GEOL 241 Midterm 1 Review
How does an electrical generator work? What are the main components, and how do they turn mechanical energy into electricity? What determines the voltage of electricity produced by a generator?
An electrical generator is basically a spinning coil of wire within a magnetic field. It uses a property of electromagnetism where a changing magnetic field through a loop of wire produces a voltage along the loop. The main components of a generator are magnets, a coil of wires wrapped around the armature, and a shaft with brushes against the commutator. As the generator turns, coils spinning through the magnetic field generate a voltage along the loop, then the brushes carry the current to an external circuit. The voltage of the electricity produced by the generator is determined by the number of loops in the coil.
Scientific Notation
kilo (k) = 10^3 (thousands) Mega (M) = 10^6 (millions) Giga (G) = 10^9 (billions) Terra (T) = 10^12 (trillions) Peta = 10^15 (quadrillions) Exa = 10^18 (quintillions
What are some of the different categories of energy consumption, and how much energy is used in each of these categories for a typical person in a "western, developed" economy such as the US or UK? Be able to discuss your individual "energy footprint" both in terms of general categories (e.g., transportation, electricity, heating, etc.) and more specifically (e.g., relatively how much energy use typically goes for stuff, gadgets, pets). How much (roughly) of your total energy consumption is related to products you use? Gadgets? Car transportation? Airline flights? Food? Etc.?
(Check your own labs too, just in case) For a typical western developed economy the categories are: Car - 40 kWh/day Jet Flights - 30 kWh/day Heating and cooling - 37 kWh/day Lights - 4 kWh/day Gadgets - 5 kWh/day Food, farming, fertilizer - 15 kWh/day Stuff - 48+ kWh/day Transporting stuff - 12 kWh/day Defense - 4 kWh/day
What is the difference between the radiation received by Earth from the Sun, compared to the radiation returned to space by Earth? Why does this mean that gases in the atmosphere increase temperature? What would Earth's climate be like without greenhouse gases?
- The radiation received by Earth from the Sun is primarily in the form of shortwave radiation, including visible light and UV radiation. - When the Earth's surface absorbs this solar radiation, it heats up and emits energy back into the atmosphere in the form of longwave infrared radiation (heat). - Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb some of this infrared radiation, preventing it from escaping directly back into space. - Instead, the absorbed energy is re-radiated in all directions, including back toward the Earth's surface, causing additional warming. This process enhances the greenhouse effect, leading to higher temperatures at the Earth's surface. Without greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, Earth's climate would be much colder than it is today. The greenhouse effect helps to regulate the Earth's temperature by trapping heat and maintaining a relatively stable climate suitable for life. Without greenhouse gases, much of the infrared radiation emitted by the Earth's surface would escape directly into space, leading to significantly lower surface temperatures and potentially making the planet uninhabitable for most forms of life.
How does the distribution (between countries) differ for shale oil vs conventional oil? Know these numbers in relative terms (which are the largest, smallest, etc.)
- While there aren't conventional and unconventional classifications for coal, different grades of coal exist, ranging from lignite (lowest quality) to anthracite (highest quality). Regarding distribution between countries, conventional oil reserves are concentrated in regions like the Middle East, Russia, and parts of South America, while unconventional oil reserves such as shale oil are more evenly distributed globally, with significant reserves found in the United States, Canada, and China. Shale oil extraction has enabled countries like the United States to decrease their dependence on imported oil. In terms of production, the United States has become a major player in both conventional and unconventional oil due to its vast shale oil resources, while countries like Saudi Arabia and Russia remain significant producers of conventional oil. For natural gas, conventional reserves are found in regions like Russia, Iran, and Qatar, while unconventional reserves such as shale gas are more geographically dispersed, with significant resources found in the United States, Canada, China, and Argentina. Coal reserves are spread across many countries, with significant deposits found in regions such as the United States, China, India, Australia, and Russia.
What countries emit the most CO2 today? What countries/regions have been responsible for most historical emissions? What are the recent trends (last 5-10 years) in CO2 emissions, and why?
1. **Global Trends**: Overall, global CO2 emissions have continued to rise, albeit at a slower rate in recent years compared to previous decades. This slowdown can be attributed to factors such as increased adoption of renewable energy sources, improvements in energy efficiency, and shifts away from coal towards natural gas and renewable energy. 2. **China**: China's CO2 emissions have been steadily increasing for many years but have shown signs of stabilizing or even declining in recent years. This trend is partly due to efforts to transition to cleaner energy sources, improve energy efficiency, and address air pollution concerns. 3. **United States**: CO2 emissions in the United States have been declining in recent years, driven by factors such as increased use of natural gas, renewable energy, and energy efficiency measures. However, policy changes and shifts in energy priorities under different administrations can influence emission trends. 4. **European Union**: CO2 emissions in the European Union have been decreasing in recent years, largely due to efforts to decarbonize the economy, increase renewable energy adoption, and improve energy efficiency through policies such as the European Green Deal. Overall, recent trends in CO2 emissions reflect a mix of factors, including changes in energy consumption patterns, technological advancements, policy interventions, and global economic conditions. Efforts to mitigate climate change and transition to a low-carbon economy will be critical in addressing the challenge of reducing CO2 emissions in the coming years.
why is fossil fuel use linked to climate change?
1. Carbon Dioxide Emissions: The burning of fossil fuels releases large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. CO2 is a major greenhouse gas, and its increasing concentration in the atmosphere is the primary driver of global warming. 2. Methane Emissions: Fossil fuel extraction and processing also release methane, another potent greenhouse gas. Methane has a much stronger heat-trapping capability than CO2 over shorter time frames, though it dissipates more quickly. Nonetheless, its contribution to climate change is significant. 3. Deforestation and Land Use Changes: Fossil fuel extraction often involves land use changes such as deforestation, which further exacerbate climate change. Forests act as carbon sinks, absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere. When they're cleared, this stored carbon is released back into the atmosphere. 4. Feedback Loops: Climate change caused by fossil fuel emissions can trigger feedback loops that further accelerate warming. For example, melting ice caps reduce the Earth's albedo, or reflectivity, which means more sunlight is absorbed rather than reflected back into space, leading to further warming. 5. Ocean Acidification: The excess CO2 from fossil fuel combustion doesn't just stay in the atmosphere; a significant portion is absorbed by the oceans, leading to ocean acidification. This process has detrimental effects on marine life and ecosystems. 6. Extreme Weather Events: Climate change, driven in large part by fossil fuel use, leads to more frequent and intense extreme weather events such as hurricanes, heatwaves, droughts, and floods, impacting human societies and ecosystems.
Be able to describe and discuss advantages and disadvantages of coal, oil, and gas (specifically when compared to each other). Which of these fossil fuels produce the most CO2 per unit of energy generated, and which the least? Which are used the most for producing electricity today, and how has this changed in the past ca. 10 years?
1. Coal - "Cheap" - though naturally gas is increasingly cost-competitive, Abundant - "Dirtiest" - high CO2 emissions, many other contaminants like mercury and sulfur dioxide Dangerous and environmentally destructive mining 2. Oil - Requires little processing Cleaner to burn (lowest CO2 than other pollutants - 50% of CO2 of coal) Efficient to burn (10% energy loss in combustion) Less pollution from unburned molecules in atmosphere than coal - Difficult to transport (needs pipelines) Difficult to use for transportation Drilling can pollute Can be dangerous to extract Leaked CH4 is greenhouse gas (unburned CH4 is potent) 3. Gas - Easily transported (liquid) "Clean" because of refining (at least compared to coal) - CO2 emissions Nitrogen Oxide from internal combustion engines Oil spills damage environment Problem for energy security
Why is pH important for marine and other aquatic organisms? What effects does ocean acidification have on marine organisms?
