Geo final

Mountain (Alpine) Glaciation

-Also known as a valley glacier. -Confined to flow down a mountain valley, usually in a former stream valley from accumulation center at the head of the valley.

suspended load

sediments suspended in the river

Creep

slow steady downward movement of slope forming soil and rock

Headward Erosion

slow uphill growth of a valley above its original source through gullying, mass wasting, and sheet erosion.

Characteristics of a mineral

-have characteristic chemical formulas -are crystalline -generally inorganic

Dust Bowl

..., Region of the Great Plains that experienced a drought in 1930 lasting for a decade, leaving many farmers without work or substantial wages.

rejuvenation

At any stage in the cycle of erosion, a geologic event may cause a stream to receive excess energy and begin to down-cut (vertically erode) its channel.

Oolitic Limestone

Chemical composition crystalline grain size well rounded to sub round well sorted

The purity of the color is represented by the?

Chroma

The surface ares of the particles in a given volume is greater for which, Sand, Silt or Clay?

Clay

Rocks that form when molten magma is extruded on the earth's surface are?

Extrusive

A lava flow would be an example of what?

Extrusive igneous rock

What minerals leaves a good streak?

Fe--> Hematite Limonite Hornblende

Recurrence Interval

Frequency of a given discharge event

rock cycle 8

Heat

How does climate influence soil variations?

Influences the physical and chemical weathering processes that form soils

increase

Less rainfall causes pH to

Mafic Magma

Low in Silica

Alluvium

MLRA commonaly called MS delta

O horizon?

Organic horizon consisting of leaves, needles, stems, and altered materials

Ex. hardness 6

Orthoclase Plagioclase Hornblende

leaching

Process in which various chemicals in upper layers of soil are dissolved and carried to lower layers and, in some cases, to groundwater.

The amount of black and white in color is its?

Value

How does soil clean water?

Water passing through soil is cleaned by a combination of processes: absorption, filtration, and the biological consumption of organic matter.

Contact Metamorphism

When hot magma forces itself into overlying rock (Intrusions) and bakes the rock

A horizon

agricultural organic matter, with rock and minerals; most important

load

all the material that the river carries

Conglomerate

clastic/detrital sedimentary rock. abraded (rounded) pebbles in matrix, looks like concrete. gravel sized particles.

Gley Charts

contain a neutral hue, or no chroma

Will the valley width to depth ration increase or decrease as gradient steepens?

decrease

Oxisols

develop in warm wet tropical forests, thick humus layer, more leaching

root growth

enlarges cracks

conservation tillage farming

A system that leaves enough crop residue on the soil surface to significantly reduce erosion.

Schist (m)

fool's gold, shiny, many parent materials

low

forests usually have a ___pH

flood plains

forms by erosion; feature long rivers

longitudinal profile of a stream

from headwaters to mouth is a generally smooth, concave-up curve

Soil

An thin, unconsolidated layer of rocks, minerals, organic matter and nutrients that covers Earth's surface.

Ex. hardness 5

Apatite Olivine- Serpentine- Limonite (Goethite)+

crystal growth

grows in cracks

metamorphic, slate

has high pitched sound when hit with nail

increases

in grasslands with depth pH _____

sedimentary, shale

individual bedding planes, low pitch when hit with nail

core

inner two layers of the earth, composed mostly of nickel one is solid and one is liquid

sand bars

inside of curve

conventional tillage farming

land is plowed and then the soil is broken up and smoothed to make a planting surface

yellow colors

largely due to hydrated iron oxides and generally indicate a somewhat more moist condition than red colors

Gulley Erosion

larger valleys in the soil

gradient

loss of elevation along a river channel

Hematite

lots of straight edges, older soils/warmer climates: Fe

Natural levees

low ridges of flood-deposited sediment that form on either side of a stream channel and thin away from a channel formed from a series of floods.

relationship between gradient and sinuosity

lower gradient = higher sinuosity

Marble (m)

many different colors, limestone is parent material

tensiometer - important for areas where you irrigate for Ag from 0 to -100, easy to use; resistance blocks - wire surrounding gypsum connected to resistance meter; aquameter/theataprobe - sends out pulse of electricity; pressure membrane apparatus - used routinely to determine field capacity and PWP

methods to determine water potential (3/4)

Conchoidal fracture

mineral that breaks into smooth curved surfaces (obisdian)

dissolve load

minerals that are dissolved in the water

compositional properties of soil

moisture content soil ph nutrient content

Plant unavailable water

more than theta 1500

frost wedging

most important; water goes into the crack and freezes

convection cells

motion of air or liquids in a circular pattern due to changes in temperature. They can cause thunderstorms and tornadoes

a stream can erode its channel only as low as the elevation of its ___

mouth (would have to flow uphill to get to mouth if cut deeper)

Slides

move coherent masses parallel to main slide surface

Flows

move like fluid with different parts flowing at different speeds

Falls

move through air when gravity pulls material from steep cliff or overhangs

GRain flow

movement of loose, dry grains down a steep slope ex) sand moving down sand dune

Slumps

movement of materials in large blocks on a curved slip surface -typically happen at places of erosion

Rockslide

movement of one or more slabs of rock along a plane ( fault, crack, bedding) - usually one big rock that breaks up

earthflow

movement of soil and weathered rock confined on both sides by specific boundaries - movement parallel to surface

meander necks

narrow peninsulas between adjacent meanders

What are the optimum soil conditions for reading soil colors?

natural light, clear, sunny day, midday, light at right angles, soil moist, no sunglasses

Diorite

phaneritic intermediate igneous rock

Gabbro

phaneritic mafic igneous rock

Granite

phaneritic porpheritic felsic igneous rock

Feldspar

rectangular striations, lines through it: K, Ca, Na

Wind erosion

responsible for ≈ 45% of the eroded soil each year. Wind erosion is more likely in arid regions Increases the amount of fertilizer needed More difficult for seedlings to survive—damage crops

radial

- forms where streams radiate or flow away from a central topographic high, such as a volcano or hill. (all different directions)

tributaries

streams that flow into another

discharge

the amount of water flowing in a river at any given time

Drainage basin/ watershed

the area from which a single stream or river and its tributaries drains all of the water

Drainage Divide

the boundary between adjacent drainage basins.

Weathering

the breakdown of rock or mineral materials in place.

Stream Velocity

the distance water travels in a stream per unit time

Lateral Erosion

the erosion and undercutting of a streams banks and valley walls as the stream swings from side to side across its valley floor

Color

the most obvious soil property

biosolids

the nations treated sewage sludge that is often recycled in soils, used as fertilizer

Flood Stage

the water level at which a river overflows its banks

sandy makes less water content, clay means more water content

things that effect moisture retention curves

contour farming

tilling perpendicular to surface slopes—creates plowed furrows that catch soil and water rather than letting them run off freely.

Rill Erosion

tiny stream valleys on a slope, increased erosion if not stopped

Regolith

unconsolidated material encompassing all material at the surface of the earth, whether it is fertile or not fertile.

Stream Erosion

under cutting of banks of a river during a flood

Discharge (Q) of a river =

wdv (average depth X velocity X width of stream channel)

Physical Weathering (Mechanical Weathering)

weather consisting of the physical breakup of rocks without changes in the rock's composition.

C horizon

weathered parent material, broken pieces of bedrock

snow and ice avalanche

when air mixes with frozen water and powder no top of mountain begins to slide

channel

where river flows, place where water is more or less continuously present and the main current flows

chemical composition and fineness of liming material

which two properties of lime material influence the amount needed?

Kaolinite

white, clay mineral: brings nutrients towards them

As a stream meanders, it ___ the valley

widens

How to calculate percent probability

(1/RI) x 100

**Which of our minerals has good cleavage?

(Feldspar) orthoclase & plagioclase (Amphibole) hornblende (Pyroxene) Augite

Muscovite

(Primary) Hardness: 3 Perfect cleavage, vitreous Nutrients: K

Biotite

(Primary) Hardness: 3 Perfect cleavage, vitreous Nutrients: K, Mg, Fe

Olivine

(Primary) Hardness: 4-5 Fracture, glitters Nutrients: Mg, Fe

Orthoclase

(Primary) Hardness: 6 2 plane cleavage, vitreous Nutrients: K

Hornblende

(Primary) Hardness: 6 2 plane cleavage?, metallic luster Nutrients: Ca, Mg, Fe

Plagioclase

(Primary) Hardness: 6 2 plane clevage, vitreous Nutrients: Ca

Augite

(Primary) Hardness: 6 two plane cleavage, weak vitreous luster Nutrients: Ca, Mg, Fe

Talc

(Secondary) Hardness: 1 Fracture, soapy Nutrients: Mg

Gypsum

(Secondary) Hardness: 2 3 plane cleavage, dull Nutrients: Ca, S

Calcite

(Secondary) Hardness: 3 3 plane cleavage, vitreous, effervesces Nutrients: Ca

Dolomite

(Secondary) Hardness: 3 Fracture, vitreous, effervesces as a powder Nutrients: Ca, Mg

Serpentine

(Secondary) Hardness: 4-5 Fracture, greasy Nutrients: Mg, Fe, Ni

Hematite

(Secondary) Hardness: ~4 Fracture, earthy, mahogany streak* Nutrients: Fe

Limonite (Goethite)

(Secondary) Hardness: ~5+ Fracture, earthy, brick colored streak* Nutrients: Fe

O horizon

(humus) thin layer of decayed organic material

meanders

(of a river or road) follow a winding course

Parent Material***

*******

How does soil facilitate all of the earth systems interactions?

