Geosc 40 Exam 3
another reason the equator is hotter compared to the poles
heat is concentrated at the equator, and solar radiation is dispersed over a larger area with higher latitude
What does the sun's energy do to the temperature on Earth
heats water and heats the Earth but then evaporates creating clouds that bounce radiation back into space.
where do high pressure cells found? low pressure cells?
high = west low = east
what happens to density with increasing salinity
increasing density
stable orbit =
inertia + gravity
what lead to marine pollution
invention of plastic in the 1950s because it cannot be easily degraded
El Niño of 2015-2016 affected 60 Million People
-A $3.6 Billion Emergency for the World Health Organization -Droughts in Central America, southern Africa, Papua New Guinea -Flooding in East Africa -Diseases spread by mosquitoes, such as malaria, dengue, chikungunya and the Zika virus (due to high levels of rain)
two characteristics of the thermohaline circulation (how long and how much is water transported)
-It is estimated that any given cubic meter of water takes about 1,000 years to complete the journey along the global conveyor belt. -In addition, the conveyor moves an immense volume of water—more than 100 times the flow of the Amazon River
what are each of the layers below the surface water deflected by
...and the water beneath the surface current is deflected by Coriolis forces
trade winds =
0o to 30o Lat and from east to west
how long does 1 full rotation take
1 full rotation takes the Jersey Shore through 2 bulges every 24 hr ...leading to 2 high tides per day
period of wind waves =
1 sec to 10 sec
how many thermoclines and haloclines do midlatitude waters have
1 thermocline but 2 or more haloclines
circulation time of gyres
1 to 5 years
Three Approaches to Saving Coastal Areas
1)Hard Stabilization 2) Beach Nourishment 3) Relocation
Steps of the Greenhouse effect
1)High-energy radiation is transmitted from Sun to Earth 2)Earth reflects lower energy radiation towards outer space 3)Lower energy radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases
In PA, how many hours of sunlight are experienced in June? December
15 hours in June = more solar radiation 9 hours in December = less solar radiation Southern hemisphere it is flipped
how many pieces of trash are in the ocean? how much is added each year
5.25 trillion pieces of plastic trash in the world's oceans, and each year, 8 million tons of plastic are added to the count.
how much water is moved in the gulf stream per second
55 million cubic meters per sec
summer mid-latitude jet stream velocity =
60 km/h
what is the Earth's radius
6371 km
mass of moon =
7.3 x 10^19 metric tons
width of the gulf stream
70 km (43 miles)
are north Atlantic and Pacific gyres high or low pressure
high pressure
what does descending air create
high pressure at the surface (force per unit area)
where does air move from
high pressure to low pressure
downdrafts =
high pressure zones
relationship between momentum and distance velocity
Momentum is mass x velocity and is maximized at the Equator; greater distance velocity and greater momentum
In the northern hemisphere, a south-to-north wind leads to an easterly Coriolis deflection, so what happens to water?
So water piles up against a coast to the east, going to the right
Why do the sun's rays strike the equator more directly?
Solar radiation passes through thicker atmosphere at higher latitude; so it passes through less atmosphere at the equator allowing for more heating.
what does the El Nino begin with
Southern Oscillation
characteristic of Deep Ocean Currents
Stable Stratification of 5 Deepwater Currents; rivers flowing over rivers, don't change over time
If Inputs = Outputs
Steady-State •No change in coast position
where are the steepest pynoclines located
Steepest pycnocline located between warm surface waters and intermediate currents (between each layer)
where are subpolar gyres located in the Northern hemisphere
Subpolar gyres in northern hemisphere lie at 60 degrees latitude
alignment seen in a lunar eclipse (left to right)
Sun - Earth - moon
famous location for big waves
Teahupo'o in French Polynesia
Not considered a gyre because the circulation encompasses a continent
The Antarctic Circumpolar Current
What is the effect of global warming on the THC?
The Antarctic Circumpolar Current can join with the surface again
how did Fridtjof Nansen contribute to the Eckman Spiral
The Arctic Ocean, showing a theoretical course of a drift from the New Siberian Islands to the Atlantic Ocean. Hitched a boat to polar ice that would follow the current and followed the current that moved across the North Pole, noticed that the current was not following the way he thought
how much oil was released by the Deepwater Horizon
The Deepwater Horizon spilled an estimated 210 million gallons of oil in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010.
why is the North Atlantic the only gyre that maintains that thermohaline circulation
The North Pacific and North Indian Oceans are not cold or saline enough for sinking to occur.