1. Decreased Calcification: As ocean pH decreases, the availability of carbonate ions decreases, making it more difficult for calcifying organisms to build and maintain their calcium carbonate structures. This can lead to slower growth rates, weaker shells, and increased vulnerability to predation and other stressors. - Many marine organisms, including corals, shellfish, and some types of algae, rely on calcium carbonate (CaCO3) to build their shells or skeletons. Changes in pH can hinder their ability to calcify, as carbonate ions (CO3²⁻) become less available in more acidic conditions. This can weaken shells and skeletons, making these organisms more vulnerable to predation and environmental stress. 2. Altered Physiology: Ocean acidification can affect various physiological processes in marine organisms, including respiration, metabolism, and ion regulation. These effects can impact overall health, reproductive success, and population dynamics. 3. Ecological Disruptions: Changes in the abundance and distribution of calcifying organisms can disrupt marine ecosystems and alter the balance of species interactions. For example, declines in coral reefs can affect the biodiversity and productivity of associated reef ecosystems. 4. Impacts on Fisheries: Ocean acidification can have implications for commercial fisheries and aquaculture industries by affecting the abundance and distribution of fish and shellfish populations. This can have economic consequences for coastal communities dependent on these resources.
What atmospheric conditions lead to particularly severe photo chemical smog in LA ( understand what is meant by an inversion layer, and why it forms).
1. Inversion Layer: - An inversion layer refers to a layer of warm air aloft that traps cooler air near the surface. Normally, air temperature decreases with altitude, but during an inversion, the temperature increases with altitude in the upper layer, creating a "lid" that prevents the mixing of air between the upper and lower layers. - In LA, inversions are common due to the city's geography, which is surrounded by mountains on three sides and bordered by the ocean to the west. This topographical feature can trap pollutants close to the surface, especially when air is stagnant and there is little wind to disperse pollutants. - The formation of an inversion layer is often exacerbated by temperature inversions, which occur when the ground cools rapidly at night, causing a layer of cool air to form near the surface. As the sun rises and heats the ground, this layer of cool air can become trapped beneath a layer of warmer air aloft, leading to the formation of an inversion. 2. Stagnant Air: - Stagnant air, often associated with high-pressure systems, exacerbates the effects of inversions by limiting vertical mixing of the atmosphere. Without vertical mixing, pollutants emitted at the surface become trapped beneath the inversion layer, leading to the accumulation of pollutants and the formation of smog. 3. Sunlight: - Photochemical smog formation depends on sunlight to initiate chemical reactions between nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere. The inversion layer traps pollutants close to the surface, preventing their dispersion, while stagnant air and sunlight facilitate the chemical reactions necessary for the formation of photochemical smog. These episodes can lead to poor air quality, reduced visibility, and adverse health effects for residents of the region.
What is the difference between mitigation and adaptation? Be able to list several different approaches to each (at least 2-3 of each).
1. Mitigation: Mitigation involves efforts to reduce or prevent the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere, thereby addressing the root causes of climate change. The goal of mitigation is to limit the extent of future climate change by reducing human-induced emissions of GHGs. Some approaches to mitigation include: - Transitioning to Renewable Energy: Promoting the use of renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydroelectric, and geothermal power to replace fossil fuels for electricity generation, heating, and transportation. - Improving Energy Efficiency: Implementing energy efficiency measures in buildings, industries, transportation, and appliances to reduce energy consumption and lower GHG emissions. - Implementing Carbon Pricing: Establishing mechanisms such as carbon taxes or cap-and-trade systems to put a price on carbon emissions, incentivizing businesses and individuals to reduce their carbon footprint. 2. Adaptation: Adaptation involves adjusting human and natural systems to the actual or expected impacts of climate change: - Coastal Protection Measures: Building seawalls, levees, and other coastal infrastructure to protect against sea-level rise, storm surges, and coastal erosion. - Water Management Strategies: Implementing measures such as rainwater harvesting, water conservation, and improved irrigation techniques to cope with changes in precipitation patterns, droughts, and water scarcity. - Ecosystem-based Adaptation: Preserving and restoring natural ecosystems such as wetlands, forests, and coral reefs, which provide valuable services such as flood protection, water purification, and habitat for biodiversity, thereby enhancing resilience to climate change.
Be able to identify and understand some (at least 4) local/regional environmental effects associated with fossil fuel extraction and use.
1. Water Contamination: - Fossil fuel extraction processes, such as fracking and coal mining, can contaminate groundwater and surface water sources through spills, leaks, and improper disposal of wastewater. Chemicals used in fracking fluids and pollutants released from coal mining activities can pose risks to human health and aquatic ecosystems. 2. Air Pollution: - The combustion of fossil fuels for energy production releases pollutants such as sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) into the atmosphere. Contributes to acid rain 3. Habitat Destruction: - Fossil fuel extraction activities, including surface mining, drilling, and infrastructure development, can lead to habitat destruction and fragmentation. Deforestation, soil erosion, and disruption of wildlife habitats occur as a result, threatening biodiversity and ecosystem stability in affected areas. 4. Climate Change: - Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, contributing to global climate change.
Identify/list several (at least 4) schemes that have been suggested for geoengineering. Be able to classify these between those that deal with solar radiation, and those that deal with reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
1. space mirrors 2. stratospheric aerosol injection 3. reforestation 4. CCS technology those that deal with solar radiation: - space mirrors -aerosol injection -increased albedo -cloud seeding those that deal with reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere: -reforestation -CCS -Ocean iron fertilization
What is meant by alternating current, and why do generators produce AC electricity? What is the difference between AC and DC electricity? Know what the numbers on the back of your electrical chargers mean. You will not have to do complicated calculations with these, but you should be familiar with them.
AC current moves back and forth with the changing magnetic field. This is the type of electricity from wall sockets in my home. Generators produce AC electricity because as the coil of wire spins through the changing magnetic field produces a voltage going one way, but when the coil is 180 degrees from its initially starting position voltage goes the opposite direction, hence it alternates back and forth. The difference between AC and DC current is that AC is like sine wave, and vibrates back and forth, where DC current travels only in one direction. DC is the type of electricity batteries provide. The graph of DC current looks like a straight line parallel to the x-axis.
How much of the total energy use in the U.S. today is for transportation? For electricity? What are the other principal uses of energy?
About 30% of the total energy use in the US is used for transportation. About 40% of the total energy in the US is used for electricity production. Other principal uses of energy include Residential, Commercial, and Industrial purposes.
Acid rain: What is acid rain? What determines where there is likely to be acid rain?
Acid rain is a type of precipitation, such as rain, snow, or fog, that is acidic due to the presence of pollutants like sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the atmosphere. These pollutants are primarily emitted from human activities such as burning fossil fuels, industrial processes, and transportation. Several factors determine where acid rain is likely to occur: 1. Emissions Sources: Areas with high concentrations of industrial activity, power plants, and vehicle traffic are more likely to experience acid rain due to the release of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. 2. Atmospheric Conditions: Acid rain formation depends on atmospheric conditions such as temperature, humidity, and wind patterns. Pollutants emitted into the atmosphere can travel long distances before being deposited as acid rain, affecting areas far from their original sources. In the past, acid rain was a particularly severe problem in the northeastern United States and Canada due to several reasons: 1. Proximity to Pollution Sources: The northeastern US and eastern Canada were located downwind of major industrial and urban areas in the Midwest and eastern regions, where coal-fired power plants and other industrial facilities emitted large amounts of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. 2. Geography: The geography of the northeastern US, with its abundant water bodies and complex terrain, facilitated the formation and deposition of acid rain. Lakes and rivers in the region were particularly vulnerable to acidification, leading to environmental damage and ecosystem disruption.