*helps transfer of matter between systems- 1) contains about twice as much carbon as atmosphere- resides in soil only 9 yrs on avg. because constantly in flux with atmosphere, biosphere, hydro, geo) 2) photosynthesis by plants provides carbon to soils when they die their remains add carbon compounds to soil--> escapes to atmosphere + dissolves in groundwater 3) all of the 16 essential nutrients that plants need to grow (except O, H, N, C) come from the geosphere through carbon

Characteristics of metamorphic rock

-"shape changing" from heat/ pressure -can be meta-igneous, or meta-sedimentary -have foliations from pressure

Aquifer

-A body of soil or rock that can hold a useable amount of water. -Needs to be PORUS and PERMEABLE. -Note its lithology. -Permeable rock or sediments that transmit water easily (such as sand or gravels)

Aquitard

-A body of soil or rock that greatly reduces the flow of water (low permeability). -Impermeable layers that hinder or prevent water movement. Clays can be these as they are too non-permeable for water to flow through.

Cirque

-A bowl shaped depression in a high mountain slope. -Ampitheature shaped basin at the head of a glaciated valley, which is produced by frost wedging and plucking.

Moraine

-A ridge of till. -Layers or ridges of stony debris (till) deposited along the margins of or beneath a glacier.

Tarn

-A small lake in a cirque. -Very very cold!

Horn

-A steep sided pyramid shaped peak produced by erosion of several cirques. -Ex: Matterhorn

Unsaturated Zone

-Also known as the aeration zone. -The area below the ground that is not saturated with water. -The area above the saturation zone where pore spaces and fractures in bedrock are mainly filled with air.

Saturated Zone

-Area below ground where all pore spaces are filled with water. -Here, the pore space is 100% filled with water (grains surrounded by water on all sides). This is what we call groundwater.

Cone Depression

-The zone around a well in an unconfined aquifer that is normally saturated, but becomes unsaturated as a well is pumped, leaving an area where the water table dips down to form this shape. -Occurs in an aquifer when groundwater is pumped from a well. -A reduction in the pressure head surrounding the pumped well.

Till

-Unstratified (unsorted by size) material that is deposited by or in contact with ice. -Material deposited directly by ice, which is typically poorly sorted and stratified.

Characteristics of sedimentary rock

-bedding planes may be evident -rounded particles, fragments/ fossils

Properties of Soil

. composition (dependent on parent material). . color (dependent on soil composition). . texture (dependent on whether or not the soil is sand, silt, or clay).

Factors Affecting Chemical Weathering

. composition (silicates tend to be less susceptible to chemical weathering than other materials). . the conditions under which the material is formed (silicates formed at higher temperatures are more susceptible to chemical weathering). . climate (the warmer the climate, the higher the intensity of chemical weathering).

Characteristics of Exemplary Farming Soil

. high content of organic matter. . good capacity of holding water. . good pH level. . good structure. . good mixture of sand, silt and clay (loams).

Factors Determining Classification of Soils

. presence and thickness of horizons. . friability (the ability to be reduced to small portions with little effort). . acidity . degree of weathering.

superfluous water

0 to theta 33

Simplified Jurin Equation?

0.15/r

How to calculate Discharge

1) Divide River in to Rectangular subsections 2) Depth x Width of each subsection 3) Add the subsections together

types of fall (3)

1) Rock fall 2) Talus 3) Debris or soil fall

How to calculate percent slope (aka percent grade)

1) convert everything to same units 2) Divide: Difference in election by Distance of river or section of river

Types of slides (3)

1) rockslides 2) landslides 3) slumps

Factors leading up to landslide(3)

1. Slope steepening - undercutting base or adding material on top of slope 2. type of material 3. whether water saturates slope

Mineral hardness according to Mohs

1. Talc 2. Gypsum 3. Calcite 4. Fluorite 5. Apatite 6. Feldspar 7. Quartz 8. Topaz 9. Corundum 10. Diamond

Limonite

1. Yellow Streak

water erosion

soil is exposed to rain and surface runoff of water Sheet flow Farming practices leave bare soils—eroded by runoff of surface water (irrigation and salt buildup) Grazing and deforestation, destroy the vegetation cover on soil, make it susceptible to erosion

Mottle

splotch of color, opposite of matrix

earthquake

Shaking and vibration at the surface of the earth resulting from underground movement along a fault plane of from volcanic activity

What rocks are likely to form fine textures soils?

Shale, slate, limestone, marble

clay, silt, sand

Smallest to largest, name the 3 soil seperates

Soil color is not a reliable indicator of what?

Soil Texture

Residual Soil

Soil formed if the parent material is bedrock.

Transported soil

Soil formed on unconsolidated sediment.

Erosion and soil

Soil is susceptible to erosion wherever its vegetation cover is removed Tilling, construction-site clearing, overgrazing, deforestation, roads, trails

loams

Soils containing a mixture of clay, sand, silt, and humus. Good for growing most crops.

Dissolved Load

Soluble products of chemical weathering processes traveling down the stream

Solution

Some rocks can be dissolved by water

Parent Material

Source of weathered mineral matter.

Stream Terrace

Step-like land form found above a stream and its flood plain.

The principle that guides the settling of particles?

Stoke's Law

Braided Stream

Stream that flows in a network of interconnected rivulets around numerous bars (usually wide and shallow channel) Formed when a stream is heavily loaded with sediment and has banks that are easily eroded

B Horizon

Subsoil layer where clay and other minerals are deposited. Is known as the zone of accumulation and in some cases so much clay accumulates that hardpan forms.

Where would you most likely expect to find goethite?

Tennessee

mechanical weathering

The actual breaking up or physical weakening of rock by forces such as ice and roots

Discharge

The amount of water that passes a specific point in a stream or river in a given amount of time

Drainage Pattern

The arrangement, in map view, of a river and its tributaries

Stream Gradient

The downhill slope of the bed measured in amount of feet dropped per 1 mile.

Abraison

The grinding away of the stream channel by the friction and impact of the sediment load.

soil horizon

The layer of soil that differs in color and texture from the layers above or below it.

Point Bar

The low velocity on the inside of a curve promotes sediment deposition. These sand bars that have been deposited on the inside of curves because of their lower velocity

C horizon?

The most unweathered horizon that most closely resembles parent material

Hydrologic Cycle

The movement and interchange of water between the ocean, atmosphere, and land.

Artesian Well

The pressure in the artesian aquifer helps push water up this system.

Gneiss

Type: foliated Traits: medium to coarse grained; generally alternating lighter and darker sub-parallel discontinuous bands, Parent Rock: mudstone, shale, slate, phyllite, schist, granite, diorite

Anthracite Coal

Type: nonfoliated Traits: glassy, conchoidal fracture Parent Rock: peat, lignite, bitominous coal

Marble

Type: nonfoliated Traits: medium grained granular (gritty to touch); can see interlocking calcite crystals with the naked eye, HCL reactive Parent Rock: limestone * can be pink, white Uses - building stone whiting material in toothpaste, paint and paper.

Quartzite

Type: nonfoliated Traits: quartz sand grained closely interlocked;light Parent Rock: sandstone and quartz *can be other colors :gray, purple, brown, & yellow

Soapstone

Type: nonfoliated Traits: talc visible Parent Rock: basalt, ultramafic ignous rock

Serpentine

Type: nonfoliated Traits: dull, glossy Parent Rock: basalt, gabbro, ultramafic ignous

Drift, Till, Stratified Drift

Types of Glacial Deposits

oxbow lakes

U shaped lake

Glacial Trough

U-shaped valleys that form as alpine glaciers widen, depend, and straighten stream valleys.

R horizon?

Underlying consolidated rock

bioremediation

Using organisms to clean up contamination Bacteria species that will eat toxic substances Isolating the bacteria requires considerable laboratory work Need to be assisted (e.g. adding oxygen) to increase their populations

phytoremediation

Using plants to clean up soil Certain plants selectively take up and concentrate toxic substances Then degrade or release to the atmosphere in modified form Some plant species = excellent accumulators of specific metals (As, Cd, Pb) Growing these plants—then harvesting them—reduces metal concentrations in soil Metal-bearing plants are usually burned and the ash deposited in landfills

What is Stoke's Law?

Velocity = K(constant, at 25 *C = 900,000)(particle diameter)^2

Peat deposits usually form in what type of environments where plant debris has accumulated?

Waterlogged

rock cycle 3

Weathering

Riparian Wetland

Wetlands developed from a rivers floodplain... store flood water from river

agroforestry

When trees and crops are planted together, creating a mutualistic symbiotic relationship between them

Quartz

Which material makes up 12% of the earths crust

nitrosomonas and nitrobacter

___ is involved in the conversion of NH4 to N03

Apatite

___ is the most common source of P (could ask for other elements so know all)

Denitrification

___ is the reduction of nitrate to nitrite to atmospheric N2

adhesional- unavailable cohesional- available

____ water consists of water molecules that are attached to soil particles and is generally available/ unavailable to plants

Flood Plain

a broad strip of land built up by sedimentation on either side of a stream channel

small, positive

a cation that is held tightly to the soil has ____ hydrated radius a ____ charge

Rock

a lump or mass of hard consolidated mineral matter

trunk stream

a major river, fed by a number of fairly large tributaries; the main stream in a river system.

Meander Cutoff

a new, shorter channel across the narrow neck of a meander

Bar

a ridge of sediment, usually sand, gravel, deposited in the middle or along the banks of a stream formed when a stream's discharge or velocity decreases.

collecting system

a series of tributaries that feed water into the main channel

Tributary

a small stream flowing into a larger one

cinder volcano

a steep, cone-shaped hill or small mountain made of volcanic ash, cinders, and bombs piled up around a volcano's opening

Terracing

a strategy to mitigate erosion in which a sloped plane resembling stair steps is constructed to farm higher terrain and to reduce erosion and surface runoff.

