The Air Pressure Gradient The Air Pressure Gradient therefore: - Moves from South to North in the N. Hemisphere - ^^ However, the movement of this air is curved to the right due to the Coriolis Effect.
What is a problem communities that experience monsoons face in regards to saving water?
During the monsoon season, there is an abundance of water, but they don't have the proper agricultural or water storage techniques to save it for later use.
High humidity reduces _______
Evaporation. - When there is a high humidity, the cooling power of perspiration is reduced. This is why when you work out in Florida, where the humidity is extraordinarily high, you are very uncomfortable. Your sweat does nothing to help you.
Hurricane Anatomy
Eye - Low pressure center w/ clear skies and clear weather. Eye Wall - The ring of intense thunderstorms that surround the eye. - Strongest winds and heaviest rainfall Rain Bands - The spiral bands of rains that make up the "wispy" part of the hurricane. - Rain bands can tell you what direction the hurricane is moving in. They move towards the eye. Outflow: - The upper level outflow of a hurricane is the top of the storm. - It's defined by large clouds/lot's of condensed moisture - Allows excess heat to escape, which helps promote the storms development and intensification.
WILKE PRESENTATION REVIEW: (idk wtf that is but whatever) What is the fire triangle?
Fire Triangle = The 3 things you need to start a fire 1. Fuel 2. Oxygen 3. Heat (or whatever this lsit is?) 1. Topography - Slope (steeper (mountanous) = faster moving fire due to upward movement of hot air) - Slope Orientation South facing slopes = get more sunlight = hotter, dryer, easier for fire to burn. North facing slopes = get less sunlight = more moisture retntion 2. Fuels - Moisture in atmosphere - Vegetation (is it dry? Is there a lot of it?) 3. Weather - Temperature (hot) - Relative Humidity (low) - Wind (high)
What is fog harvesting? Where, why, and how does it occur?
Fog Harvesting is a method of collecting moisture in the atmosphere for human use. Where: - Mountainous coastal areas, such as Chile, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, Argentina, or areas with a lot of fog but not a lot of annual precipitation. How: - using large pieces of vertical mesh (metal) that traps droplets of fog. - Droplets flow down into through, and collected in buckets. Why? Fog is a type of low-lying cloud. That means the air has reached its saturation point, and there is an abundance of moisture in the air, but it isn't being deposited in a way that is easy for humans/animals/plants to collect. By collecting the moisture from fog, humans harness the moisture that naturally occurs in their area in a usable way.
How many Jet Streams are there?
Four Northern Polar Jet Stream Northern Subtropical Southern Subtropical Southern Polar Jet Stream
How is hail formed?
Hail forms when strong currents of rising air, known as updrafts, carry water droplets high enough in a thunderstorm for the water droplets to freeze. The stronger the updraft, the bigger the hail. When hail gets too heavy for the updraft to hold, it begins to fall to the ground/bottom of the cloud. On hail's descent, it will exchange electrons with ice particles. Hail looses electrons, becoming negative. Ice particles gain electrons, becoming positive. Hail begins to melt, but not completely before hitting the ground!
Monsoon Documentary Notes/Review:
India's Dry Season = Winter India's Monsoon Season = Summer Problems with monsoons recently: - They have been arriving earlier in the year and more intensley -- the tide is rising very quickly, at least compared to before. - Monsoons are stronger, reaching communities farther inland. - Created dangerous tidal waves that are hitting villages - Overflooding/destroying fisheries & rice farms
What was unique about 2012 Hurricane Sandy?
Hurricane Sandy was super bad because: 1. Collided with a cold front, pushed it North, where it reached the jet stream. 2. Reached a jet stream -- jet stream fueled a bunch of hot and cold air into the system, making Sandy grow. Got way bigger and pushed very far up North, much farther than expected.
Why do hurricanes spin?