What is anoxia and why is it important for the formation of fossil fuels like coal and oil?
Anoxia is defined by a complete lack of oxygen supply, and is important to the creation of fossil fuels because it preserves the dead material from being broken down and encourages the formation of peat or oil
What are some of the main criteria for a viable fuel for transportation?
Availability, cost, efficiency, ignition point, and burning rate
What is meant by "embodied energy"? How significant is embodied energy, relative to other energy we use on a daily basis in a country like the US?
Embodied energy is the energy consumed by all the processes associated with making a product [mining, processing, manufacturing, assembly, construction, transportation etc.]. Embodied energy makes up almost everything we physically own, from packaging to products to other things we purchase - and judging from the "Stuff" and "Transporting stuff" categories, they make up a major proportion of personal energy consumption.
Describe what carbon capture and storage (CCS) means.
Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a technology designed to reduce the emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) from large-scale industrial processes, particularly power generation and industrial facilities, by capturing the CO2 produced during combustion or industrial processes and storing it underground or utilizing it in other applications to prevent it from entering the atmosphere and contributing to climate change. The process typically involves three main steps: 1. **Capture**: CO2 is captured from industrial processes or directly from the air using various technologies such as chemical absorption, adsorption, or membrane separation. The captured CO2 is then purified to remove impurities before storage or utilization. 2. **Transport**: The captured CO2 is then transported via pipelines or other means to suitable storage sites. Transportation may require compression to reduce volume and increase efficiency. 3. **Storage**: The captured CO2 is injected deep underground into geological formations such as depleted oil and gas reservoirs, saline aquifers, or unmineable coal seams. Once injected, the CO2 is stored securely, typically thousands of feet below the surface, where it is permanently trapped and unable to escape into the atmosphere.
Understand relationships between energy consumption and economic output of different countries. Similarly, understand the relationship between energy consumption and economic output of the U.S. over time. Be able to discuss the problem of correlation vs. causation in the context of these plots.
Correlation isn't causation, but the better the economic situation is in a certain area, the higher the energy usage consumption and output is
Know what energy density means, and why is it important for transportation. How do different energy sources vary in terms of energy density?
Energy density = the amount of energy stored in a given system, substance, or region of space per unit volume. "these batteries have greater energy density, so they last longer and weigh less" = energy/mass or energy/volume Critical consideration for how we use energy Energy for transportation depends on both energy density by mass and energy density by volume Hydrogen has the highest energy density, followed by Petroleum fuels (Gas, Diesel, Kerosene), Coal, and Batteries
What are individual actions that have the most significant effects on energy consumption? If someone wants to reduce energy consumption, what are the most effective ways to do this? How do these differ in likely acceptability (from your personal perspective...)?
Driving, flying, heating and cooling, and just overall stuff has the most significant effects on energy consumption. The most significant ways to reduce energy consumption would be to use public transportation as opposed to driving. Attempt to take less flights and consider using applications like zoom for business meetings and other similar activities. Lower the thermostat during the winter and raise the thermostat in the summer so your AC/heating unit runs less often. In terms of stuff, maybe cut back on the amount of things you purchase, maybe just stick to purchasing the things you really need. Maybe drive to a store and buy multiple items at once as opposed to one big time. I think most of these are very acceptable from my personal perspective except for using public transportation more frequently. I live in LA, the public transportation here is not very efficient and takes longer to travel anywhere by many factors when compared to driving. Changing your diet is also another way to effectively cut down on your emissions. Animal products like meat and eggs are responsible for high emissions, and choosing to take one less serving can significantly reduce your carbon footprint.
Understand how global geography has changed in the geologic past (you don't have to be able to draw specific past geographies, but understand the general concepts) and why these changes are important for identifying where oil, gas, and coal resources might be found.
Earth began as a massive singular source of land known as Pangea, which slowly overtime due to multiple different factors created the split continents and other land masses we have today Some spaces that were originally at the equator were full of life, and therefore are now a rich source of fossil fuels that we can extract from the ground. One example of this is Illinois, which is obviously in the United States now but hosts a massive amount of coal-rich deposits Case Study in Coal Formation: The Illinois Coal Basin Carboniferous: about 300 million years ago, following evolution of plants Near-equatorial Illinois was characterized by Carboniferous swamp forests (giant insects because of high O2 in the atmosphere) Tree trunks preserved during intermittent floods would bury the forest, alternating with coal-rich layers
Be able to list at least 2 advantages and 2 disadvantages of both electric and hydrogen fuel cell cars. How widespread is the adoption of hybrid, electric, and fuel cell vehicles today in the US?
Electric pros: Emissions can be reduced if the electricity is generated using renewable energy Electricity is cheaper than gas Electric cons: Little/no positive change in emissions if the electricity used to fuel the car is generated using coal Not suited for long distances Hydrogen pros: Almost no emissions Incredibly efficient [Refills much faster than Electric] Hydrogen cons: Very little infrastructure for hydrogen technology Expensive to manufacture
Describe two examples of life cycle analysis for products that use energy.
Example 1: Electric Car Its general use is environmentally friendly because it cuts down on fossil fuels, but the materials used to create the car (such as cobalt or plastics), add a lot more energy consumption with embodied energy Example 2: LED Light Bulb LEDs are expensive and cost a lot of materials to create, giving it a lot of embodied energy, but they easily beat out Incandescent and Fluorescent bulbs due their efficiency and their longevity
What emissions trajectories will be required to meet a 2 degree warming target? What about a 1.5 degree target? Understand these targets in the context of the Paris Agreement.
For a 2°C warming target: - Emissions trajectories would require substantial and sustained reductions in greenhouse gas emissions over the coming decades. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), global net human-caused emissions of CO2 would need to decline by about 45% from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching net zero around 2050. For a 1.5°C warming target: - Achieving a 1.5°C target would require even more ambitious emissions reductions compared to a 2°C target. According to the IPCC, global net human-caused emissions of CO2 would need to decline by approximately 50% from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching net zero around 2050. Both trajectories emphasize the importance of achieving net-zero emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases by mid-century to stabilize global temperatures and minimize the risk of exceeding dangerous climate thresholds. The Paris Agreement provides a framework for countries to set their own emissions reduction targets (Nationally Determined Contributions or NDCs) and to regularly review and strengthen their commitments over time. Additionally, the agreement includes provisions for enhancing global climate finance, technology transfer, capacity-building, and transparency to support developing countries in their efforts to mitigate and adapt to climate change. Overall, meeting the temperature targets outlined in the Paris Agreement requires urgent and ambitious action by governments, businesses, and society as a whole to transition to a low-carbon and climate-resilient future.
Understand what is meant by fracking, what it involves, what its history is, and why it has seen such a major increase in use over the past ~10 years.