Strip-Cropping

a strategy to mitigate erosion in which different crops of different heights are alternated in order to slow near-ground wind by making the land surface more irregular.

Wind Breaks

a strategy to mitigate erosion in which low fences, hedges, or trees are erected/planted respectively to block the dominant wind direction and reduce the distance over which soil is transported.

Contour Plowing

a strategy to mitigate erosion in which rows are plowed parallel to the contours of a hill and perpendicular to the direction of the flow of water to create a ridged land surface to slow the rate of surface runoff.

Sheetwash

a thin layer of unchanneled water flowing downhill.

B horizon

a zone of accumulation, clays, iron oxides, quartz

E horizon

a zone of eluviation leaching, mainly quartz and clay

how does composition of bedrock influence soil?

abundance of nutrients mineralogical composition

How does aspects affect soil

affects soil temperature influences rate of physical, chem, and bio weathering

surplus

after recharge = storage capacity then

25% air, 25% water, 45% mineral, 5% OM

an ideal soil is comprised of what % air,water,minerals, and OM?

The Dust Bowl (1925 to 1934)

an immense drought caused by urbanization... . the settlement of prairies, plowing and overgrazing led to the death of weeds, destruction of the structure of the soil, destruction of the system of the roots, and the drying out of the soil

Based on forces, when will mass wasting occur

angle > stability driving force > normal force

Rivers

any body of water confined to a channel; moves by gravity

Basalt

aphanitic mafic igneous rock

Andesite

aphanitic porpheritic intermediate igneous rock

drainage basin

area drained by a stream - separated from adjacent drainage basins by highlands called drainage divides

Stream channel

area within which the water is actually flowing

2.65 g/cm^3

average particle density of most soils

Biological properties of soil

bacteria protozoa fungi worms arthropods

Gneiss (m)

banding, coarse texture, granite is parent material

animals

being deeper less weathered material to the surface

Micrite

biochemical composition clay grain size well rounded sub rounded well sorted

Bituminous Coal

biochemical composition clay grain size well rounded to sub rounded well arranged

Coquina

biochemical composition gravel grain size very angular to sub angular poorly/moderately arranged

Biotite

black/sheet structure like Muscovite: K, Fe, Mg

regolith

blanket of soil and loose material onto unaltered bed rock

steep-walled, V-shaped valleys

bottoms are occupied fully by channel; when water is added, channel expands and fills more of the valley

divides

boundaries between watersheds of all sizes

Cleavage

breakage along planes of weakness caused by internal atomic structure.

Fracture

breakage without a definite pattern related to internal planes of weakness

chemical processes

breaks down and changes the parent materials --hydrolysis, oxidation, dissolution --warmer, wetter climates facilitate chemical rxns --commonly produce clay, quartz, oxide minerals -organisms help by churning soil, metabolizing organics, adding waste, emitting CO2 --humus

Physical soil-forming processes

breaks rocks into smaller pieces (frost weathering)

meanders

broad curving bends

floodplain

broad flat plains

Soils

broken down material from rocks

Streams operate according to these principles:

1. always flow downhill (gravity) 2. flow in a well-dfined channel, except during floods when the water overflows the channels nd spills out across the surrounding land 3. the motion of water gives a stream kinetic energy, enabling it to do the geologic work of erosion and deposition; amount of energy depends on the amount of water and its velocity, so, big fast-flowing streams erode more than small, slow flowing streams 4. Kinetic energy allows a stream to transport sediment; these particles slide or roll on the bed of the stream or are carried in suspension within the water 5. the flow of water erodes unconsolidated sediment from the wall and bed of the channel, which can abrade solid rock 6. deposit sediment when they lose kinetic energy by slowing down (or evaporating); heaviest particles are deposited first, then the smaller grains, as the energy wanes

Climate

1. desert soil . soil in which physical weathering is dominant. . soil that is shallow. . soil that is course in texture and extremely rocky. 2. tropical soil . soil in which chemical weathering is dominant. . soils that are deep and acidic. . soils containing little organic matter. . soils that bake like bricks in the tropical sun.

Parent Material

1. granitic soil . soil formed extremely slowly and whose minerals are formed at lower temperatures. 2. basaltic soil . soil whose minerals are formed at higher temperatures and that forms extremely quickly (plants may develop in as short of a time as ten years).

Classification of Soils

1. pedalfers . soils rich in aluminum and iron oxide . soils that are extensively leached. 2. pedocal soils . soils located in dry climates. . soils in which no leaching occurs.

Types of Flow (7)

1. snow and ice avalanche 2.debris avalanche 3. Mudflow 4. debris flow 5. earthflow 6.. grain flow 7. creep

Soild and the environment

1. supports the plants that provide us with food and fiber 2.cleaning and storing water 3. recycling waste 4. providing habitat for diverse forms of life 5. transferring matter among Earth systems

milli

1/1000

Effervescence

10% hydrochloric acid (HCl) is dropped on a mineral sample to see whether CO2 is evolved. If CO2 gas appears the sample contains CO3-, or bicarbonate anion HCO3-

Dolomite

10. Many small cleavage face, reaction if powdered

% Pore Space?

100 - % Solid Space OR 100 - (Db/Dp * 100)

kilo

1000

Apatite

11. Green/Brown/Blue - Only primary source of phosphate.

Chlorite

12. Greenish color, soapy feeling sometimes.

Gypsum

13. Softness, no acid reaction. Weak, planer cleavage.

Hematite

2. Reddish Streak

What is the ideal soil composed of?

25% water, 25% air, 5% organic matter, and 45% mineral

PAW

33 theta to 1500 theta

Quartz

4. No acid reaction, Hardness is 7.

Muscovite

5. Perfect 1 way clevage, elastic sheets

Biotite

6. Perfect 1 way clevage, black.

Feldspar

7. Two directional cleavage @ two right angles.

Hornblende

8. Splintery Cleavage

Calcite

9. *Strong* acid reaction

orthoclase

90% cleavage

Clay?

<0.002 mm in diameter

Discharge (cfs)

= average stream width (ft) *Average Depth (ft) *Average Velocity (ft/sec)

A "100-year flood" has a _______ percent chance of occurring in any given year. A. 1 B. 100 C. 10 D. 0.1 E. 0.01

A

A(n) ___ drainage pattern of a river resembles a tree. A. dendritic B. trellis C. bush D. arbor E. leaf

A

A(n) ___ stream flows in a network of rivulets (subchannels) around numerous sandbars. A. braided B. meandering C. incised D. channelized E. rilled

A

A(n) ____ stream is one that exhibits a delicate balance between its transporting capacity and the sediment load available to it. A. graded B. ephemeral C. consequent D. incised E. beheaded

A

Certain features on the planet Mars resemble _____ on Earth. A. river channels B. hydrologic cycle C. alluvial fans D. deltas E. placer deposits

A

Discharge is the product of average stream width times average stream depth times ___. A. stream velocity B. stream sinuosity C. stream elevation D. stream gradient E. stream temperature

A

_____ meanders are meanders that retain their sinuous pattern as they cut vertically downward below the level at which they originally formed. A. Incised B. Excised C. Excavated D. Concentrated E. Superposed

A

_______ deposits are found in streams where running water has mechanically concentrated heavy sediment such as gold. A. Placer B. Lag C. Granular D. Pebble E. Agglomerated

A

Delta

A body of sediment deposited at the mouth of a river when the river's velocity decreases

Topography

A description of surface features of land.

subduction

A geological process in which one edge of a crustal plate is forced sideways and downward into the mantle below another plate a form of convergence

Alluvial Fan

A large, fan or cone shaped pule of sediment that usually forms where a stream's velocity decreases as it emerges from a narrow mountain canyon onto a flat plain.

Contour Line

A line on a topographic map that connects points of equal elevation

Floodplain

A low plain adjacent to a river that is formed chiefly of river sediment and is subject to flooding

shield volcano

A low, flat, gently sloping volcano built from many flows of fluid, low-viscosity basaltic lava

Humus

A nutrient rich soil material filled with organic matter.

salinization

A process in which mineral salts accumulate in the soil, killing plants; occurs when soils in dry climates are irrigated profusely

Depressional Wetland

A relatively low lying area that collects water because of gravity

lithosphere

A rigid layer made up of the uppermost part of the mantle and the crust.

Rocks

A rock is a naturally occurring mixture of one or more minerals, or organic matter

rock cycle

A series of processes on the surface and inside Earth that slowly changes rocks from one kind to another.

Saltation

A series of short leaps or bounces off the bottom

Arete

A sharp, jagged, knife-edged ridge between two cirques or glaciated valleys.

terracing

A soil conservation technique that prevents erosion on STEEP hills by heavy rains.

mineral

A solid inorganic substance of natural occurrence.

rock

A solid mixture of crystals of one or more minerals or other materials.

tributary

A stream or river that flows into a larger river

What is the effect of a surfactant on capillary rise?

A surfactant reduces surface tension, and thus, reduces capillary rise (based on the Jurin equation)

composite volcano

A tall, cone-shaped mountain in which layers of lava alternate with layers of ash and other volcanic materials

metamorphic rock

A type of rock that forms from an existing rock that is changed by heat, pressure, or chemical reactions.

igneous rock

A type of rock that forms from the cooling of molten rock at or below the surface

sedimentary rock

A type of rock that forms when particles from other rocks or the remains of plants and animals are pressed and cemented together

Flood

A very heavy flow of water, which is greater than the normal flow of water and goes over the stream's normal channel.