Why doesn't the Moon fly off into outer space?
The orbit of the Moon around Earth is stable because of the combined actions of gravity and inertia
characteristics of tsunami (wavelength, type of waves, speed of travel, wave heights)
The wavelength of tsunami is ~200 km/cycle, and L/20 = 10 km •Since ocean depth is 4-5 km on average, tsunami are shallow water waves •Travel at 800 km/hr in deep ocean •Wave heights in deep ocean are barely perceptible •Tsunami peak heights rise to 10 m or more as depth lowers
what is the disturbing and restoring force of a tide wave
both are gravity
spin of anticyclones
clockwise
rotation of downwelling =
clockwise rotation (to the right)
what is the spin in the southern hemisphere
clockwise spin
Heavy sand supply and high winds
coastal dunes
upwelling create a cold or warm ring
cold ring
why did the Exxon Valdez oil spill have such a lasting effect
colder temperatures so breakdown of oil is harder and takes longer
westerlies =
come from the west; weather systems = west to east
trade winds =
comes from the east; weather systems = east to west
what modifies the pattern of surface winds and therefore of oceanic circulation currents
continental landmasses
what is the oceanic circulation at the surface controlled by
controlled by prevailing wind directions
involves the vertical transfer of heat and/or matter (up to down)
convection
minor gyres in the far north (near Alaska and Greenland) rotation
counter-clockwise
spin in the Northern Atlantic
counter-clockwise
spin of cyclones
counter-clockwise
what is the spin in the northern hemisphere
counter-clockwise
which direction do subpolar gyres rotate
counter-clockwise
which way does the Earth rotate
counter-clockwise
upwelling =
counter-clockwise rotation
rotation of upwelling =
counter-clockwise rotation (to the left)
what does solar heating of the ocean creates
atmospheric convection cells affected by Coriolis Forces
another name for an anti-cyclone
high-pressure mass
air moving towards the surface (moving towards you)=
high-pressure zone
is the summer mid-latitude jet stream higher or lower in the US than the winter midlatitude jet stream
higher
Groins on shoreline near Chichester, Sussex, UK (concrete barrier prevent movement of sediments)
example of hard stabilization
Cons of beach nourishment
expensive and temporary beaches because they are constantly changing
moving towards the equator =
falling behind
velocity of the Equator compared to the North Pole?
faster at the Equator
la nina =
female baby
Uninterrupted distance over which the wind blows without significant change in direction
fetch
example of the combined action of gravity and inertia
figure skaters
what happens to the concentration of PCBs as you move up the food chain
higher concentration
high salinity and colder temperatures =
higher density
lower temperature and higher salinity =
higher density and sinks
what does the oceanic gyres do to the salinity at 30 degrees (desert belt)
higher salinity
greater the wind duration
higher the waves
greater the wind strength =
higher the waves
what do Amphidromic tides lead to
higher tides in northeastern parts of ocean basins in northern hemisphere
larger fetch =
higher waves
what are cyclones in the Northern hemisphere
hurricanes
mix between river and wave dominated
hybrid
why is polar water highly diluted during the summer
ice melting (glaciers and ice caps)
increase in salinity
increase density
temperature gets lower
increase in density
what was used to determine previous temperatures seen on Earth
isotopes of oxygen
Narrow air currents traveling west to east ("westerlies") at tropopause
jet streams
normal flow =
la nina
Every fluid molecule follows a straight path that is parallel to the boundaries (straight and even flow of water)
laminar flow
Oceanic eddies can be generated by anything that perturbs what?
laminar flow (when we move from laminar to turbulent flow)
the sum of all of those currents
net water transport
what will happen to the net water transport compared to the wind direction in the Eckman Spiral
net water transport will be perpendicular
where are the salinity and temperature the highest
north and south of the equator
what are the 5 ocean-scale gyres
north pacific south pacific north Atlantic south Atlantic Indian Ocean
what creates the clockwise spin of high pressure cells
north-south = west south-north = east
what direction does convection move
northerly direction; perpendicular to each other
what is the spin of the Northern Atlantic current? Southern Atlantic?
northern = clockwise southern = counter-clockwise
December Solstice
northern hemisphere tilts away from sun and has shortest day and longest night (winter); southern hemisphere tilts toward sun and has longest day and shortest night (summer) - December 21
cons of hard stabilization
not a long term solve need to be replaced uneven distribution
another name for earth's tilt
obliquity
what are pynoclines responsible for
ocean stratification - prevent the layers from mixing
•Transport of sediment by currents perpendicular to the shore
onshore transport
wave motion is...