Fracking, short for hydraulic fracturing, is a technique used to extract natural gas and oil from underground rock formations, particularly shale rock. Here's an overview of what it involves, its history, and the reasons for its increased use: 1. Process: - Fracking involves injecting a mixture of water, sand, and chemicals into a wellbore at high pressure to create fractures in the rock formation. - The pressure from the injected fluid opens up existing fractures and creates new ones, allowing the trapped natural gas or oil to flow more freely to the surface for extraction. 2. History: - The basic concept of hydraulic fracturing has been around for decades, with early experiments dating back to the mid-20th century. - The modern technique of fracking evolved in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, combining hydraulic fracturing with horizontal drilling to access previously inaccessible shale gas and tight oil reserves. - Fracking gained prominence in the United States in the early 2000s, particularly in regions like the Barnett Shale in Texas and the Marcellus Shale in Pennsylvania. 3. Increased Use: - Fracking has seen a major increase in use over the past decade due to several factors: - Technological advancements: Innovations in horizontal drilling and fracking techniques have made it possible to access previously inaccessible shale gas and tight oil reserves more economically. - Energy security: Fracking has allowed countries like the United States to increase domestic production of natural gas and oil, reducing dependence on imported energy sources and enhancing energy security. Bad- water contamination/usage, air pollution, habitat disruption, climate change (methane leaks)
Why was acid rain a particularly severe problem in the northeastern US in the past, but less so today? Where in the world are risks of future acid rain most severe today?
However, acid rain is less severe in the northeastern US today due to several factors: 1. Regulatory Measures: Environmental regulations such as the Clean Air Act in the United States and similar legislation in Canada implemented emissions controls and pollution reduction measures on industries, power plants, and vehicles. These regulations have led to significant reductions in sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions, resulting in decreased acidity of rainwater. 2. Technological Improvements: Advances in pollution control technologies, such as scrubbers and catalytic converters, have been adopted by industries and vehicles to reduce emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, further contributing to the decline in acid rain levels. While acid rain has become less severe in regions like the northeastern US and Europe, risks of future acid rain remain significant in parts of Asia, particularly in rapidly industrializing countries such as China and India. These regions have high levels of air pollution from coal combustion and industrial activities, leading to concerns about acid rain impacts on water bodies, ecosystems, and human health. Efforts to address air pollution and reduce emissions in these regions are crucial for mitigating the risks of future acid rain.
What is a hydrocarbon? What is the difference between a hydrocarbon and a carbohydrate? What is the simplest hydrocarbon molecule? What are some other hydrocarbon molecules, and what distinguishes between them - both in terms of their composition, and their uses?
Hydrocarbon: organic compound containing Hydrogen (H) and Carbon (C) - store chemical energy in C-H bonds - different hydrocarbons make up oil vs gas vs coal Simplest Hydrocarbon: Methane (CH4) Energy can be released when bonds are broken (e.g., by combustion) By adding more carbons, we can create different hydrocarbons Natural Gas: light hydrocarbons (i.e., methane C1 through pentane C5) Gasoline: hexane C6 through C12 Lubricants: C16and up
What is hydrogen fuel? What are two different ways of producing H2 fuel? How can we use H2 fuel? Is CO2 involved in this reaction? To what extent is H2 fuel used today?
Hydrogen fuel is the energy created from merging H2 molecules with Oxygen [producing water as well]. H2 fuel can be produced by steam-methane reforming [the process of heating CH4 +2H2O -> CO2 + 4H2] and electrolysis [putting electrical currents in the water and extracting H2]. H2 fuel is often used for refining petroleum, treating metals, producing fertilizer, and processing foods. When extracting H2 there is some carbon emission as a byproduct when utilizing the steam-methane method, however electrolysis produces none [it's just highly inefficient]. H2 fuel makes up a very small portion of the transportation market due to the fact that other alternatives are much cheaper to produce, but there are cars like the Hyundai Nexo that utilize h2 fuel cells and we may see more being produced as an alternative to electric cars as the process becomes more streamlined.
Where does the energy come from that supplies electric cars today? What does this mean about the environmental impact of electric cars? Why does the state you live in make a difference in terms of how much your CO2 emissions would decrease if you switched from a gasoline to an all-electric vehicle?
In most spaces, we do not have a majority of renewable energy sources, meaning that most of our electricity will come from fossil fuels. This means that even if electric cars are using electricity instead of fossil fuels, the fossil fuels used to create said electricity may make the environmental impact negligible compared to a place that uses a majority of renewable energies. In CA, a state that has a good amount of renewable energy sources, switching to an electric car would be beneficial compared to a gasoline powered car.
What is ocean acidification? And, what chemical reaction causes it?
Ocean acidification is a process whereby the pH of the Earth's oceans decreases over time, primarily due to the absorption of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. When CO2 is absorbed by seawater, it undergoes a series of chemical reactions that ultimately lead to an increase in the concentration of hydrogen ions (H⁺), resulting in a decrease in pH. This decrease in pH makes the ocean more acidic, hence the term "ocean acidification." The primary chemical reaction involved in ocean acidification is the dissolution of CO2 in seawater, which forms carbonic acid (H2CO3). This process can be represented by the following equation: CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 Once carbonic acid is formed, it can further dissociate into bicarbonate ions (HCO3⁻) and hydrogen ions (H⁺): H2CO3 ⇌ H⁺ + HCO3⁻ Additionally, bicarbonate ions can further dissociate into carbonate ions (CO3²⁻) and hydrogen ions (H⁺): HCO3⁻ ⇌ H⁺ + CO3²⁻ The increase in hydrogen ions (H⁺) resulting from these reactions leads to a decrease in pH, making the seawater more acidic.
How do the amounts of oil (conventional and unconventional),gas (conventional and unconventional), and coal compare?
In terms of global reserves and production, here's a general comparison of conventional and unconventional oil, gas, and coal: 1. Oil: - Conventional oil reserves and production historically have been the largest component of global oil supply. These reserves are found in geological formations where oil can be extracted using traditional drilling methods. - Unconventional oil, such as oil sands and tight oil (shale oil), represents a smaller portion of global reserves but has become increasingly significant due to technological advancements enabling their extraction. 2. Gas: - Conventional natural gas reserves and production have traditionally been the dominant source of global natural gas supply. These reserves are found in reservoirs where gas can be extracted using conventional drilling techniques. - Unconventional natural gas, such as shale gas and coalbed methane, comprises a smaller portion of global reserves but has gained prominence with advancements in hydraulic fracturing (fracking) and horizontal drilling techniques. 3. Coal: - Coal reserves are abundant globally and have historically been a significant source of energy, particularly in regions such as China, the United States, and India.
Why is life cycle analysis (LCA) important in evaluating the overall energy demand associated with a given product?
LCA is important because it allows us to analyze/estimate the amount of energy a product consumes. LCA puts energy consumption of a product in the spectrum of how much energy/embodied energy is around us.
What is meant by lifecycle analysis?
Life cycle analysis (LCA) is a method used to evaluate the environmental impact of a product through its life cycle encompassing extraction and processing of the raw materials, manufacturing, distribution, use, recycling, and final disposal.
What is the chemical composition of methane? How is this different from the chemical composition of gasoline? Of crude oil? Of coal? Understand the difference between natural gas and automobile gasoline.
Methane: CH4 Methane combustion reaction (Extracting energy from hydrocarbons, harness energy by burning and releasing this as heat and light i.e., combustion) CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O (+ energy) CH4 + 2O2: more energy in the bonds in these molecules... CO2 + 2H2O: than in the bonds in these...so that energy is released during reaction Natural gas: mostly methane (CH4) "Sour gas": high H2S - very undesirable (removed by "sweetening") "Wet gas": high heavy hydrocarbons (including possible oil) Natural gas is a literal gas. Automobile gas is liquid petroleum (crude oil), which is completely different from natural gas *Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons Molecules range greatly in size and are separated into fractions based on boiling point ("refining") Petroleum is made from 4 chains of hydrocarbons, while Natural Gas is just Methane (one hydrocarbon) *Smallest to largest, complexity of chemical composition. Natural gas, automobile gasoline, unrefined crude oil, coal
What are some of the uses for petroleum, other than gasoline and similar fuels like jet fuel? Be able to list at least two other uses and be able to discuss how and why these might present challenges for making a transition to a "post-oil" society.