How does water move up a capillary tube?

ADHESION, water's attraction to foreign surfaces and COHESION, water's attraction to itself.

Oxisols

AKA laterites warm, wet tropical forests deeply weathered-leached of much of their original mineral content Al- and Fe-oxide rich soil without many plant nutrients—light to reddish colors

Plants and Animals

Add organic matter to the soil (primarily plants) and decompose to form nutrients and acids that ease weathering. Burrowing animals add holes for water and air.

soil profile

All the vertical layers or horizons that make up a soil in a particular place

A lave flow would be an example of what?

An extrusive igneous rock

What is a hydrometer?

An instrument used for measuring the density of liquids

What mineral is an important source of phosphorous

Apatite!

Rhyolite

Aphanitic porpheritic felsic igenous rock

Aridisol profile

Aridisols form in arid climates and lack abundant organic matter. Soluble minerals such as calcite commonly accumulate in the B horizon (the variably thick, lighter colored material between 2 and 4 zone on the measuring scale). Calcite and other minerals remain in the soil or are deposited in it Adhesion promotes the upward movement of water—capillary action Soluble minerals deposited in the upper levels Organic matter is not abundant Have biological soil crust composed of cyanobacteria, mosses, lichen

Deltas may be river dominated, tide dominated or _____. A. tsunami dominated B. wave dominated C. glacier dominated D. wind dominated E. plate tectonic dominated

B

Rivers may develop pronounced sinuous (wiggly) curves called a ___ pattern. A. braided B. meandering C. incised D. channelized E. rilled

B

The delta of the ______ River is a wave-dominated delta that resembles the Greek letter delta and is the origin of the name. A. Mississippi B. Nile C. Amazon D. Colorado E. Ganges

B

The limit to downcutting of a stream is called the ___ level. A. head B. base C. flow D. stream E. foot

B

The process of deepening of a valley by erosion of a streambed is called __. A. lateral erosion B. down cutting C. faulting D. aggradation E. subsidence

B

__ beds form the main body of a delta with angles of inclination up to 20 to 35 degrees in small sandy deltas. A. Turbidite B. Foreset C. Backset D. Bottomset E. Topset

B

___ influences the velocity of a river along with gradient. A. Direction of flow B. Channel shape and roughness C. Temperature of the water D. Chemistry of the water E. Latitude of the river

B

____ are low ridges of flood deposited sediment that form on either side of a stream channel and thin away from the channel. A. Point bars B. Natural levees C. Incised meanders D. Deltas E. Oxbow lakes

B

________ are low ridges of flood-deposited sediment that form on both sides of a stream channel and thin away from the channel. A. Point bars B. Natural levees C. Oxbows D. Cut banks E. Deltas

B

Silt?

Between 0.05 and 0.002 mm in diameter

Sand?

Between 2.0 and .0.05 mm in diameter

How to calculate how many times larger one thing is compared to another

Big number divided by small number

Calcarenite

Biochemical composition gravel grain size Very angular to sub angular poorly/moderately sorted

Stream

Body of running water that is confined in a channel and moves downhill under the influence of gravity (Geologists use this term for any body of running water, from a small trickle to a huge river)

Where would you most likely expect to find hematite?

Brazil

Weathering

Breaking apart or chemical decomposition of minerals and rocks at or near the earths surface

Bulk Density?

Bulk Density = (mass of oven dry soil)/(total volume of sample)

pore space, texture, OM, and Depth

Bulk density is affected by what 4 things

% Solid Space?

Bulk density/particle density

A graded stream can be deepening its channel by down cutting while part of its energy is also widening its valley by ______ erosion. A. downward B. longitudinal C. lateral D. distal E. proximal

C

A river's velocity is faster ____. A. along the inside of a meander loop near the point bar B. along the center line of the stream channel, exactly halfway between point bar and cut bank C. along the outside of a meander loop near the cut bank D. at the water's surface, in contact with the atmosphere E. along the channel bed at the very deepest part of the channel

C

A stream's discharge is __. A. the volume of dissolved mineral matter carried by the stream in a unit of time B. the volume of solid sediment carried by the stream in a unit of time C. the volume of water passing through a specific point along the stream in a unit of time. D. the volume of excess water during flood stage E. the average amount of water in the entire stream system

C

On large alluvial fans, the _____ sediment is deposited near the mountains. A. finest B. clay C. coarsest D. quartz E. best sorted

C

The ______ is the total area drained by a river and its tributaries. A. flow area B. divide C. drainage basin D. domain E. hood

C

The movement and interchange of water between the sea, air and land can be visualized by the ____. A. longitudinal profile of a stream B. channelization procedures C. hydrologic cycle D. hydrosphere interactions such as precipitation E. solar radiation

C

___ is/are sudden localized floods of large volume and short duration, often triggered by heavy rainstorms. A. Sheetwash B. Dry flooding C. Flash floods D. Channel erosion E. Stream piracy

C

____ refers to sand grain movement in a series of short leaps or bounces off the bottom. A. Jumping B. Floating C. Saltation D. Hopping E. Vaulting

C

Factors of Soil Formation

C limate O rganic activity P arent material T ime

soil is a function of CORPT

C- climate O- organic matter R- relief P- parent material T- time

dissolution

CO2 + H2O + calcite, dissolved and goes into solution

carbonic acid

CO2 dissolved in water

Slope

Can vary greatly. Soil in steeper areas is poorly developed with little plant life, while soil in flatter areas is thicker and darker with more plant life. This is due to the ability of nutrient rich soil to stay in place on flat areas, but not on steeper slopes. Slope orientation also determines available sunlight.

soil quality

Capacity to sustain plant growth and animal productivity, maintain or enhance water and air quality, and support human health and habitation

Debris or Soil Falls

Cause: wave/stream erosion or human activate undercutting steep cliffs allowing loose material to drop in air

rock cycle 6

Cementation

Paternoster Lakes

Chain of small lakes in a glacial trough. -Occupy basins created by glacial erosion.

Stream Arosion

Characterized by 3 Factors 1. Hydraulic Action 2. Solution 3. Abrasion

Dolostone

Chemical composition Microcrystalline grain size Well-rounded to sub round Well arranged

weathering

Chemical or physical process that breaks down rocks into smaller pieces

Oolitic Limestone

Chemical/Biochemical sedimentary rock. Constituent is calcite, meaning it will be soft and react to aid. Sand-sized grains of calcite called odious; white to gray; broken odious show concentric layering; cemented together with more calcite.

Coquina

Chemical/Biochemical sedimentary rock. Constituent is calcite, meaning it will be soft and react to aid. Shells packed together and only loosely cemented; very porous.

Fossiliferous Limestone

Chemical/Biochemical sedimentary rock. Constituent is calcite, meaning it will be soft and react to aid. shells (fossils) packed together and cemented with more calcite or "floating" in opaque calcite "mud"

Micrite

Chemical/Biochemical sedimentary rock. Constituent is calcite, meaning it will be soft and react to aid. very fine-grained; resembles that of claystone; may have conchoidal fracture and sharp edges; sometimes looks like plastic.

Chert

Chemical/Biochemical sedimentary rock. Constituent is cryptocrystalline quartz, meaning it will be hard. extremely fine crystalline quartz; conchoidal fracture, very sharp edges; dull gray varieties used as flint (may be any color).

The purity of the color or strength of hue is represented by the?

Chroma

Which of the following is not found on the Gley hue pages?

Chroma

Alpine Glacial Landforms

Cirque Horn Tarns Hanging Valley Arete Paternoster Lakes Lateral Moraines Medial Moraines Ground Moreaine

Factors influencing soil formation

Cl O R P T

What are the three different particle sizes?

Clay, silt, and sand

rock cycle 5

Compaction

Climate

Considered the most influential factor in soil formation. Hotter, wetter climates produces more soil than colder, dryer climates (in a similar time span). Precipitation influences leaching of nutrients. Climate overall determines plant and animal life present.

Pedocal

Contained calcium carbonate and is found in drier chaparral and grasslands. Can contain caliche, a calcite rich layer that is form as calcium carbonate is leached into the soil during rainfalls.

Pedalfer

Contains accumulated aluminum and iron in the b horizon that was carried from the e horizon. Is brown to red-brown in color and is often found in forests

A Horizon

Contains minerals, humus and is biologically active.

O Horizon

Contains organic material, plant/leaf litter, humus and an abundant amount of microorganisms. Is also called the leaf litter layer.

rock cycle 1

Cooling

rock cycle 2

Crystallization

A ____ drainage pattern is one in which streams diverge outward likes spokes on a wheel. A. jointed B. tilted C. compass D. radial E. conical

D

A cutoff meander may become a crescent-shaped __. A. kettle lake B. moraine lake C. levee lake D. oxbow lake E. Yazoo lake

D

A stream can increase its length by _____. A. building a delta B. meandering C. headward erosion D. All of the answers are correct.

D

A(n) __ is the body of sediment deposited at the mouth of a river when the river's velocity decreases. A. apron B. alluvial fan C. bar D. delta E. wart

D

A(n) ___ is a step-like landform found above a stream and its floodplain. It is a remnant of an older flood plain or river-eroded flat surface. A. levee B. incised meander C. cut bank D. stream terrace E. upland plateau

D

Flood control structures along the Mississippi River surrounding New Orleans are predominantly _____. A. upstream dams B. riprap lining C. bypasses D. artificial levees E. All of the answers are correct.