oscillatory (perfect circle around the origin)
what causes Eutrophication
over-fertilization
How much time passes between each wave crest -Measured in seconds per cycle
period
what creates Eddies
pinching of the gulf stream current
Where are the steppes located?
places where subduction occurs (west coast-Caliornia)
what is driven by mantle convection
plate tectonics
coldest temperature =
poles
where are the smallest gyres located
poles and in north Indian Ocean
what happens to the air as you move closer to the surface
pressure gets lower as you move closer to the surfaces causes air to move down want to move from high to low pressures
why do mountains and icebergs need deep roots
provide buoyant support
wind from the equator to the north
pushes the water current to the right caused by high momentum of the equator
Zone of major density change
pycnocline
what is atmospheric circulation driven by
solar heating
what creates the counter-clockwise spin of low pressure cells
south-north = east north-south = west
A Reversal of Walker Circulation
southern oscillation
how do waves get closer to the beach
steep incline the waves can get closer to the beach before they break
•Waves "plunge" (deep sea beds) •Breakers can form "tubes" (surfers love) •get up to higher heights
steep slope
high air pressure =
subtropical high
what does dry air create
subtropical highs
Where does Earth's energy come from?
sun
alignment seen in a solar eclipse (left to right)
sun - moon - Earth
Rivers deliver high sediment loads to the coast which can channels to clog and a new one to open
swampy deltas
A pack of waves with similar wavelengths and speeds
swell
analogy for the Dynamic Theory of Tides
swirling wine in a glass
what is El Nino named after
the Christ Child
what happens when you increase the mass of the center planet of the orbit
the center of mass in underneath the surface
how far can wind waves be from us in the ocean
thousands of miles
what causes the low pressure zones at the boundary between the Polar and Ferrel Cells?
uplifted air currents
Coastline rises above sea due to jerky uplift by subduction events at active margins
uplifted terraces
what is the normal shape seen in river valleys
v-shaped
convection =
vertical movement
jerks =
volcanism and earthquakes due to frictional forces being overpowered
start with trade winds that cause water to move to the west where we see a build up of warm water that evaporates causing monsone rains that cools
walker circulation
In the US, low-pressure cyclonic cells often originate from where?
warm moist air originating in the Gulf of Mexico (low pressure cell at the bottom)
downwelling create a cold or warm ring
warm ring
water temperature during La Nina? El Nino?
warmer water to the western Pacific during La Nina warmer water to the eastern Pacific during El Nino
what creates the rainforest belt at the equator =
water vapor condenses into rain due to the higher temperatures
Distance from Trough to Crest = 2 x Amplitude
wave height
•Distance from crest to trough
wave height
•measures the amount of time it takes for 2 wave crests to pass a single position •Measured in seconds per cycle
wave period
waves push sediment back onto coastline due to strong currents taking away sediments
wave-dominated
Distance from crest to crest
wavelength
energy in motion
waves
Winds from the North Pole to the Equator are deflected east or west
west
are trade winds deflected east or west
west
where are mixed tides found?
west coast
where was the Boxing Day tsunami
west side of Indonesia
which way do Nor'easter systems travel
west to east, but winds at coast originate from NE
example of advection
westerlies
what are storm systems driven by
westerlies
Due to the Coriolis effect, hows the wind deflected when it moves from the north pole to the equator?
westward deflection
when does surf occur
when d < L/2
neap tides =
when earth and moon alignment is perpendicular to Earth and Sun alignment = smallest tides
spring tides =
when earth moon and sun are aligned = the bigger tides
what happens since the atomic or molecular bonds in fluids are much weaker than in solids
when the top layer of fluid is pushed, the layer below responds to that push (wind)... but the layer below can also respond to other forces (Coriolis forces); connections between layers are weak.