Most go into combustibles (gasoline, fuel oil, jet fuel), lubricants, pitch and tar, plastics 40% of our energy comes from petroleum
How many days each year (roughly) exceed the maximum standard for ozone concentrations in LA?
On average, LA experiences around 100 to 150 days per year with ozone concentrations exceeding the maximum standards set by air quality regulations. These exceedances typically occur during the warmer months, particularly in spring and summer when temperatures are higher, sunlight is more intense, and atmospheric conditions favor the formation of photochemical smog. Additionally, stagnant air masses and the presence of temperature inversions can exacerbate ozone pollution episodes by trapping pollutants close to the surface.
How is electricity distributed? Why is electricity transmitted at very high voltages even though it is used at lower voltages in homes? Know the typical voltage of electricity used in homes, and the typical voltage used for long-distance transmission.
Once electricity is generated at a power plant (5000V), it first goes to a transmission substation where the voltage is stepped up by a transformer (500,000V). Then transmission lines along power towers carry electricity to a power substation, where the voltage is stepped down by a transformer (5000V) for local power lines. Then power poles carry the electricity to a transformer drum which further steps down the voltage (240V) before it is connected to our homes, depending on where you live it is further stepped down (120V) when it is connected to our homes. Electricity is stepped up to very high voltages because it is much more efficient to transmit electricity across long distances, the losses of energy are lower. Typical voltage for long distance transmission is 500,000V, and typical voltage in our homes is 120V/240V. For the electrical transformer, "Step up" transformer increases the voltage (more coils on the output side v.s. the input side) "Step down" transformer decreases voltage
Be able to describe how coal is formed. Know the different names for types of coal (peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite), and what these names mean about maturity and relative energy content. What lines of evidence tell us about the origin of coal?
Organic material (peat) is buried into an anoxic (no oxygen) state + time/pressure/heat -> Lignite/brown coal -> Subbituminous -> Bituminous -> Anthracite (Hard Coal) As these progress, the more carbon content they contain and the higher heating intensity they output. Peat: the organic material that begins the process of coal formation Coal is often found in the same layers as fossil forests. This leads paleontologists to believe that the majority of coal was processed in what were originally swamps due to the terrains ability to submerge organic matter (an anoxic state) and transposing it into peat. Breakdown of organic material to CO2 in presence of O2 As rocks are buried, O2 is consumed, and aerobic decay no longer possible (sediments become "anoxic") and organic material is turned into coal
How have atmospheric CO2 concentrations changed over the past~60 years?How do atmospheric CO2 concentrations today compare to those over the recent geologic past (several million years)?
Over the past 60 years, atmospheric CO2 concentrations have increased significantly due to human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and other industrial processes. Prior to the industrial revolution, atmospheric CO2 concentrations had remained relatively stable for thousands of years at around 280 parts per million (ppm). However, with the widespread use of fossil fuels since the late 19th century, atmospheric CO2 levels have risen steadily. Here's a rough overview of how atmospheric CO2 concentrations have changed: - Around the year 1960, atmospheric CO2 concentrations were approximately 315 ppm. - By the year 2020, atmospheric CO2 concentrations had risen to about 415 ppm. - This represents an increase of roughly 100 ppm over the past 60 years. To put this into perspective in terms of geological time scales: - Over the past several million years, atmospheric CO2 concentrations have varied due to natural processes such as volcanic activity, changes in solar radiation, and the Earth's orbital cycles. - However, during this time frame, CO2 concentrations have typically ranged between 180 and 280 ppm during ice ages and interglacial periods. - The current atmospheric CO2 concentration of around 415 ppm is substantially higher than anything observed over the past several million years.
what are the potential risks of climate change? Why can these be considered inequitable?
Sea level rise - causing more coastal flooding - but how much? More extreme weather - longer, more intense droughts; more severe storms and associated flooding - but just how severe? Agriculture - current farmland becomes fallow; new land becomes arable - but to what extent, and how will these changes affect our ability to feed ourselves? Ecosystems and biodiversity - rapid changes in climate zones may lead to greater extinctions, loss of ecosystems that provide services (including water supply, fisheries) Add to these the effects of ocean acidification, on coral reefs, fisheries, etc. - again, we don't know how severe these will be!
What is peak oil
Peak oil is a concept in the field of energy production that refers to the hypothetical point in time when the global production of oil reaches its maximum rate, after which it is expected to enter a terminal decline. This doesn't mean that we suddenly run out of oil, but rather that the rate at which we can extract oil diminishes over time. Extracting oil from these sources becomes more expensive and technically challenging, leading to a decline in overall production. Many experts believe that transitioning away from fossil fuels and toward renewable energy sources is essential to mitigate the potential impacts of peak oil.
How does fracking relate to permeability?
Permeability refers to the ability of a rock to allow fluids, such as oil, gas, or water, to flow through it. In unconventional reservoirs like shale, the permeability is typically very low, meaning that the rock does not naturally allow fluids to flow easily through it. Fracking is used to increase the permeability of these low-permeability reservoirs by creating fractures in the rock formation. During the fracking process, high-pressure fluids are injected into the rock, causing it to crack and fracture. These fractures create pathways for oil and gas to flow more freely through the rock, allowing for improved extraction rates. In essence, fracking enhances the permeability of the reservoir by artificially creating pathways for oil and gas to move from the tight rock matrix into the wellbore and ultimately to the surface for production. Without fracking, the low permeability of unconventional reservoirs would severely limit the flow of hydrocarbons, making extraction economically unfeasible. -slickwater
What are some of the problems with relying on petroleum for transportation fuels (be able to list at least two)? What are possible alternatives to petroleum as energy sources of transportation? What are the pros and cons of each?
Petroleum is a non-renewable resource which means at a certain point the resource will run out The pollution associated with petroleum, C02 emissions etc Electric/Hydrogen Clean Renewable energy, abundant availability Limited Range, Charging/Fueling Network Hydrogen is very expensive while battery technology is getting better/becoming cheaper
What causes photochemical smog?
Photochemical smog, on the other hand, is formed through complex chemical reactions involving sunlight, nitrogen oxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and oxygen in the atmosphere. The primary contributors to photochemical smog are emissions from vehicles, industrial processes, and other sources that release NOx and VOCs into the air. Here's how photochemical smog forms: 1. Emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from sources such as vehicles, industrial facilities, and power plants enter the atmosphere. 2. In the presence of sunlight, NOx and VOCs undergo a series of photochemical reactions, leading to the formation of ground-level ozone (O3), a key component of photochemical smog. Ozone is not directly emitted but is formed through reactions involving NOx and VOCs in the presence of sunlight. 3. Ground-level ozone, along with other secondary pollutants formed during these reactions, contributes to the formation of photochemical smog, which often appears as a brownish haze in urban areas with high levels of vehicle traffic and industrial activity. Photochemical smog is often more prevalent in sunny, warm climates with stagnant air masses, as sunlight and calm weather conditions facilitate the chemical reactions necessary for its formation. Major urban centers with high levels of vehicle emissions and industrial activity are particularly susceptible to photochemical smog episodes, which can have adverse effects on human health, vegetation, and the environment.