Hurricanes spin because of a combination of the Coriolis Effect and Centrifugal Forces. Basically, when a hurricane forms away from the equator, depending on if it will move North or South, the Coriolis effect will drag it's trajectory to the left or the right. left/clockwise = S. hemisphere right/counter-clockwise = N. Hemisphere Directional spin: Right: Because the hurricane was moving faster the closer it was to the Equator, as it moves away it is ahead of the land beneath it, veering to the right. Left: Vice versa. Centrifugal Forces: - The force of an object rotating around its axis, trying to pull out from orbit. This helps give hurricanes their circular shape and also create a low pressure eye.
Implications of the IRA on climate
IRA = Inflation Reduction Act Passed in 2022, committed $400 billion to mitigating climate change. - Will dramatically cut US carbon emissions - With economy wide emissions reductions between 43%-48% below 2005 levels by 2035.
How to read a weather station models
Imagine you are looking at a clock: 12 = wind - direction of the wind = the tail - The little notches on the tail indicate wind speed. More tails = higher wind speed 3pm = pressure (mb) 4pm = Pressure trend (mb) 6pm (the circle symbol in the middle) = sky cover - How much of the circle is covered = the amt. of cloud coverage Totally black circle = complete cloud coverage 7pm = dew point temperature 9pm = "weather" i.e. precipitation, if any. 10pm = temperature
States of water in relation to absorption and release of energy
Latent Heat Transfer = The energy required to transform a solid/liquid into a gas. Principle: Molecules with the highest kinetic energy evaporate, leaving behind molecules with lower kinetic energy and temperature Remember: - This is why it takes much more energy for water to change temperature than land. - Water has the remarkable ability to release its hottest particles before changing state entirely. 1. Evaporation (absorbing heat) = warming up 2. Condensation (releasing heat) = Cooling down
Explain the Charged Seperation of energy in clouds, and how this forms lightning.
Lightning: Inside a Cb cloud: - Internal wind ("updraughts") lift water vapor up in the cloud, forming light ice particles. - Some particles grow into hail, and if they do, settle towards the bottom of the cloud. - As the hail falls down, it collides with ice particles, creating friction. AS ICE and HAIL COLLIDE: - Electrons are transferred, giving hail a negative charge, and ice a positive charge. CLOUD = + ice at top, - hail at bottom Outside the Cb cloud: - Now that there is an abundance of negative charge at the bottom of the cloud, the negative charge of the ground is repelled. - This means the ground now has a positive charge. ^ This is how Cloud > Ground lightning forms. Types of Lightning: 1. Intra-cloud (inside the cloud) -- most common. 2. Cloud to Cloud (vertical across the sky) 3. Ground to Cloud (vc) -- rarest.
How do low pressure cells create storms?
Low Pressure cells are pockets of air that are rising up due to the warm land/water beneath them. (They are common over Gulf of Mexico, Caribean, and S. Asia) They create storms via: 1. Atmospheric Instability - When warm air rises, it cools, which makes the surrouding atmosphere unstable. As the air reaches saturation, clouds begin to form. 2. Convergence of Air - air moves towards the center of the system at the surface. - This creates a spiraling of air around the low pressure center - As air converges, it is forced to rise, cooling any moisture with it and potentially producing more clouds. 3. Coriolis Effect and Rotation - As the air converges, it is creating a spiral, but the Coriolis effect will come in and begin to deflect the low pressure system to the left (S. hemisphere) or the right (N. hemisphere) 4. Formation of Cyclonic Circulation Convergence + Rising Air + Coriolis Effect = Cyclonic Circulation around the low pressure center - As long as there is warm water (evaporating, to go up into the low pressure cell and condense) and not a lot of vertial wind sheer, the Cyconlic circulation will continue. 5. Storm Development - if a low pressure system moves over warm ocean waters (26.5 degrees C or 80 degree F) the warm water will provide energy + moisture as it evaporates. 6. Eye Formation - In mature tropical cyclones (i.e. tropical cyclones that are very powerful, and very obviously not a good time) - The eye is calm because the strong winds that converge towards the center are deflected away by the Coriolis affect. - Basically, the winds are rotating around the center, but the Coriolis affect is dragging them out, creating a peaceful center.