D

Floods are described by ____, the average time between floods of a given size. A. discharge B. forecasting C. calendar year D. recurrence interval E. lunar month

D

Movement of cobbles and boulders by rolling, sliding, or dragging in a streambed is called ____ load. A. dissolution B. solution C. suspension D. traction E. saltation

D

Streams erode rock and sediment by ___. A. hydraulic action B. solution C. abrasion D. All answers are correct. E. None of the answers are correct.

D

The ______ load is sediment light enough to remain lifted indefinitely above the bottom by water turbulence. A. dissolution B. solution C. saltation D. suspension E. segregation

D

The gravel bed load of a stream moves by _____. A. dissolution B. solution C. suspension D. sliding and rolling E. flotation

D

Density?

D=(m/v)

compost

Decayed organic matter used for fertilizing and conditioning land.

Laterite

Deep soils that experience leaching of calcite and silica. Contains concentrated iron oxide and aluminum oxide, hence its reddish color. It is acidic and brick-like, with very little humus or plant nutrients. It does not support plant growth very well and is found in rain forests where biological activity is high.

How to calculate the volume of water a floodplain or stream channel can hold

Depth x Width x Length

Conglomerate

Detrital Composition Gravel grain size Well-rounded to sub round grain roundness Poorly arranged

Lithic Sandstone

Detrital composition ? grain size well rounded to sub round well arranged

What are soil horizons?

Distinctive layers in soil profile

Leaching

Downward transfer of plant nutrients by water.

Eluviation

Downward transfer of soil minerals by water.

Soil color can be used to indicate what?

Drainage Class

Soil color is a reliable indicator of what?

Drainage Class

A _____ is a ridge of sediment built by sedimentation on the middle or banks of a stream channel. A. levee B. flood plain C. meander loop D. channel E. bar

E

A ridge or strip of ground separating one drainage basin from another is termed a ____. A. delta B. neck C. crest D. plateau E. divide

E

A stream can lengthen itself by ____. A. headward erosion B. deposition of a delta C. meander-loop cut-off D. stream discharge E. Headward erosion and deposition of a delta are both correct, but meander-loop cut-off and stream discharge are incorrect.

E

In North America, the ___ separates streams that flow into the Pacific Ocean from those that flow into the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico. A. Appalachian Mountain Range B. Mississippi River C. Continental Transect D. Sierra Nevada Mountain Range E. Continental Divide

E

crust

Earth's outermost layer

mantle

Earth's thickest layer made of hot rock and is less dense than the core, less hot, and has less pressure on it. It also has plasticity

Rocks that form when molten magma is extruded on the Earth's surface are described as?

Extrusive

debris avalanche

FASTEST MOVING mixture of air, water, mud and rock

oxidation

Fe (iron) oxides = rust

In an anaerobic environment, the most common electron acceptor used by bacteria is

Fe^3+

What are the 8 basic rock forming minerals? (KNOW ALL OF THESE)

Feldspar, Quartz, Muscovite, Olivine, Pyroxene, Amphibole, Biotite, Calcite

Hematite

Ferric oxide (red)

see 30-34 on the study guide

Fertilizer calculations

infiltration

Flow of water from the land surface into the subsurface.

Which of the following is not a classification associated with sedimentary rock?

Foliated

Slate

Foliated metamorphic rock (rock cleavage reflects parallel orientation of minerals; banding, not cleavage.); very fine crystalline; may exhibit slight sheen; more compact than shale. appearance of clay, but very finely micaceous.

Extrusive (Volcanic)

Form at surface and Fine Grained

Intrusive (Plutonic)

Form underground and Coarse Grained

green manure

Freshly cut or still-growing green vegetation that is plowed into the soil to increase the organic matter and humus available to support crop growth.

Obsidian

Glassy igneous rock

From which of the following minerals would you probably get a dark gray colored soil?

Glauconite

Precip, ETa, ETp

Graph of annual water budget graphs ....(3)

Ferrous oxide

Gray

What color is soil in a bog or wetland

Grey

What color would be most common in anaerobic environments?

Grey

Apatite

Hardness: 5 Fracture, vitreous Nutrients: Ca, P, Cl

Quartz

Hardness: 7 Fracture, vitreous

Name three minerals that would supply iron to plants

Hematite, limonite, hornblende

Felsic Magma

High in Silica

mantle plumes

Hot spots directly above columns of rising magma

The color of the spectrum is the?

Hue

In prarie soils, as iron pigments become more visible, ______________ typically decreases.

Humus color

Limonite

Hydrated ferric oxide (yellow)

Continental Glaciation

Ice Sheets Very large, thick mass of glacial ice flowing outward in all directions from one or more accumulation centers, often called continental ice sheets because they are so large.

Granite, basalt, tuff, and pumice would all be considered to be what?

Igneous

Rocks described as Mesic or Felsic would be?

Igneous

What type of rock is Basalt?

Igneous

What type of rock is Granite?

Igneous

Inherited v acquired characteristics of soil

Inherited: initial color, texture, fertility Acquired: occurs with age; + organic matter= change color

What are the 5 properties of minerals? (KNOW ALL OF THESE)

Inorganic, Solid, Naturally Occurring, Ordered Atomic Structures, Have definite chemical composition

Igneous, slowly cooled

Intrusive, coarse crystalline material- e.g. granite, diorite, gabbro, pediorite

desalination of soil

Irrigating with less salty water Using minimum amounts of irrigation water Reducing water evaporation rates

pesticides

Kill insects that eat plants Microbes that spread plant disease

know it bitch

LEGAL LAND DESCRIPTION

Regional Metamorphism

Large areas of rock are under intense heat/pressure, which occurs during mountain building

An intrusive rock would have what?

Large crystals of minerals, coarse texture, underground

tectonic plates

Large movable plates under the Earth's surface.

E horizon

Light layer with little organic matter. Percolation of water occurs here and leaches/eluviates nutrients/minerals down to the B horizon.

Base Level

Limit of downcutting

rock cycle 4

Lithification

wedging

Magma can find its way through existing fractures Ice expands and fractures rock

Anaerobic bacteria use organic matter (food source) to facilitate the reduction of _________ and iron in wet soils.

Manganese

Capacity

Maximum load a stream can transport per unit time

Competence

Maximum size particle that a stream can transport

rock cycle 9

Melting

Gneiss, schist, marble, and quartzite would all be considered to be what type of rock?

Metamorphic

What type of rock is Marble?

Metamorphic

What type of rock is Slate?

Metamorphic

What type of rocks are Schist/Gneiss/Quartzite?

Metamorphic

**Which of our 16 minerals has perfect cleavage?

Mica: muscovite & biotite

decrease

More rain causes pH to

Soil

Most is a mixture of mineral particles of varying size and organic matter, the remained is air/water that fills the voids incorporated in all four earth systems

Traction

Movement by rolling, sliding, or dragging causing abrasion along the bottom of a streambed

soil erosion

Movement of soil components, especially topsoil, from one place to another, usually by wind, flowing water, or both. This natural process can be greatly accelerated by human activities that remove vegetation from soil.

What was the largest landslide

Mt St helens combination of mass wasting, landslide, debris avalanche

Ex. hardness 3

Muscovite Biotite Calcite Dolomite

Quartzite

Non-Foliated metamorphic rock; looks like sandstone, but grains are fused togethers so it breaks across the grains rather than around them. hard. fine to coarsely crystalline; made of quartz with presence of others like micas or garnets.

Anthracite coal

Non-Foliated metamorphic rock; shiny black; featureless and glossy.

Marble

Non-Foliated metamorphic rock; sugary sparkle imparted by the cleavage of the grains; finely to coarsely crystalline; made of calcite or dolomite so softer than glass and reacts with acid.

Nutrient depletion in soils

Nutrients taken up by return to soil when plants die and decay

Horizons of Soil

O Horizon A Horizon E Horizon B Horizon C Horizon

Ex. hardness 4

Olivine+ Serpentine+ Hematite

Contour Interval

On a topographic map, tells the distance in elevation between adjacent contour lines

Coal would be what type of rock?

Organic

field capacity - PWP

PAW=

Coastal Plain Sediment

Parent materila that underlies most of MS

C Horizon

Partially altered parent material. Bears a strong resemblance to parent material.

Particle Density (porosity)?

Particle Density = (mass of oven dry soil)/(volume of solids) Note: this is all over the volume of SOLIDS, not including pore space. We can assume this is 2.65 g/cm3 unless stated otherwise

What factors affect bulk density? What factors would make a soil have a high or low bulk density?

Particle size, compaction, saturated with water, etc.

sheet erosion

Peeling off thin layers of soil from the land surface; accomplished primarily by wind and water

Heft

Perceptible mass differences for equal volumes due to density differences (eg more Fe=more heft)

transform faults

Places where two lithospheric plates slide by each other, often establishing volcanoes and frequented by earthquakes.

Coal is formed from what materials

Plant

crop rotation

Planting different crops at different times to avoid nutrient depletion

contour farming

Plowing and planting across the changing slope of land, rather than in straight lines, to help retain water and reduce soil erosion.

rock cycle 7

Pressure

Which mineral is commonly found in sulfidic soil?

Pyrite

Reoccurrence Interval

R= N + 1 ________________ M

How to calculate Recurrence Interval of a Flood

RI= (N+1)/M N= Number of years on record M= The rank of a particular discharge

Changes in rock due to heat from nearby magma is what type of metamorphism?

Regional

A rock that is very solid and cannot be dug easily with heavy equipment would be called?