Know the photosynthesis reaction and why it is important for generating fossil fuel resources.
Photosynthesis CO2 + H2O + light CH2O + O2 Carbon dioxide + water + light carbohydrate + oxygen Carbohydrate: simple sugar, simplest representation of the building blocks of living organisms Carbohydrate (CH2O) and Hydrocarbon (CH4) Hydrocarbons form by loss of Oxygen (O) from carbohydrates - occurs naturally through baking at high temperatures (and sometimes high pressure) for long periods of time Since C-O bonds store less energy than C-H bonds, energy density increases in transformation to hydrocarbons) Start with photosynthesis - energy coming from sunlight, carbohydrate is cooked and loses oxygen - resulting in hydrocarbon such as CH4 (Hydrocarbons can form without sunlight; deep sea bacteria use dim light from hydrothermal vents, some microbes use chemical energy (fe-oxidation), some form inorganically but we think most fossil fuels are ultimately from photosynthesis)
What is a sedimentary rock? How do sedimentary rocks form?
Sedimentary rocks: the source of coal "Sediments": made of mineral and/or organic particles Usually layered horizontally, and can then be deformed' Formed by the deposition and subsequent cementation of sediments (Typically in oceans or river floodplains)
Know the physical definitions of power, energy, and work, and what each of these means in the context of specific examples. Be able to discuss the relationship between energy, force, and motion. Be familiar with standard units for power and energy.
Power is energy exchanged per unit of time [Watts] Energy is the capacity to do work. [Joules] Work is the application of a force over a distance W = F x d F = force applied d = distance over which force is applied EX: Pushing something over some distance [Moving furniture around a room, Pushing a car] Force is equal to Mass times acceleration (i.e., push or pull - capable of moving) Gravity exerting a downward force on you The floor exerting an upward force on a ball during its bounce A car seat exerting a forward force on your body when you accelerate forward from a stop The seat you're sitting in now is exerting an upward force on you (can you feel it?) You exert a sideways force on a couch that you slide across the floor A string exerts a centrally-directed (centripetal) force on a rock at the end of a string that you're twirling over your head The expanding gas in your car's cylinder exerts a force against the piston
Be able to discuss the potential role of public transportation as a means of increasing the efficiency of transport. Are trains an efficient method of transportation? Why or why not?
Public transportation and railways are some of the most efficient forms of transportation when it comes to emissions, but are basically required to be in high-density areas in order to make the most of their efficiency. If there aren't high loads of passengers per trip, then each just becomes a less-efficient car. Examples: San-José Train was incredibly inefficient due to a lack of use, but the Shinkansen and the public train stations in Japan/NYC are because of how many people they carry at once
What is the difference between a renewable and a non-renewable resource? What characterizes a non-renewable resource? What are "reserves" and how are these different from "resources"?
Renewable resource: a natural resource that is replenished over a short period of time, quickly enough to replace what is consumed Non renewable resource: a natural resource that cannot be remade or regrown on a timescale comparable to its consumption or use (e.g., fossil fuels are non renewable at current rate of use because they are produced slowly but used relatively quickly) Reserves: non-renewable resources - deposits known and recoverable today (i.e., economically extractable today such as the food you have in your fridge today for immediate consumption - included in resources) Resources are the total amount that exists some of which may become economically extractable in the future (all food in supermarket or being grown in a farm today)
How is smog in LA different to the smog that polluted London and other cities in the 20th century?
Smog in Los Angeles (LA) differs from the smog that polluted London and other major cities in the early twentieth century in several ways: 1. Composition: Smog in LA is primarily photochemical smog, which is characterized by high levels of ground-level ozone and secondary pollutants formed through chemical reactions involving sunlight, nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic compounds. In contrast, the smog that polluted London and other cities in the early twentieth century was predominantly sulfurous smog, which consisted of sulfur dioxide and particulate matter from coal burning. 2. Source: The sources of smog in LA are primarily vehicle emissions, industrial activities, and other urban sources of pollution. In the early twentieth century, the primary source of smog in cities like London was coal combustion for heating, power generation, and industrial processes. 3. Appearance: Smog in LA often appears as a brownish haze, particularly during periods of sunny, warm weather when photochemical reactions are most active. The smog that polluted London and other cities in the early twentieth century typically appeared as a thick, grayish fog, hence the term "London fog" or "pea-soup fog."
What is smog?
Smog is a type of air pollution characterized by a mixture of pollutants, primarily ground-level ozone, particulate matter, and other harmful chemicals, which often create a visible haze in the atmosphere. There are two main types of smog: traditional smog, also known as sulfurous smog, and photochemical smog. Traditional smog, or sulfurous smog, is primarily caused by the burning of fossil fuels, particularly coal, which releases sulfur dioxide (SO2) and particulate matter into the atmosphere. These pollutants react with moisture and sunlight to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and other sulfate compounds, which contribute to the formation of the characteristic thick, grayish haze associated with traditional smog.
How much have temperatures varied in the geologic past, and how does that compare to projections for human-induced climate change?
Temperatures have varied significantly in the geologic past due to natural factors such as changes in solar radiation, volcanic activity, continental drift, and variations in the Earth's orbit. Over millions of years, the Earth has experienced periods of both warming and cooling, including ice ages and interglacial periods. These natural climate variations have been driven by complex interactions between the atmosphere, oceans, land, and solar radiation. However, the rate and magnitude of temperature change associated with human-induced climate change are unprecedented compared to natural climate variability. Human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, have significantly increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere, leading to enhanced greenhouse effect and global warming. Projections for human-induced climate change indicate that temperatures are expected to rise significantly in the coming decades.
Understand what is meant by "2 degree warming"?
The "2 degree warming" refers to the goal established by the international community to limit global warming to 2 degrees Celsius (°C) above pre-industrial levels. This target is based on scientific assessments indicating that exceeding this threshold could lead to potentially dangerous and irreversible impacts on the climate system, including more frequent and severe heatwaves, droughts, floods, and disruptions to ecosystems and human societies. The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015 under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), aims to strengthen the global response to climate change and pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to well below 2°C, and ideally to 1.5°C, above pre-industrial levels. The agreement also emphasizes the importance of achieving a balance between anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases in the second half of this century. To meet the temperature targets outlined in the Paris Agreement, significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions are required. The specific emissions trajectories needed to achieve these targets depend on various factors, including the baseline emissions level, the pace of emissions reductions, and the extent of climate action taken by countries and stakeholders.
What is the Hubbert Curve, how can it be used to predict peaks in oil production over time? In what ways do the predictions of the Hubbert Curve accurately reflect the trends in oil production to date? Conversely, how do recent trends in oil production deviate from the simple Hubbert Curve, and why do they deviate?
The Hubbert approach provides a statistical model for growth or decay based on historical trends. The potential power of the Hubbert Curve approach is that it uses past behavior of a system to indicate possible future performance. U.S. has had ups and downs in production; peak oil in 70s and new peak of oil because of fracking. While recent trends in oil production have deviated from the simple Hubbert Curve, the underlying principle of finite resources and the eventual peak and decline in production remains relevant. As the world continues to consume oil and deplete existing reserves, understanding and preparing for the eventual peak in oil production will be crucial for ensuring energy security and transitioning to alternative energy sources.
What is the Keystone Pipeline and what is its purpose?