Low Pressure Cells
Low pressure cells are pockets of air where: 1. Warm Air Rising - This means the air around the cell will be moving in towards the center 2. Air from two regions collide and the warmer air is forced upward Represented as large red L's N. Hem: Counterclockwise (Cyclonic, i.e. form the classic hurricane shape) S. Hem: Clockwise Key characterisitcs: Pressure: The pressure at the center of the system is lower than it's surroudning areas. That means high pressure air will move in to fill its space, but that high pressure air will shoot straight back up. Winds: Winds blow towards areas of low pressure Air: The air that does center the low pressure cell will rise (because there is no air above it to stop it), cool, and begin to reach saturation point. Water vapor: The water vapor will begin to condense around cloud nuclei and precipitate Rotation: The system has a cyclonic flow, meaning it will spin counterclockwise (N. Hemisphere)
Geoengineering
Manipulation of earths climate system to counteract the effects of climate change caused by greenhouse gas emissions.
What is a mesocyclone?
Mesocyclones are the vertically rotating column of air that can potentially touch ground in a thunderstorm.Rotati - Develop w/in the updraft of a supercell thunderstorm. - The updraft of a supercell is often tilted due to the influence of wind shear. ^^ The tilt allows the mesocyclone to extend over a large vertical distance, enhancing its potential for intensification.
Explain the process of cloud formation
Moisture droplet Cloud-Condensation nuclei 1. Sunlight Heats up the Earth's surface 2. Heat causes evaporation of moisture (evaporation = absorbtion of energy to change states) 3. The warm, moist air rises (creating an updraft) via different mechaisms: - Convection currents (Hadley or Polar, not Ferell) - Frontal lifting (a front moving naturally, pushed by other temperature exchanges) - Orographic lifting (air rising over mountains) 4. Adiabatic Cooling An adiabatic process is a thermodynmaic process that occurs without the transfer or HEAT or MASS between a system and its environment. - The energy of the system only changes because of the energy transformed in the form of work (ex: when gasses expand or contract (water vapor)) - As the warm air roses, it expands and experiences adiabatic cooling. (i.e. the expanding air does work on the surroudning air molecules, DECREASING the temperature) 5. After Adiabatic Cooling, Saturation point & condensation occur. 6. Condensation Nuclei - Water vapors condense around cloud nuclei -- microscopic particles of salt, dust, or aerosols present in the atmosphere. - The kind of particle that acts of the nuclei does effect the type of cloud formed. 7. Cloud Formation - Once a sufficent number of water droplets/ice crystals accumulate, they become visible as a cloud. Factors influencing cloud appearence: (when forming) - Temperature - Humidity
Monsoons
Monsoons are the seasonal change in the direction of the strongest winds around the Indian Subcontinent and Indian Ocean. - Cause the wet/dry seasons throughout the tropics - DRY NE Air - WET SE Air (during winter/dry season) - Transport moist tropical air from the Indian Ocean to the main continent. - Predictable, and hugely important to agricultural and culutral practices in SE Asia. How are monsoons formed? Seasonal shift of the ITCZ and prevailing wind direction in the subtropics. 1. Summer: - warms up the Indian Ocean and Indian Continent - Land heats up much faster than the ocean - This creates low pressure zones over the Continent, where the high-pressure, hot air from the Ocean will move in. - Creates months of precipitation, heavy rainfall, etc.
Alternative names for tropical cyclones
N. America = Hurricane W. pacific = Typhoon Indian Ocean/Austrailia = Cyclone N. Hemisphere = Spin coutnerclockwise S. Hemisphere = Spin clockwise
Tropical Storm
Next stage of development after a tropical depression 1. More organized (i.e. tighter circular pattern of wind) 2. Stronger wind speeds Tropical storms have the potential to cause more significant impacts than tropical depressions. They can bring heavy rainfall, strong winds, and storm surges, leading to flooding and other hazards. Once a tropical system reaches tropical storm status, it is given a name from a predetermined list for the season.