how are oceanic gyres the major control in the moderation of global temperatures (maintain temperature equilibrium)
•Poles warmed by equatorial waters •Equator cooled by the return of polar waters •can hold a lot of heat energy in H2O
what are the units for salinity
•Practical Salinity Units (measured by electrical conductivity) •Essentially the same as parts per thousand (ppt) or per mille (‰)
what is the biggest indicator of a tsunami
•Preceded by sharp pullback of water
outgo of sediments
•Remove of sediment by longshore transport •Removal of sediment by offshore transport (upwelling)
what surrounds the French Polynesia
•Shallow coral reefs (light blue) fringe the islands •Corals are surrounded by DEEP water •Large depth gradient from sea to beach
temperature, salinity, density, and how long to reach North Atlantic
•Temperature: -0.5 oC (=31 oF) •Salinity: 34.65‰ •Density: 1.0279 g/cm3 •750 years to reach north Atlantic
what is the angular velocity across the entire planet
•The angular velocity (in degrees per hour) is the same over the entire planet •360o ÷ 24 hr = 15 o/hr
what is the distance velocity across the entire planet
•The distance velocity (in km or miles per hour) varies with location •Fastest at the Equator and slowest near the poles
what does tidal force vary on
•Tidal forcing varies as cube of distance
inputs of of sediment
•Transport of sediment by currents parallel to shore •Transport of sediment by currents perpendicular to the shore •River supply
how fast are rip currents
•Travel up to 8 ft/sec, faster than Olympic swimmer
Tsunami result from:
•Volcanic eruptions •Landslides •Meteorite impacts (Yucatan that caused the extinction of dinosaurs) •Earthquakes (most common cause)
what creates the wet weather experienced in cyclones (low pressure mass)
•Warm, moist air cools and condenses to rain
why does the sun have a weaker gravitational pull
•Weaker effect for Sun results from farther distance from the Earth
what did Walker note
•When mean sea level pressure (SLP) was high... •Mean sea surface temperature (SST) was low
what creates the spin of cyclones
•Winds flow downward around edges toward center due to low pressure •Coriolis forces deflect winds to make counter-clockwise flow - deflected to the west coming from the North coming from the South deflected to the East
2 characteristics of the Coriolis Effect
•Winds north from the equator are deflected to the east •Winds from the north pole are deflected to the west
why are wave heights are highest at the Antarctic Circumpolar Current
•Winds travel without obstruction by continents; FETCH is really high •The Antarctic Circumpolar Current exists because wind forcing at the surface can penetrate to great depths due to weak stratification and because of the long fetch
what happens to water that is < 4 degrees celsius
•buoyant and rises - brings up material •Leads to overturning in lakes and oceans (as winter turns to Spring) •But, salinity can modify behavior
2 reason why the Antarctic Circumpolar Current is critical to the THC's global overturning circulation
•connects the three main ocean basins to the north, thus enabling a truly global circulation. •permits water masses to undergo large vertical excursions in a stratified ocean without crossing density surfaces; do not have a larger pynocline
4 more characteristics of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current
•is the only current to completely encircle Earth •moves more water than any other current (including gulf stream) •has lots of upwelling of nutrients for plankton (Eckman Spiral) •is critical to the THC's global overturning circulation
where is there no water motion as the wave passes
below the wave base
Are the wave fronts straight or bent?
bent
what does the oceanic gyres do to the salinity at the equator
lower salinity
what does the heavy rainfall cause at the equator
lower salinity due to dilution
what is the result of Earth's tilt
seasons
twice/day
semidiurnal
d ≤ L/20 =
shallow water waves
hockey stick =
sharp uptick of temperature in the last 200 years
shorter period =
shorter wavelength
Speed closer to the center compared to further away
slower towards the center
what happens to the speed of a tsunami as you get closer to shore
slows down (800 km/hr to around 50 km/hr)
where is the rainforest belt located =
Hadley cells
5 characteristics of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current
1. causes pressure upwelling radient force 2. southern ocean to exchange CO2 and heat with the atmosphere 3. global warming effects 4. takes deep water to the surface 5. interface with the atmosphere
2 ways of describing tidal behavior
1. equilibrium theory 2. dynamic theory
polar, subtropics, and tropics ranked by increasing salinity: 1 = low 3 = high
1. polar 2. equator 3. subtropics
why are eddies important
1. sea level rise due to increasing temperatures can be counteracted by Eddies 2. absorb some of the heat energy and transform it to kinetic energy
3 examples of waves
1. sound (energy moving through the air) = compressional waves (P waves); alternating between compressed and expanding 2. Earthquakes (energy through solid Earth) = caused by a rupture due to plate tectonic movements 3. ocean waves (energy moving through liquid)
distance of Sun to Earth
1.50 x 10^8 km (larger mass distance compared to the moon)
3 consequences of the Eckman Spiral
1.Coastal winds frictionally move surface layer along coast 2.Water below upwells to replace advected water (isostasy) 3.Net flux of upwelled water is AWAY from coastline (rather than parallel)
what do tidal bulges result from
1.Gravitational force •Near side to Moon 2.Inertia (or Centrifugal Force) •Far side from Moon
The coldness at the poles results from:
1.Greater absorption at the poles by thicker slices of atmosphere than at the equator; and 2.More concentrated footprint of light beams on the equator than at the poles
what causes the thermohaline circulation to not occur
1.Ice melts 2.Polar water is diluted and salinity decreases 3.Density decreases 4.No sinking or overturning
Oceanic eddies can be generated by anything that perturbs laminar flow, what are the 5 things that can do this?