The Keystone Pipeline is a system of pipelines that transport crude oil from Alberta, Canada, to refineries in the United States. Its main purpose is to facilitate the transportation of oil from the oil sands of Alberta to refineries in the Gulf Coast of the United States. The pipeline system consists of several phases, with the Keystone XL pipeline being the most prominent and controversial segment. The Keystone XL pipeline was proposed to expand the existing network, allowing for increased capacity and more efficient transport of oil. However, the project has faced significant opposition from environmental groups and Indigenous communities due to concerns about potential oil spills, environmental damage, and contributions to climate change. The controversies include: - Critics argue that the extraction of oil from Alberta's oil sands, also known as tar sands, is a highly carbon-intensive process that significantly contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and exacerbates climate change. Additionally, the construction and operation of the pipeline itself pose risks of oil spills and environmental damage along its route, including potential contamination of water sources and disruption of ecosystems. - The Keystone Pipeline represents continued investment in fossil fuel infrastructure at a time when there is growing recognition of the need to transition to renewable energy sources to mitigate climate change. Critics argue that investing in pipelines like Keystone XL prolongs dependence on fossil fuels and hinders efforts to transition to a more sustainable energy future.
To what extent does the energy required to manufacture an electric vehicle contribute to the total energy (and CO2) footprint of that vehicle?
The manufacturing process makes up a significant portion of the CO2 emissions, but the percentage does vary from location to location depending on the type of energy source the electricity used to charge the car [Operations still make up most of CO2 emissions from EV's] If it's a renewable and clean energy source, the manufacturing cost will be a much greater percentage of its overall emissions, but if it's fossil fuels or coal, etc, it would make up less of an overall percentage
How does demand for electricity vary over time in a typical US city? Be able to describe the general cycle of demand for electricity over one day, and why this is relevant to being able to supply electricity. Be able to discuss the relevance of these daily cycles of demand for solar and wind power sources. Does electricity demand also vary month-to-month, and why?
The demand for electricity is at its lowest in the early morning hours, but quickly begins to rise as people wake up and get ready to go to work or just begin their day. The demand may remain stagnant throughout the afternoon, then peak to maximum demand in early evening hours as people return home from work. The demand is relevant to supplying electricity because power plants need to be able to predict how much electricity and when demand will peak so they have enough time to respond to prevent power outages. The problem with wind and solar is that these sources are unable to respond to sudden peaks of demand. It would require a massive amount of storage of electricity for wind and solar to become a viable option. You can't just turn the wind on or raise the sun in the sky when you suddenly need to meet a high demand. Demand for electricity does vary month to month, usually for seasonal reasons. People tend to run their AC units at the same time during hot months, and run heating units during winter.
Be able to describe in general terms the steps needed to make predictions of future climate change.
The future of climate? What we need to know to make predictions (and where things start to get less certain...) Amount of carbon we are going to emit depends on economics and politics (population growth, economic development, alternative energy technologies) How much of that carbon ends up as CO2 in the atmosphereàneed to understand the details of the global carbon cycle What a given increase in CO2 will mean for global climate (temperature, precipitation)àneed to understand details of global climate system What a given global climate will mean (for ecosystems, sea level, agriculture, water, etc) So how can we make predictions of future atmospheric CO2 concentrations and the response of global climate? 1. Economic models of future growth 2. Carbon cycle models 3. Global climate models 4. Models evaluating the effects of climate change All of these have very considerable uncertainty, so it is hard to accurately predict what is going to happen.
Be able to describe the physical principles behind the Greenhouse Effect.
The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon that occurs when certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere trap heat from the sun, leading to an increase in surface temperatures. The physical principles behind the greenhouse effect can be understood as follows: 1. **Solar Radiation:** - The Sun emits energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation, including visible light, ultraviolet (UV) radiation, and infrared (IR) radiation. This radiation travels through space and reaches the Earth's atmosphere. 2. **Absorption and Reflection:** - When solar radiation reaches the Earth's atmosphere, some of it is absorbed by the Earth's surface, warming the surface. - The Earth's surface then emits energy back into the atmosphere in the form of infrared radiation (heat). 3. **Greenhouse Gases:** - Greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), water vapor (H2O), and others, absorb some of the infrared radiation emitted by the Earth's surface. - Instead of allowing this infrared radiation to escape directly back into space, greenhouse gases trap some of the heat in the Earth's atmosphere, warming the lower atmosphere and the Earth's surface. - This trapping of heat by greenhouse gases creates a natural "blanket" that helps regulate the Earth's temperature, making it suitable for supporting life as we know it. The difference between the radiation received by Earth from the Sun and the radiation returned to space by Earth is crucial for understanding the greenhouse effect:
In what ways is CCS technology already used by the oil industry? What are some of the potential problems with using CCS (know at least 2)?
The oil industry is already utilizing CCS technology in several ways: 1. **Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)**: One of the primary uses of CCS in the oil industry is for enhanced oil recovery. CO2 captured from industrial processes or natural sources is injected into depleted oil reservoirs to help extract remaining oil that would otherwise be difficult to recover using traditional methods. This not only increases oil production but also stores CO2 underground. 2. **Carbon Capture from Industrial Processes**: Many oil refineries and natural gas processing plants employ CCS technology to capture CO2 emissions produced during their operations. This helps these facilities reduce their carbon footprint and comply with emissions regulations. However, there are several potential problems associated with using CCS: 1. **Cost**: CCS technology is still relatively expensive compared to other methods of reducing emissions, primarily due to the high energy requirements for capture, compression, and transportation of CO2. The cost-effectiveness of CCS projects heavily depends on factors such as the scale of operation, proximity to suitable storage sites, and regulatory incentives. 2. **Storage Integrity and Leakage**: Ensuring the long-term integrity of CO2 storage sites is crucial for preventing leakage of stored CO2 back into the atmosphere. While geological storage formations are designed to trap CO2 securely, there is always a risk of leakage due to geological faults or poorly sealed wells. Monitoring and verification techniques are necessary to detect and mitigate any potential leaks and ensure the long-term stability of stored CO2.
What are the principal unconventional fossil fuel resources. Know the following in particular:(i) oil sands, and (ii) shale gas. Be able to describe the challenges in extracting these, and how those challenges have been solved in the last couple of decades. How does access to these resources affect the amount of our fossil fuel reserves, and why?
The principal unconventional fossil fuel resources include oil sands and shale gas. Oil sands consist of bitumen mixed with sand, necessitating energy-intensive extraction methods like surface mining or in-situ techniques due to its viscosity. Challenges in oil sands extraction include high production costs, water consumption, and environmental impacts such as habitat destruction. Technological advancements, like steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) and solvent extraction, have improved efficiency and reduced environmental footprints in oil sands extraction. Shale gas, trapped in shale rock formations, requires hydraulic fracturing (fracking) to release gas, posing challenges such as water usage, induced seismicity, and methane emissions. Advances in horizontal drilling and fracking techniques have enhanced shale gas extraction rates and made previously uneconomical reserves accessible. Access to these resources significantly increases fossil fuel reserves because they represent vast quantities of previously untapped energy sources. However, their extraction and processing often have environmental implications, including habitat disruption, water contamination, and contributions to climate change.
Identify at least two environmental effects from fossil fuel extraction/use that have been successfully addressed by environmental regulation.