Oceanic Rossby Waves
OCEANIC: - Oceanic Rossby Waves occur in the thermocline (the layer in the ocean where warm surface water mixes w/ colder deep water) - Move westward in slow, wavelike (haha get it) patterns across the ocean. - Can 10+ years to cross the ocean once - Occasionally interact with El Nino/La Nina Oceanic events, causing increased high tides and coastal flooding. Affects of Oceanic Rossby Waves: 1. Delay effects of climatic events 2. Interact with general circulation 3. Set "adjust time" to large scale forces 4. Redistribute momentum 5. Redistribute energy throughout ocean
frost point
Occurs when saturation is achieved below the freezing point. This means that the temperature to achieve 100% RH is below freezing.
WILKE PRESENTATION REVIEW: Relative Humidity and Wildfires
RH = The ratio of the moisture content of the air to the maximum possible moisture content at the same temperature. - Relative Humidity = removes moisture from fuels, by drying out vegetation and removing oxygen from water molecules in atmosphere. Critical RH levels: These are RH levels that indicate elevated fire danger. They vary by region, but generally speaking, RH less than 10% = elevated fire danger. ^^ This is a variable when forest managers decide what the fire risk is today.
How are Chinook Winds different than the Rainshadow Effect?
Rainshadow: - Emphasizes the reduction of precipitation on the leeard side due to the lifting/cooling of moist air on the windward side. Chinook: - Focues on the warm, dry, and rapid downsloping winds that come from the compression (heating up) of air as it moves back down the mountain. - Chinook winds = noticable temperautre increases
The Coriolis Effect: Why does wind deflect to the ____ in the N. Hemisphere?
Right. This is because the Earth's west to east/counter clockwise rotation. As air moves from areas of high pressure to low pressure (i.e. high pressure, dense, cold air pushes low pressure, less dense, warm air), the Earth spins beneath it. Because The Earth will continue to rotate underneath it, moving faster towards the poles and slower towards the equator, the wind will naturally curve in a right ward direction. Watch this video for visual reference: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GYTYXt1inIg Remember this: - If you are a cloud that formed at the equator, you are moving at the a faster speed than clouds formed at more extreme latitudes. This is because you are going farther as the Earth rotates in the same amt. of time. - As wind pushes you NORTH or SOUTH, as a cloud your inertia will keep you moving the same, but literally everything around you will be going slower. This means you will create a curve as you move AHEAD of everything else. ^^ The opposite will happen if you are a cloud that is formed at a high/low latitude. As wind pushes you towards the equator, you will fall BEHIND as you are moving slower than the ground underneath you.
Rossby Waves
Rossby Waves: Global jet stream patterns that move through the atmospehre as Earth rotates. Move from west to east, pulling weather systems with them. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> 2 categories: Oceanic & Atmospheric Rossby Waves
How do you identify a potential hurricane?
Satellite: - look out for clouds swirling in appropiate directions. Reconnaissance aircraft & balloons: - look for trends in temperature, humidity, and windspeed that could indicate a hurricane forming Buoys/Ships/Radionde
What forms thunder?
The huge amount of electrical current in a lightning strike produces an enormous amount of heat. (30,000 degree C) As lightning heats up the air around it, the air expands, creating a shockwave that you can hear. (Lightning's channel is only about 2-3cm thick, and is moving at the speed of light)
How do we measure humidity?
Sling Psychrometer One wet and one dry thermometer. By comparing the temperature difference between the two thermometers can tell you the dew point temperature and relative humidity of the air.
Negative geoengineering
Solar radiation management (SRM) - Using tons of mirrors to reflect solar radiation back into space - Adds aerosols to the air to deflect light - Messes with everything from water cycle, ozone, upper atmosphere warming, ecosystems
Sublimation
Solid to gas The process of snow and ice changing into vapor in the atmosphere without melting. In the water cycle, sublimation occurs when water vapor from snow enters the atmosphere.