1.Local winds channeled by coastal topography; - move water faster 2.Abrupt changes in wind direction at atmospheric fronts; - water will respond to air 3.Oceanic currents at promontories; - concentrated along the coasts 4.Water exchange through straits; and - pinching off the flow 5.Instabilities at oceanic current boundaries.
importance of oceanic gyres
1.Movement of water from the Equator to Poles transfers heat energy from the Equator to Poles (warm water from tropics) 2.Salinity is homogenized by oceanic gyres 3.Nutrients are dispersed by surface circulation
diameter of the Giant Red Spot
10-500 km
what depth do you begin to see a drop in the effect seen on water current due to the Coriolis Effect
100 m below the surface
how much does water in the gulf stream move per day
100 miles per day
how many calories moved between air and water per second and releases heat
10^15 calories
how much bigger is this compared to the world consumption of energy
10^6 times world consumption
winter midlatitude jet stream velocity =
125 km/h
How much will sea level rise by 2100
20 inches
mass of Sun
22 x 10^27 metric tons
how much does the Earth tilt
23.5 degrees
tropic of cancer =
23.5 degrees north
Tropic of Capricorn =
23.5 degrees south
distance of moon to Earth
3.85 x 10^5 km
how many times bigger is the flow compared to the Amazon
300 times
westerlies =
30o to 60o Lat and from west to east
speed the gulf stream travels at
4.5 miles per hour
what is the circumference of Earth
40,010 km
depth of the gulf stream
450 m (1500 ft)
the sun has what percent of the gravitational tidal pull that the Moon exerts
46%
Eckman Spiral in the Northern hemisphere? Southern hemisphere?
90 degrees to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and left in the Southern Hemisphere
the effects of overfishing
90% of worldwide stocks of tuna and cod have disappeared 30% of marine fisheries overexploited -Not enough breeding stock to replenish species 57% at limit of exploitation
what percent is it confirmed that CO2 is correlated with increasing temperatures
99.9%
what is the Giant Red Spot?
A giant storm on Jupiter's surface; discovered by Galileo
Is salty water more or less dense than freshwater? A.Salt water is more dense and will sink in fresh water. B.Salt water is less dense and will float on fresh water.
A, ions hold water molecules closer together making it more dense
The Gulf Stream along the East Coast of the US A.Upwelling OR B.Downwelling?
A, move water away from the coast
A Storm in the Northern Hemisphere of Jupiter A.Cyclone with Updrafts Or B.Anti-cyclone with Downdrafts ?
A, rotate counter-clockwise
Winds drive surface currents in oceans. What guides the movement of deep ocean currents? A.Density differences B.Coriolis forces C.Continental landforms D.Deep winds below the ocean surface
A, temperature and salinity effect density
An archer stands at the North Pole and aims his arrow directly at a target on the equator. What effect will the Earth's rotation have on the path of the arrow after it is shot? A.The arrow will travel to the west of the target. B.The arrow will hit the target. C.The arrow will travel to the east of the target.
A.
As a rule of thumb, are high pressure systems associated with rainy or fair weather? A.High Pressure: Fair Low Pressure: Rainy B.High Pressure: Rainy Low Pressure: Fair
A.
As a rule of thumb, if you want to know the weather in State College tomorrow, find out what the weather today is in A.Chicago. B.Ottawa. C.Atlanta. D.Lisbon.
A.
At mid-latitudes in the northern hemisphere, cold north-to-south surface currents and upwelling of deep water generally occur A.along the west coasts of continents. B.along the east coasts of continents. C.along both west and east coasts of continents.
A.
But the world turns. Which representation below correctly illustrates the nature of Earth's rotation? A. counter-clockwise B. clockwise
A.