Regolith

Stream Channelization

Remove a streams natural meanders thereby straightening the channel... reconfiguration of an existing stream typically for flood control purposes... water moves through channelized section faster

gully reclamation

Restoring land suffering from gully erosion by seeding gullies with quick-growing plants, building small dams to collect silt and gradually fill in the channels, and building channels to divert water away from the gully.

Which of the following is not a type of coal. Bituminous, Lignite, Anthracite, Rhyolite

Rhyolite

Divide

Ridge or strip of high ground dividing one drainage basin from another

Rock that has weathered and become rotten rock that is easily broken apart with the hands is called what?

Saprolite

Fossils would most likely be found in which type of rock?

Sedimentary

From which rock type do most soils form?

Sedimentary

Shale, sandstone, and conglomerates would all be considered to be what?

Sedimentary

What type of rock is Limestone?

Sedimentary

What type of rock is Sandstone?

Sedimentary

What type of rock is Shale?

Sedimentary

hornblende

soft incandescence, grey streak

horizons

soil formin processes typically stratify solid into layers called horizons

Spodosols

soil group, develop in cool wet frosted environment, has lot of humus, lot of leaching

O Horizon

soil located at the very top of the surface of the Earth consisting wholly of organic matter such as growing plants, decaying leaves, etcetera.

well drained

soils formed in an upland position are well drained or nahh?

Aridisols

soils of the desert.

Oxisols (Laterites)

soils rich in iron and aluminum formed in temperate, wet tropical locations.

Alfisols

soils that are finely-textured, containing moderate to high fertility, and accumulators of clay.

Mollisols (Soft Soils)

soils that are the most effective form of soil soils that are transported soils containing a thick A Horizon and a thick O Horizon

fertilizers

source both of pathogens and of toxic elements in soil Natural organic fertilizers (fresh manure)—potential source of pathogens Methods to treat it (remove pathogens) before applied to fields Contamination with pathogens from nearby animal production facilities Manufactured fertilizers—also a source of toxic elements in soils Use waste materials from industrial processes (Fe and Zn) Also have high concentrations of other toxic elements (As, Cd, Cr)

Granite (i)

speckled, cooling of magma below surface of earth

Examples of the 12 major orders recognized by soil scientists

spodosols (forest soils), aridisols (desert soils), mollisols (prairie soils), and oxisols (tropical soils).

cut banks

steep banks on the outside of a meander

what influences speed of mass wasting

steeper slopes = faster

relationship b/w gradient, sinuosity, and shape of cross-sectional profile of a stream's valley

steeper the gradient the less sinuosity of the stream, the cross section will have a wide channel with a smaller dream flowing through it

Angle of repose

steepest angle measure from horizontal at which mass wasting will not occur

Aspect

steepness of slopes and their orientation to the sun that influences soil development

stream terraces

steplike landforms found above a stream and its flood plain.

Graded Stream

stream that exhibits a delicate balance between its transporting capacity and the sediment load available to it.

Graded

stream that has smoothed out its longitudinal profile

What is stream valley shape a result of?

stream's power (erosive force controlled by the gradient and discharge of the stream) and the resistance of the underlying bedrock

Radial Pattern

streams diverge outward like spokes of a wheel (forms on a high conical mountain)

radial patterns

streams flow either outward (centrifugal) from a high point (i.e. volcano) or inward (centripetal) toward center of large basin

Middle (mature) stage

streams in transition from down-cutting to lateral erosion; streams are medium-gradient; some braided rivers with multiple channels are in this stage, while others may meander within a small floodplain not much wider than the width of the meander belt.

chroma

strength of hue, the purity, intensity, saturation or relative strength of color. indicates the degree of departure from a gray of the same value. scale is form 0-8 on mussell chart

plagioclase

striations

Late (old age) stage

strongly meandering, low-gradient streams eroding near base level, occupying broad, flat floodplains much wider than the meander belt.

metamorphic, quartzite

super hard

talc

super soft 1

metamorphic, marble

super soft!!!

transporting system

takes water towards the rivers mouth

Strategies to Mitigate Soil Erosion

terracing contour plowing strip-cropping wind breaks

Farming Practices That Protect Soil Resources

terracing tilling when storms aren't likely machinery that aerate, plant weed fields w/o churning the soil contour farming strip farming planting barriers rotating crops reducing tillage and adding organic wastes helps maintain or increase the organic content of soils

Physical properties of soil

texture structure density shear strength compressibility weight

Hydraulic Action

the ability of flowing water to pick up and move rock and sediment

divergence

the act of two lithospheric plates moving away in different direction from a common point

value

the degree of light/dark of a color in relation to a neutral gray scale, the amount of light reflected form the chip, 10 represents pure white and 0 indicated pure black, runs north south on the Munsell page

runoff

the discharge of a river divided by its drainage area and is given in units of length per unit time (often m, mm in per year or month); useful in comparing the amount of water flowing through rivers to the incoming precipitation

flood crest

the highest level above flood stage that a river achieves during a flood

Bed Load

the large or heavy sediment particles that travel on the streambed

runoff

the main way in which water gets into rivers

Luster

the physical property that describes the play of light reflected from a mineral. The first breakdown is metallic v non-metallic. Non-metallic includes pearly, vitreous, greasy, and earthy

Erosion

the physical removal of material from one place to another.

soil textures

the relative proportions of clay, silt, and sand in a soil, texture strongly influences the soils ability to retain and transmit water and air

rill erosion

the removing of thin layers of soil as little rivulets of running water gather and cut small channels in the soil

Normal Stage

the river is within it's channel

Leaching

the term coined to describe the loss of water-soluble plant nutrients from soil, due to rain and irrigation.

geologists compare stream valley profiles by calculating

the valley width to depth ration; width of river / change in valley depth (high pt - low pt); a unit less number

Why are streams effective agents of erosion?

they form networks that cover much of Earth's surface

Drainage Basin

total area drained by a stream and its tributaries

A Horizon

upper layer of soil water seeping into the ground dissolves material and either carries it away or deposits it in lower layers

Munsell Color Book

used to document color in a standard notation

phytomining

using specific plant varieties for mining applications

red colors

usually associated with unhydrated iron oxides and indicate a well drained soil

Dark color in the A horizon

usually indicated the presence of organic matter

recharge total

utilization total =

Wind Erosion

vegetation cover stops this

Pumice

vescular igenous rock, floats in water, felsic composition

Scoria

vescular igneous rock, "lava rock", no visible minerals with a mafic composition

Scoriaceous

volcanic rock containing holes caused by trapped gas bubbles, most often mafic (basalt and andesite)

radial

volcanoes causes this pattern of main channel

discharge

volume of water flowing past a certain point along a river in a given time, given units of volume per time (m3/s or ft3/s)

leaching

water dissolves minerals, carries nutrients away

dispersing system

water is dumped into a larger body of water

turbulent flow

water particles move in rapid variation of pressure and flow velocity in space and time

laminar flow

water particles move parallel to each other

Chemical Weathering

weathering involving the breakdown of minerals by chemical reaction with water, with other chemicals dissolved in water, or with gases in the air.

50% pore spaces, 25% air, 25% water

well structured soil will have how much pore space, air, and water (%)

CHOPKINS C, H, O, P, K, N, S, Ca,Fe, Mg, B, Mn, Cu, Zn, Mo, Cl

what are the 16 essential nutrients for plant growth

ground lime, oxide forms, hydroxide forms

what are the primary froms of lime applied in ag

fixation-ammonification-nitrfication-immobilization-denitrification

what are the steps to the nitrogen cycle

elemental sulfur

what decreases soil pH

lime, hydrated lime, sodium carbonate

what increases soil PH

calcite- CaCO3 dolomite- CaMg(CO3)2

what is the chemical equation of lime?

as pH increases, acidity (H) decreases and vice versa

what is the relationship between soil pH and acidity

utilization, recharge, surplus, deficit

when constructing water budget graph look at _____first, second so on (4)

How do we know when angle of repose has been attained ?

when force driving materials down slope = its friction

What can trigger mass wasting ?

changing slope , water content , earthquake

ephermeral streams

channels that dry out during dry months

Mohs' hardness scale

characterizes the scratch resistance of various minerals through the ability of a harder material to scratch a softer material expressed in terms of a scale 1-10

Chert

chemical composition microcrystalline grain size well rounded to sub round well sorted

Chemical Weathering

chemical reaction between groundwater, rain or snow melt and the materials in a rock to break the rock down

Arkose Sandstone

clastic/detrital sedimentary rock. abundant grains of feldspar and other silicate minerals (like micas); commonly with some silt and clay. sand sized particles.

Breccia

clastic/detrital sedimentary rock. angular fragments with little or no signs of abrasion. gravel sized particles

Siltstone

clastic/detrital sedimentary rock. feels "gritty"; grains barely detectable, but not necessarily visible. silt sized particles.

Shale

clastic/detrital sedimentary rock. fissile or laminated. smooth to very slightly gritty; individual grains not detectable; made of clay so may have "slippery" feel. Clay sized and fine particles.

Claystone

clastic/detrital sedimentary rock. massive. smooth to very slightly gritty; individual grains not detectable; made of clay so may have "slippery" feel. Clay sized and fine particles.

Quartz Sandstone

clastic/detrital sedimentary rock. relitively pure content of quartz grains; some samples very porous; may be cemented with calcite (giving a positive acid test), iron oxide, or quartz.

What are types of soils affected by?

climate, bedrock, surface topography, duration of weathering

muscovite

comes off in sheets

Floods

when more water enters the channel than the channel can hold

Tallus slopes

when new debris is added to the slope, thereby locally increasing the angle, the slope adjusts by movement of the debris to reestablish the angle.