Where is the Polar Front Jet?
Southern and Northern Hemisphere Mid-Latitudes
Analysis of daily weather maps: Synoptic analysis
Synoptic Analysis is a summary of data from simulated observations of weahter at many widely located sites. They use standardized instruments and techniques. Syntopic = simultaneous
How does temperature affect cloud formation?
Temp. determines: - moisture holding capacity of the air - altitude of cloud formation Warm temp = less dense, high altitude clouds Cold temp = dense, vertically tall clouds at lower levels
Types of Clouds
Ten Principal Cloud Types: High Clouds: Cirrus (Ci) - thin, whispy clouds Corrostratus (Cs) - shallow, kinda of transparent, make a halo around the sun/moon Cirrocumulus (Cc) - Those clouds that are made up of a bunch of little clouds in a row Middle Clouds: Altostratus (As)- Those weird "ripple" clouds. Super long, wispy and kinda foggy Altocumulus (Ac) - Patchy!!! Low Clouds: Stratus (St)- Uniform layer of consistently shaped clouds Nimbostratus (Ns) - Dark, low lying clouds with not much texture. Stratocumulus (Sc) - (my favorite kind of cloud) -- low lying fluffy clouds with flat bottoms but poofy tops. -- Kind of dark at the bottom. Vertical Clouds: Cumulus (Cu) - Detached billowy clouds with flat bottoms. Not super tall, but you can easily see where they end. Cumulonimbus (Cb) - BIG FLUFFY ANVIL SHAPED CLOUDS. - Appear very dark at the bottom, but are light from the top.
How has the 100th Meridian shifted in the United States?
The 100th Meridian has shifted further East. This means the "dry" area of the US is getting larger (i.e. the dry west is growing)
Which direction does the Earth spin in?
The Earth spins counterclock From west to east
How has the Permafrost Line changed due to climate change?
The Permafrost Line has moved farther North. This means a considerable portion of Permafrost has melted in Northern Canada. When permafrost melts, it releases atmospheric methane (an extremely powerful greenhouse gas). We do not understand how this will affect climate change, and worry it may push the atmosphere to a "tipping point."
How has the Sahara Desert changed due to climate change?
The Sahara Desert is expanding.
Saturation Point
The maximum amount of water vapor in the air at a given temperature. When the number of water molecules evaporation from the surface = the number returning evaporation rate = condensation rate
Environmental Lapse Rate
The rate of temperature decrease with increasing height in the troposphere. As you go up, the temperature gets colder because you are moving away from source of heat (Earth) - Changes diurnally (day to day) from place to place
Relative Humidity (RH)
The ratio of the moisture content of the air to the maximum possible moisture content at the same temperature. moisture in air: maximum amt. of moisture air can hold - given as a % - Depends on air temperature and total water vapor present High RH = coldest air Lowest RH = hottest air Remember this: - The warmer the air, the more moisture it can hold. (this is because warm air moves around and has more space between it's molecules) - You cannot compare the RH of locations with different temperatures.
Air Rising in Cells Visual
The rising air of convection cells = areas of low pressure & wetness. This is why the tropical regions of the Earth are near the equator, where there is an abundance of hot, low pressure air rising into the atmosphere that must be brought down.
Leeward
The side of a mountain range that faces away from the oncoming wind.
Windward
The side of a mountain range that faces the oncoming wind. Remember: Windward = wet
Dew Point
The temperature at which saturation is achieved (i.e. the air is holding all of the moisture it can) - Indicates air's moisture content - Condensation begins
How are the tropics changing due to climate change?
The tropics are getting bigger. The ground that Hadley Cells cover is getting larger and larger. This means hot, warm, consistently wet climates will expand further into Mexican and mainland South America.
What are the principle air masses for N. America?