Two environmental effects that have been successfully addressed by environmental regulation are: 1. Air Pollution Reduction: - Environmental regulations, such as the Clean Air Act in the United States and similar legislation in other countries, have implemented emissions standards and pollution control technologies to reduce air pollutants from fossil fuel combustion sources. This has led to significant improvements in local air quality and reductions in harmful emissions such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter. 2. Water Quality Protection: - Regulations governing the disposal and treatment of wastewater from fossil fuel extraction activities, such as fracking and coal mining, have been implemented to protect water quality. Measures such as wastewater treatment requirements, recycling and reuse of water, and stricter discharge limits have helped mitigate the risks of water contamination from fossil fuel operations, safeguarding both human health and aquatic ecosystems.
know at least two health effects of smog
Two health effects of smog include: 1. Respiratory Issues: Smog can exacerbate respiratory problems such as asthma, bronchitis, and other lung diseases. The pollutants present in smog, including ozone and particulate matter, can irritate the respiratory system, leading to symptoms such as coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath, and chest tightness. 2. Cardiovascular Problems: Exposure to smog has been linked to cardiovascular issues such as heart attacks, strokes, and high blood pressure. The pollutants in smog can enter the bloodstream and cause inflammation, oxidative stress, and damage to blood vessels, increasing the risk of cardiovascular diseases.
What are 2 major benefits and 2 major costs associated with the increased use of fracking?
Two major benefits associated with the increased use of fracking are: 1. Energy Security: Fracking has allowed countries to increase domestic production of natural gas and oil, reducing reliance on imported energy sources and enhancing energy security. This increased domestic production can help stabilize energy prices and reduce vulnerability to geopolitical disruptions in oil and gas supply chains. 2. Economic Growth and Job Creation: The expansion of fracking operations has led to job creation and economic growth in regions with significant shale gas and tight oil reserves. Fracking has stimulated economic activity in industries such as energy production, construction, and manufacturing, providing employment opportunities and generating tax revenue for local communities and governments. Two major costs associated with the increased use of fracking are: 1. Environmental Impacts: Fracking poses risks to water quality, air quality, and ecosystems. Concerns include groundwater contamination from leaks or spills of fracking fluids, air pollution from methane emissions and volatile organic compounds, habitat disruption from infrastructure development, and induced seismic activity from wastewater disposal. 2. Climate Change: While natural gas produced from fracking is often considered a cleaner alternative to coal due to lower carbon emissions when burned, methane leaks during the production and transportation of natural gas can offset these benefits. Methane is a potent greenhouse gas, with a much higher warming potential than carbon dioxide over a shorter time frame, contributing to climate change. Additionally, the continued reliance on fossil fuels extracted through fracking can hinder efforts to transition to renewable energy sources and mitigate climate change.
Why might we still be concerned about human-induced climate change?
We are still concerned about human-induced climate change for several reasons: 1. Impact on Ecosystems: Rapid changes in temperature and precipitation patterns can disrupt ecosystems, leading to loss of biodiversity, changes in species distributions, and increased risk of species extinction. Ecosystems provide essential services such as pollination, water purification, and carbon sequestration, which are vital for human well-being. 2. Rising Sea Levels: Warming temperatures contribute to the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, leading to rising sea levels. Higher sea levels increase the risk of coastal flooding, erosion, and saltwater intrusion into freshwater sources, posing threats to coastal communities, infrastructure, and economies. 3. Extreme Weather Events: Climate change is expected to increase the frequency, intensity, and duration of extreme weather events such as heatwaves, hurricanes, droughts, and heavy rainfall events. These events can cause widespread damage to property, infrastructure, agriculture, and human health, with disproportionate impacts on vulnerable populations. 4. Social and Economic Impacts: Climate change exacerbates existing social and economic inequalities, disproportionately affecting marginalized communities, developing countries, and future generations. Impacts include food and water scarcity, displacement of populations, conflicts over resources, and economic disruptions.
what is the difference between weather and climate?
Weather and climate are related but distinct concepts: 1. **Weather:** - Weather refers to the short-term atmospheric conditions in a specific location at a particular moment in time, typically over hours to days. It includes variables such as temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind speed, and atmospheric pressure. Weather forecasts predict these conditions over short timeframes and are subject to rapid changes due to atmospheric processes. - Examples of weather include sunny skies, rainy days, thunderstorms, heatwaves, and cold fronts. Weather conditions can vary widely from day to day and from one location to another, influenced by factors such as latitude, altitude, proximity to bodies of water, and prevailing wind patterns. 2. **Climate:** - Climate refers to the long-term average of weather conditions, typically over decades to centuries, in a specific region or across the entire planet. It encompasses patterns and trends in temperature, precipitation, humidity, and other atmospheric variables over extended periods of time. Climate is shaped by factors such as latitude, elevation, ocean currents, and atmospheric circulation patterns. - Climate is relatively stable and predictable compared to weather, reflecting the average behavior of the atmosphere over time. Climate zones, such as tropical, temperate, and polar regions, are defined based on long-term climate patterns and are characterized by distinct climatic conditions. In summary, weather describes the short-term atmospheric conditions experienced in a specific location at a given moment, while climate refers to the long-term average of these conditions over extended periods of time. Weather is variable and can change rapidly, while climate is relatively stable and represents the prevailing patterns and trends in weather over time.
What fuels perform best in Availability, cost, efficiency, ignition point, and burning rate?
When refined, petroleum performs best which can be made into many different fuel sources, some of the best being gasoline and diesel
To what extent is air travel an energy-intensive activity? Considering various distances of air travel in a year, how much would you expect flying to contribute to your energy footprint?
While flying in general is energy-efficient, when compared to all other long-distance methods it still uses a massive amount of energy. Anecdote: I took 1 round-trip flight throughout all of 2019 to Japan, and it still made up a major amount of my emissions for that year - Tom
What is pH?
pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution, indicating the concentration of hydrogen ions (H⁺) present. It's measured on a scale from 0 to 14, where: - pH values below 7 indicate acidity, with lower numbers indicating stronger acidity. - pH values above 7 indicate alkalinity or basicity, with higher numbers indicating stronger alkalinity. - A pH of 7 is considered neutral, indicating a balanced concentration of hydrogen ions. For marine and other aquatic organisms, pH is crucial because it directly affects the chemical balance of the water they inhabit. Marine organisms, particularly those with calcareous structures like corals, mollusks, and certain types of plankton, rely on stable pH levels to build and maintain their calcium carbonate shells or skeletons.
Finally, know the following chemical reactions, and what energy conversion is represented by each (i.e., what is the form of energy on the left and right side of each equation):
release of energy from H2 fuel • photosynthesis CO2 + H2O + light -> CH2O + O2 Photosynthesis - reaction between carbon dioxide and water and energy in sunlight to create carbohydrate and oxygen Carbon dioxide + water + light carbohydrate + oxygen (Carbohydrate: simple sugar, simplest representation of the building blocks of living organisms) Carbohydrate (CH2O) and Hydrocarbon (CH4) Hydrocarbons form by loss of Oxygen (O) from carbohydrates - occurs naturally through baking at high temperatures (and sometimes high pressure) for long periods of time (Since C-O bonds store less energy than C-H bonds, energy density increases in transformation to hydrocarbons) Start with photosynthesis - energy coming from sunlight, carbohydrate is cooked and loses oxygen - resulting in hydrocarbon such as CH4 (Hydrocarbons can form without sunlight; deep sea bacteria use dim light from hydrothermal vents, some microbes use chemical energy (fe-oxidation), some form inorganically but we think most fossil fuels are ultimately from photosynthesis) Combustion of a simple hydrocarbon (e.g., methane) CH4 + 2O2 -> CO2 + 2H2O (+ energy)