Mass wasting ( and speed)

when sediment, soil, or loose rock move down slope due to force of gravity -can move slowly or be avalanche

Flood Stage

when water leaves the channel

Biodiversity depletion in soils

constant churn and till soil Growing only one type of crop (monoculture farming) Applying pesticides—decrease a soil's biodiversity

C horizon

contains remnants of underlying parent material consists of unchanged mineral grains and rock fragments from underlying bedrock

Salination

contamination by salt—occurs naturally in arid regions (from irrigation) In areas of low rainfall, water in soil contains dissolved mineral salts The water is drawn by capillary action to the surface Evaporation leaves mineral salts in the soil and on the soil's surface This process degrades soils, making them toxic to vegetation Irrigation can also lead to salination, especially in dry regions

terrace farming

converting steeper slopes into a series of flat terraces

as soil texture increases (surface area ^) CEC increases

correlation of soil texture and its effects on cation exchange capacity

Rock fall

crack or fracture in steep cliff fail suddenly

strip farming

cultivating crops in parallel strips that can be harvested and tilled at different times—ensures that some areas will always be covered with vegetation

strip cropping

cultivation of crops in strips following the contours of the land to minimize erosion

headwaters

where a stream begins

The wider the channel the ____ the valley

wider

Dust Bowl

widespread awareness of the destructive consequences of poor farming practices on lands susceptible to erosion.

Creep

widespread slow movement of soil on sloping surfaces - expansion and contraction of material on slope

Prevent Erosion

wind breaks contour plowing - plow parallel to the contour terracing - flatland, less slope- break in smaller areas stubble mulching - leave the plant in the ground plant cover crops

Is Creep dangerous?

yes, although it is slow it can still cause substantial property damage.

i think this is the one about the soils and why one acts like this and why the other acts like that... dumb

you will have to know the robinsonville commerce question

Hardness of a penny?

~ 4

Hardness of a glass plate?

~ 5-6

Hardness of a nail?

~ 5-6

Hardness of a fingernail?

~3

sheet flow

—thin nonchannelized overland flow and small streamlets, responsible for most water erosion on cropland

ox bow lake

cut off meander

Apatite

dark green/yellowish, fertilizer, many striations: P

Basalt (i)

dark with red tints, some small crystals

Common stream drainage patterns

dendritic, trellis, radial and rectangular

Potholes

depressions that are eroded into the hard rock of a streambed by the abrasive action f the sediment load

Shale

detrital composition clay grain size well rounded to sub round well arranged

soil in arid climates

develop soils with little organic matte Precipitated carbonate minerals (not dissolved and removed)

Aridisols

develop in arid regions, under dry conditions, little leaching

spodosols

develop in cool, moist coniferous forest regions (Pacific Northwest, Great Lakes region, Northeast states) *acidic--> need to add neutralizing material (lime) for growing *subsurface accumulation of humus *often have subsurface accumulation of humus that is combined with aluminum and hydroxides and iron oxides

Mollisols

develop in grasslands, widespread in the central and western states, moderate leaching

Mollisols

develop in the grasslands thick A horizon from the accumulation of organic material excellent for agricultural processes

dendritic patterns

develop where surface materials are equally resistant to erosion; this may mean horizontal sedimentary or volcanic rocks, loose unconsolidated sediment, or igneous and metamorphic areas where most rocks erode at the same rate (homogenous materials that erode in a similar way)

How to calculate gradient

difference of elevation/distance of the stream commonly in ft/mi

Quartz

different colors: no nutrients

Since Geothite and Lepidocrocite have the same chemical formula, why are they different minerals?

different structures

baseflow

discharge in a stream that results from groundwater contribution that flows downhill towards stream; represents minimum discharge in a channel during a given time of year; repressed by hydrographs (

Which of the following minerals is most likely to produce white colors in a soil?

dolomite

Matrix

dominant (background) color of soil horizon

hue

dominant spectral color (red, yellow, blue, green)

Shale (s)

dull sound, black sheet

stages of evolution of a stream or river

early, middle, late

dolomite

effervesce weakly, must scrape

calcite

effervese EASILY looks similar to quartz

base level

elevation at the mouth - controls erosion along the stream; lowest point a stream can erode to

base level

elevation at which a river cannot flow farther or erode deeper into the ground

Igneous, very rapidly cooled

extrusive, glassy pyroclastic materials- e.g. pumice, obsidian

Mudflow

fast moving fluid mixture of water and fine sediment ex) lahar

landslide

fast moving mass wasting on sliding surface

Factors Influencing Weathering

featuring and joining in rocks rock type - sandstone, shale, limestone climate - rain + heat slope - steep thin soils, shallow thick soils vegetation cover - thin soils (less cover) thicker soils (thicker cover) time - weathering takes a long slow process

Yeh....

fill this out. answers in lab

N2

fixation is the conversion of ___ to NH4

azotobacter, rhizobium

fixation of N2 by ___ makes N available to plants

Gneiss

foliated metamorphic rock (minerals segregated in layers. banded granite); coarsely crystalline like granite; lighter colored silicates, especially quartz and feldspar; general mineralogy of granites and diorites.

Schist

foliated metamorphic rock (rock cleavage reflects parallel orientation of minerals; banding, not cleavage.); coarsely crystalline; micas preponderate; crinkled appearance. preponderance of micas (chlorite, muscovite, biotite); other silicates also (quartz, amphibole, staurolite, garnets)

Phyllite

foliated metamorphic rock (rock cleavage reflects parallel orientation of minerals; banding, not cleavage.); finely crystalline definite sheen due to visible mica crystal on foliation. micas, chlorite, other silicates possible (not readily visible though)

factors influencing rivers

gradient (slope) discharge depth of water shape + pressure

Talus

gradual accumulation of fallen rock fragments that pile at base of steep slope or cliff

pressure release

granites are formed 10-15km in depth

high

grasslands usually have a ____ pH

Sandstone (s)

gritty, tan/red/white/grey, quartz

Jurin Equation?

h = (2*T*cosa)/(rdg) height of rise = (2*Surface Tension*cos(angle between liquid and solid surfaces)/(radius*water density*acceleration due to gravity)

biotite

hard sheets

quartz

hard to break down in soils

base level

he level below which a stream cannot erode its channel. A stream's base level may be a lake, or a larger stream into which it flows. Ultimate base level is sea level.

Bulk Dens = Mod / Vod AFS= 43,560 x depth x Db x 62.4

how do you calculate bulk densitiy and acre furrow slice

36

how many sections are in a township?

36

how many square mi in a township

What type of gas is produced in sulfidic soils?

hydrogen sulfide (H_2S)

Soil in warm, wet climates

hydrolysis dissolution of minerals increased leaching of nutrients

decreases

in forests with depth pH ___

Silts, clays

in general, ____ has the greatest avaialable water capacity, but ___ holds the greatest amount of water

how does churning help crops

increasing porosity, mixing nutrients, increasing oxygen levels. But higher oxygen content Accelerates chemical reactions that release nutrients Causes organic matter to decompose more rapidly Decreases humus levels

Bluish grayish, and greenish subsoils (Gleying)

indicate longer periods each year of waterlogged conditions and inadequate aeration

trellis

indicates alternating resistant and non-resistant bedrock, usually where sedimentary rocks are tilted (usually by folding)

dendritic

indicates uniformly resistant bedrock, such as the presence of horizontal sedimentary rocks or unjointed igneous or metamorphic rocks

watershed

is an area where the surface runoff from precipitation onto the land flows together toward lower areas such as lakes and oceans

natural levees

is an elongated naturally occurring ridge or artificially constructed fill or wall, which regulates water levels

Infiltration

is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil

gradient

is the slope of the stream channel. It is the stream's vertical drop divided by a given horizontal distance. You can also think of gradient as rise over run. Gradient is calculated by dividing the difference in elevation between two contour lines. A stream gradient of 100 ft/mile is considered a very high gradient. An example of a stream with a very low gradient is the Mississippi River at New Orleans, which has a gradient of < 0.5 ft/mile. Streams usually have higher gradient near their headwaters, and lower gradients near their mouths.

herbicides

kill unwanted plants—weeds Pesticides are most commonly manufactured chemicals Many are now designed to degrade after use Some persist as residues in soils for decades Two-edged sword—example: DDT

drainage basin

land area, where the water runsoff into a stream system

Early (youthful) stage

land surface high above sea level; these are high- gradient, down-cutting streams, often in deep "V"-shaped canyon

C Horizon

layer of soil consisting of weathered parent material that is partially broken down.

B Horizon

layer of soil in which accumulation occurs: accumulation of iron, aluminum and clay leached down from the E Horizon contains soluble minerals such as calcite in drier climates.

E Horizon

layer of soil in which leaching occurs: dissolved or suspended materials are carried downward by water.

A Horizon

layer of soil located directly below the O Horizon consisting of organic matter mixed with rock and mineral fragments.

soil profile

layered sequence of horizons produced by soil development mature soils often have three horizons- A, B, C

how does topography affect soil

leads to soil variations where slopes are present steepness of slope aspect- orientation with respect to the sun

igneous, rhyolite

light weight

Stream Channel

long, narrow depression eroded by the stream into rock or sediment.

augite

looks similar to hornblende but NO STREAK

gypsum

looks similar to quartz but soft (2)

Soil

materials capable of supporting plant growth lying above overlying bedrock produced by weathering.