There are 5 1. Continetnal Arctic (CA) Origin: Form over Arctic sea ice Characteristics: Extremely cold and dry air Effect: Brings bitterly cold temperatures to Northern regions during winter. 2. Continetnal Polar (cP) Origin: Northern interior of Canada Characteristics: Cold and dry air masses Effect: Bring cold and dry air masses Effect: Bring cold temperatures, and contributes to the formation of lake-effect snow in the Great Lakes. 3. Maritime Polar (mP) Origin: North Pacific and North Atlantic Oceans Characteristics: Cold and moist air masses Effect: Brings cool and damp conditions. Create snowfall in the Pacific Northwest & NE US. 4. Continental Tropical (cT) Origin: SW US and N. Mexico Characteristics: Hot and dry air masses Effect: Bring hot and dry conditions to the SW US and N. Mexico 5. Maritime Tropical (mT) Origin: Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean Characteristics: Warm and moist air masses Effect: Can contributre to hot and arid conditions, especially in SW. EXCLUDE CONTINENTAL EQUATORIAL -- we didn't learn about that..... so.
Pressure Zones
These pressure zones are sources of unequal heating in the atmosphere, i.e. contributing to storm formation. These pressure zones are created between Hadley, Ferrel, and Polar Cells. - Pressure zones are not fixed, and change with seasons, influencing weather patterns & climate around the world. Equatorial Low (ITCZ) - Intertropical Convergence Zone - A belt of low pressure area (b/c of intense soalr radiation warming the surface) and zone of converging trade winds (winds that are relatively straight due to weak Coriolis vs. Centrifugal winds fighting) at the equator. Subtropical Highs - Slightly above Equator - Created by descending air from Hadley Cells creating high pressure zones. Subpolar Lows - In Mid-Latitude areas, above Subtropical Highs. - Formed when Ferrel Cells and Polar Cells converge, forcing hot air to rise, pushing low-pressure air down. - Contribute to the development of the polar front. Polar Highs - Areas of high air pressure formed over polar regions during winter. - Get weaker with height (i.e. strongest at the surface) - Create cold, dense air. - The South Polar High is stronger than the Northern Polar High because land gains/looses heat more efficectively than the sea. Polar Front - The boundary between cold polar air masses and warmer air masses from mid-latitudes. - Low pressure, bring signifigant and powerful weather development. ^ Can create mid-latitude cyclones. Visual: - see how these pressure xones are formed between cells
What makes the Rossby Wave slow down?
Too much hot air in the atmosphere. WHY COULD THAT BE???????????? beats me, aw shucks.
How has tornado alley changed?
Tornado alley has East/South - Remember Alabama
Tornadoes vs. Hurricanes
Tornado: - Extratropical (forms outsdie the tropics) - Windspeed range fo 40-320mph - Only last 10ish minutes - Tornado season = March to August - 1,200 tornadoes per year in US Hurricanes: - Tropical storm - 75-150+mph range (slower than tornadoes) - last much, much longer (upwards of 2 weeks) - Season = June - November - 10-15 per year in US
Tornadoes: How are they formed?
Tornadoes are formed by 2 predominant air masses: 1. Warm, wet Southern Winds 2. Dry, cool Northern winds. How to form a tornado: 1. Instable Atmosphere - When the warm, wet Southern Winds collide with cool, dry Northern winds, an unstable atmosphere is created. 2. Lifting Mechanism - Warm air needs to lift along a front of cold air. - This can happen by: 1. Warm air hitting a cold front 2. Interaction of different air masses 3. Orographic lifting (air being lifted by mountains) 4. Convergence of air at surface 3. Supercell Thunderstorm - Sueprcell Thunderstorm = large, rotating thunderstorms. Forming a Supercell Thunderstorm: A. Conflicting temperature air masses hit eachother. B. Wind Sheer - Wind at the surface is moving one direction, and air in the atmosphere is moving another. - This creates a tube of rotating air in the atmosphere. - This tube pushes hot air up, and cold air down. hot air being pushed up = updraft ^^ Updrafts can push the vertical tube of wind to become horizontal, creating SPINNING cloud, called the SUPERCELL. 3. Form a funnel cloud - Some super cells form a funnel cloud that can reach the ground. Tornadoes are faster than hurricanes, potentially reaching 300mph.
Tornadoes: Where are tornadoes formed, and why?
Tornadoes only form when warm, humid air near the ground is overrun by dry air from above. To form a tornado, a funnel cloud must be forced to touch down on the ground by the pressure and weight of a cool air downdraft. The United States is an excellent environment for tornadoes because of these conflicting air fronts: - Gulf of Mexico: hot & moist - Canada & Rocky Mountains: cold & dry - SW US: Hot, dry air
Trade Winds
Trade Winds = winds that blow steadily EAST TO WEST, just North and South of the equator. Weak Coriolis Effect. at equator + Stronger centrifugal force at equator = Trade Winds Characteristics: - Consistent in force and direction - Stronger over oceans - Help ships travel west (Christopher Columbus' knowledge of the trade winds helped him get to the Americas)
Christopher Columbus and Trade Winds
Trade Winds: Constant, relatively straight/steady winds that blow East to West.(<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<) - Good for sailors because they are consistent and steady. Columbus: - Sailed South out of Spain towards the Northeastern Trade Winds - As Columbus sailed west, he encountered the Horse Latitudes, which had HIGH PRESSURE and CALM WINDS. - In order to not get stuck, he picked up an Westerly Trade Wind to blow him back East so he could correct course. Columbus's navigation strategy, which involved utilizing the trade winds for efficient westward travel and understanding the ocean currents, was a pivotal factor in the success of his voyages. His use of these wind patterns opened the way for subsequent European exploration and trade routes across the Atlantic.
Ferrel Cell
Type of convection current at mid-latitudes. - Between Hadley Cells and Polar Cells, around 30-60 degrees N/S of the Equator. NOT DRIVEN BY TEMPERAUTRE - Flow in the opposite direction of Polar/Hadley cells (i.e East to West) - Transport heat from the equator towards the poles (take hot air from the edge of the subtropics, deposit cooler air at mid-latitudes) - Create semi-permanent areas of high and low pressure.
What does the upward/downward motion of Rossby Waves do?
Upward curve of the wave = The Atmospheric Rossby Waves are pushing hot air from the tropics to the poles Downward curve of wave = Carry cold air from the poles to the tropics. These waves help maintain balace in the atmosphere.
Types of Clouds and kind of Precipitation
Warm Fronts: Clouds: - Uniform, lowlying stratus - Cirrus - The gentle gradient at which the air rises = uniform stratus clouds = prolongedf spells of soft precipitation. Cold Fronts: Clouds: - Cirrus - Cumulonimbus - Accompanied by storm clouds with vertical buildup - Altocumulus clouds are a sign of an entering cold front. Occluded Fronts: - Cumulonimbus/Nimbostratus clouds = these clouds are signs of mdoerate/heavy precipitation - Can also develop into thunderstorms very easily
What makes an atmosphere stable?
When an atmosphere is stable, that means there are no clouds, and little risk of storms. Stable Atmosphere Characteristics: 1. Environmental Lapse rate = Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (this means that any vertical motion is neither dampened nor accelerated) 2. Presence of Temperature Inversions - Temperature Inversion = cold air is trapped at ground level, warmer air is above it. - Temperature Inversions prevent the veritcle mixing of air. As long as cool air (dense air) is near the ground, saturation/condensation probably won't occur. 3. Lack of Convective Clouds - Convective clouds = storm clouds, like cumulus clouds. - In a stable atmosphere, air parcels struggle to rise through inversion layer, limiting the verticle development of clouds. 4. High Humidity Near Surface - Stable atmospheres trap moisture near the surface. - Inversion layers prevent verticle dispersion of moisture, = more humidity near the ground. TAKE AWAY: - Stable atmospheres trap moisture near the surface.