Full Bank Stage

maximum stage of the river when it's in it's channel

gradient of a stream

may vary from a few inches to hundreds of feet of vertical drop per mile; typically steeper at head than mouth

B horizon

much of material from A accumulates here clay mineral common iron-oxide minerals

broad, flat bottomed valleys

much wider than the channel and within which the stream meanders widely between the valley walls; when water is entered, it spills out of the channel onto the broad valley floor in flood, sediment carried by the flood water is deposited on the flood plain and other depositional and erosional features can be recognized easily on topographic maps/photos

As stream gradient increases, do valleys become more narrow and steep-walled or wider and more shallow?

narrow and steep-walled - a higher stream gradient means there's a steeper slope, thus the wear is move more rapidly with the ability to erode the value and to make it deeper

rectangular

occurs where streams form angular junctions because two joint (fracture) sets are at right angles to one another.

Sheet Wash

occurs with enough splash erosion =, that a thin sheet layer is removed

Oxbow Lake

old meanders that that is abandoned due to meander cutoff and is separated from the new, shorter channel.

humus

organic matter that accumulates in shallow parts of soil; giving it a dark color

factors that give soil color

organic matter, weather mineral material composing the soil, quantity and condition of iron present

Types of Soils

oxisols (laterites) aridisols alfisols mollisols

Limestone/Dolomite (s)

pale yellow, react w/HCl, marine environment

Striations

parallel lines visible on the surface of cleavage planes derived from internal structure of the mineral.

*driving force (D)

parallel to slope, gravitational force that causes mass movement

dendritic

pattern of main channels shaped like tree branches

Limonite

pearly white streak, found in every region: Fe

*Normal Force

perpendicular -gravity that hold materials down -proportional to friction

Mechanical Weathering

physical breakdown of the rock, breaks down to smaller pieces

Slate (m)

ping sound, chalkboards, shale is parent material, finer layers?

Quartzite (m)

pink, sparkly, tan-red colored, looks like sandstone

hydrographs

plots of river discharge over a period of time; timing and magnitude of discharge depends largely on local climate; discharge in a river is often very closely related to its drainage area - larger basins have more area contributing overland and groundwater flow than smaller ones

mouth

point at which a stream ends by flowing into another stream, the ocean, or a topographic low

soil porosity

pores or spaces in the soil. The greater pores or spaces, the greater the water holding ability.

harvesting

prevents recycling of nutrients into the soil Monoculture farming—depletes select nutrients quickly

Humus

product of biological activity in soil organic matter that accumulates in shallow parts of soil

Meanders

pronounced, sinuous curves

Splash Erosion

rainfall on a slope, causes slow movement with mineral particles down slope

soil permeability

rate at which water and air move from upper to lower soil layers

Calcite/Dolomite

reacts with HCl, parallelogram, crystal structure: Ca, Mg

O horizon

recognized where abundant organic material accumulates on the surface.

zoning laws

reduces flood hazards; as well as dams, levees

Stream valley

region within which the stream as eroded the land

Information that can be obtained from soil color includes:

relative organic matter content, mineralogy, depth to seasonal high water table, geologic history, genesis of diagnostic features in the soil

Porphyritic

relatively large crystals embedded in a relatively finer background

Transpiration

release of water vapor to the atmosphere from plants

gully erosion

removal of layers of soil, creating channels or ravines too large to be removed by normal tillage operations

Streak

residual powder of a mineral when it is rubbed across an unglazed porcelain plate. The streak is usually white, when colored it should be noted.

humus

rich, dark organic material formed by decay of vegetable matter, essential to soil's fertility

natural levees

ridges of sediment that outline the channel, form when a stream overflows its banks and deposits its coarsest sediment next to the stream channel; natural defense

Difference between a rock and a mineral

rocks are formed from minerals

Mafic

rocks containing darker, silica-poor minerals. (Ferric; Mg, Fe, Ca); (hornblende, biotite, augite, olivine, basalt, gabbo)

Felsic

rocks containing light colored, silica-rich minerals. (Silicas, Al, K); (granite, rhyolite, obsidian, pumice)

olivine

rough feeling

shelterbelts

rows of trees planted as a windbreak to reduce soil erosion of agricultural land

point bars

sand deposits on the inside of a meander

waterlogging

saturation of soil with irrigation water or excessive precipitation so that the water table rises close to the surface

Suspended Load

sediment that is light enough to remain lifted indefinitely above the bottom by water turbulence.

bed load

sediments that travels along the bottom (bed) of a river

continental divide

separates dreams that flow into the Atlantic ocean from those that flow to the Pacific

Hornblend

shiny, yellow rectangular striations: Mg, Fe

Muscovite

shiny/sheet: K

hydraulics

silicate minerals - feldspar -clays

Gypsum

similar to Calcite, forms from salt precipitation: Ca

Debris flow

slower than mudflow and contain less water and more large rock material

apatite

small green blue crystals looks similar to serpentine

Distributaries

small sifting channels that carry water away from the main river channel and distribute it over the surface of the delta

Pyrite

3. Fools Gold

centi

1/100

U-Shaped Valley

-Characterized by steep sides that curve in at the ace of the valley wall. They also have broad, flat valley floors. -Formed by glacial erosion and massive mountain glaciers moved slowly down mountain slopes during last glaciation. -Found in areas of high elevation/latitudes, where the most glaciation has occurred.

Drift

-Deposits of rocky gravel, sand, silt, and clay which are deposited either as outwash or as till. -All sediment of glacial origin. Types include till and stratified drift.

Stratified Drift

-Drift transported by the melt water which becomes sorted by grain size and deposited as layers of sediment. -Sediments laid down by glacial melt water, which is typically well sorted and stratified.

Hanging Valley

-Glacial trough of a tributary glacier, elevated above main trough. -Tributary valleys that enter glacial troughs at a considerable height above the floor of the trough. These frequently have waterfalls associated with them after the glacial departs.

Ice Ages

-Glaciers appear several times during geologic history. -Most recent ice age ended ~10,000 years ago. -An ice sheet covered most of Northern USA -Geologically, a very recent event. Two Continental Ice Sheets Currently: *Greenland *Antarctica

V-Shaped Valley

-Sometimes called a river valley. -Narrow valley with steeply sloped sides that form by strong streams, which over time have cut down into rock through downcutting. -Form in mountainous and/or highland areas with stream in their "youthful" stage, where they flow rapidly down steep slopes.

Water Table

-The boundary between the unsaturated and saturated zones. -The upper surface of the saturated zone. -Fluctuates both with the seasons and from year to year because it is affected by amount of precipitation and the amount of pumping.

Land Subsidence

-Gradual settling or sudden sinking of earth's surface. -Occurs when large amounts of groundwater are withdrawn from certain types of rock.

Glaciers

-Largest source of freshwater on the planet. -Perennial (yearly) mass of ice. -Internal flow and deformation. -Compaction of snow to a denser form. Thick mass of ice originating on land that forms from the accumulation, compaction, and recrystallization of snow.

Characteristics of igneous rock

-Lava/Magma -primary minerals -contain crystals -coarse-textures -cleavage planes

Permeability

-Measure of the ability of a material to allow a fluid to pass through it. -Pores are interconnected. -How connected are those pore spaces? This determines the ability of sediments or rocks to actually transmit fluids. We need enough connections and large enough connections to enable flow.

Porosity

-Measure of the spaces between mineral grains that can hold a fluid. -Percentage of total volume of rock or sediment that consists of pore spaces. Depends on the size and shape of grains, the packing of grains, how well sorted grains are (poorly sorted sediment will pack more tightly together, which diminishes this concept), cementation (cement also takes up space that then can't be filled with groundwater), and connectivity.

Downcutting

The process of deepening a valley by erosion of the streambed

What is a textural class?

The proportions of soil particles within specific size fractions, or separates

drainage divide

The ridge of high land between drainage basins

load

The sediment being transported in the stream

soil structure

The shape and arrangement of aggregates give soils a characteristic structure, e.g. blocky, platy or prismatic

Gradient/Slope (and relation to floodplain width)

The steepness of a river... the steeper the gradient the narrower the flood plain

B horizon?

The subsurface zone is made from materials washing down from the upper horizons

A horizon?

The surface horizon darkened by organic matter, the darkest of the five horizons. Highest amount of biological activity

plate tectonics

The theory that explains how large pieces of the lithosphere, called plates, move and change shape.

E horizon?

The zone of MAXIMUM *E*LUVATION of fine clays and organic substances. Because these materials are washed out of this horizon into the subsequent one, it is very light in comparison to the other horizons

(moist soil +can - dry soil +can)/(dry soil +can - can)

Theta g = (gavimetric water content)

Theta g * Db

Theta v (volumetric water content)

Artesian Aquifer

This type of aquifer is kept under pressure by two confining beds. Once drilled, pressure keeps the well free flowing, without any pumping.

convergence

Two lithospheric plates coming together

Mountain (alpine) and continental

Two types of glaciation

Are herbicides and pesticides good or bad?

Two-edged sword—example: DDT Effective at preventing disease by killing insects (Nobel Prize study) Negative ecological impact Fish accumulate DDT in their bodies—pass it up food chain Concentration in individual organisms increases (biomagnification) 24 years passed after Nobel Prize, DDT is banned for general use in the U.S.

Phyllite

Type: foliated Traits: breaks along wrinkle or wavy foliation Parent Rock: mudstone, shale, slate

Slate

Type: foliated Traits: dull luster,slaty cleavage Parent Rock: mudstone or shale

schist

Type: foliated Traits: fine to medium grained (smooth to touch); can often see crystals with the naked eye. mica minerals (biotite, chlorite, muscovite), quartz and plagioclase Parent Rock: mudstone, shale, slate, phylite