How do Rossby Waves affect Colorado weather?
When atmospheric Rossby Waves slow down, they hold areas of low/high pressure (and whatever weather systems those were holding) 1. Temp variations - When the jet stream moves northward, the warmer air from the South is drawn over Colorado = milder weather 2. Storm Tracks - The jet stream can push areas of low pressure over Colorado when it meanders southward, creating storns 3. Mountain-Induced Effects - The Mountains can force air pushed by Rossby Waves/The Jet Stream up, forcing it to cool and creating more precipitation. - This leads to more snowfall in the winter and thudnerstorms in the summer 4. Fires - The Jet Stream creates really dry areas when it pushes high pressure over an area. - This can create perfect conditions for fire. - If the Rossby Wave has slowed down, this can mean the high pressure will stay over Colorado for a long time, creating an extreme wildfire season.
What is a convergence zone?
When two forces of wind (with different temperatures, densities, humidity, etc) confront eachother. - This forces the upward motion of the low pressure force, creating cloud formation. - Convergence Zones are a crucial part of dynamic weather patterns: The front of these convergences create thunder storms, heavy rainfall, etc. Example of Convergence Zone: 1. ITCZ - The most prominent and globally signifigant convergence zone. - Where the trade winds from the Northerna nd Southern Hemisphere converge - Create global band of low pressure 2. Cold and Warm Fronts 3. Sea Breezes - During the day, land heats up faster than water, creating low pressure over the land. - Cool air from the sea moves inland to replace the rising warm air = Sea breeze convergence zone. 4. Mountain-Induced Convergences - When prevailing winds confront mountain ranges, the air is forced to rise up over the mountains, possibly meeting pre-existing bands of cool, low pressure air. - This can create clouds, precipitation, etc. - On the leeward side, divergence occurs. 5. Tropical Cyclone Convergence Bands - In hurricanes/typhoons, convergence bands spiral into the center of the storm. - This is when the moist, hot air rises, and produces the intense rainfall and thunderstorms associated with hurricanes passing over you.
How are thunderstorms formed?
When warm, moist air quickly rises into cooler air, creating an unstable atmosphere and rapidly vertically growing clouds. 1. Formation of Cumulonimbu Clouds - Cb clouds are formed when warm, moist, unstable air is overturned rapidly. 2. Updrafts/Downdrafts - Strong updrafts of warm air and downdrafts of cool air = turbulence in the atmosphere. - This rapid upward movement of air helps vertically develop the Cb cloud. 3. Charge Seperation - Within the Cb cloud, the rapid condensation of water vapor forms ice and hail. - The heavier, denser hail has a negative charge and settles at the bottom of the cloud. - The lighter, positively charged ice particles settle at the top. See next card for better explanation
What exactly is wind?
Wind is the movement of air from high pressure areas to low pressure areas moving vertically.
Winners vs. Losers due to climate change
Winners: some people are seeing better weather, such as England farmers that can now plant mediterranean crops because of the change in their weather Losers: Us. More extreme weather, global warming, insecurity of food and water and life in general Greece, France, Italy
What are the predomnant air masses in North America?
continental arctic (cA), maritime polar (mP), maritime tropical (mT), continental tropical (cT), and continental polar (cP)
What is a funnel cloud?
tornado that doesn't reach the ground
Satured/Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate
~-0.5 oC/100 m -3.3 oF/1000 ft SALR = temperature changes of a saturated air parcel as it undergoes adiabatic processes in the atmosphere. It accounts for the heat released/absorbed of the water inside the air parcel. The SALR is generally lower than the DALR because of the release/absorption of latent heat associated w/ phase changes of water vapor. ^ Because the air parcel has a lot of water, which as it rises, may reach saturation point and create frost/dew. rising SALR = cools, may reach dew/frost point descending SALR = warms, latent heat is absorbed as water evaporates