Cold waters upwell off the coast of California due to Ekman transport. What must the prevailing wind direction be here? A.North to South B.South to North
A.
Does the ACC flow... A.In the direction of Earth's rotation Or B.Against the direction of Earth's rotation?
A.
Over time, do offshore currents smooth or roughen rocky shorelines? A.Smooth B. Roughen
A.
So Coriolis forces deflect the tide wave towards the A.East or B. West in the northern Atlantic.
A.
The Canary Current along the west coast of Africa A.Upwelling OR B.Downwelling?
A.
The maps above depict the development of the Western Interior Seaway in the United States during the Cretaceous period, splitting the US mainland in two. Does the period from 105 Ma to 85 Ma represent a time of oceanic A.Transgression Or B.Regression?
A.
True or False? The momentum of objects at Earth's equator is greater than the momentum of objects located close to the Earth's poles. A.True B. False
A.
What is the sense of rotation if your eyeball looked from the South Pole? A.Clockwise B.Counter-clockwise
A.
Which illustrates the actual shape of the oceanic gyre in the northern Atlantic? A. Dome of water to the west B. Dome of water to the east
A.
Which pattern would you expect for Northern Hemisphere Gyres? A.WEST boundary currents: Fast, Deep, Narrow OR B.EAST boundary currents: Fast, Deep, Narrow
A.
Which scientist first proposed an atmospheric convection cell within the Pacific Equatorial Plane? A.Sir Gilbert Walker B.Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis C.Jacob Bjerknes D.Walter Broecker
A.
Will the Coriolis effect deflect a rocket launched north from the equator to the east or to the west? A. To the east B. To the west
A.
period (P) is measured in sec/cycle, and celerity (C) is measured in m/sec, then what is the equation for wavelength (L) in terms of period and celerity? A.L = C x P B.L = C ÷ P C.L = P ÷ C
A.
Why is the Ekman spiral important?
ADvection (of wind; horizontal flow) can lead to CONvection (of ocean water; vertical upwelling)
EN-SO
Acronym for the coupled phenomena of El Niño and the Southern Oscillation. See also El Niño; Southern Oscillation.
what creates the desert belt =
Air at 30o latitude has lost its water to make desert belts
what does the Eckman transport lead to in the center of the North Atlantic Gyre
Ekman transport leads to a doming of water in the center of the North Atlantic Gyre
no tidal change at the center of each ocean basin
Amphidromic Points
where are the largest waves
Antarctic Circumpolar Current; no land masses to effect wind
Deep water waves are defined as waves traveling over depths that are what multiple of the wavelength (L)? A.One-quarter the wavelength (L/4) B.One-half the wavelength (L/2) C.Twice the wavelength (2L) D.Twenty times the wavelength (20L)
B.
AMOC =
Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation
what induces oceanic circulation
Atmospheric convection frictionally induces oceanic circulation
When a truck passes you at high speed, after it passes, the pressure difference A.pushes you away. B.pulls you towards it.
B,
Is the Coriolis Effect more pronounced for objects near the equator or near the poles? A.Near the equator B.Near the poles C.The Coriolis Effect is the same
B, bigger change in momentum
Are waves in the southern ocean likely to be highest in January or July? A) January B) July
B, faster winds = highest waves
Where will tsunami waves travel fastest? A.A B.B C.C D.A & C E.All the same speed
B, further away from the coast
Based on the graph above, how long are the cycles from one El Niño event to the next? A.Annual cycles: 1 year B.About 3 to 5 years C.Decadal: Every 10 years D.Centennial: Every 100 years
B.
But the world turns. Which representation below correctly illustrates the nature of Earth's rotation? A.volcanic eruptions. B. solar radiation. C.radioactive decay. D. animal respiration.
B.
By analogy with atmospheric cyclonic cells, would an upwelling eddy in the Northern Hemisphere rotate clockwise or counterclockwise? A. Clockwise B. Counterclockwise
B.
Climate scientists are worried that global warming may terminate thermohaline circulation. Why? A.Global warming will intensify El Niño events, drawing energy away from thermohaline circulation. B.Global warming will cause Greenland ice to melt, diluting the thermohaline current. C.Global warming will increase the velocity of the Gulf Stream. D.Global warming will slow Earth's rotation, diminishing the Coriolis Forces responsible for the overturning.
B.
Dissolved sodium chloride (NaCl) also changes water density. From earlier this semester, where did the chlorine in seawater come from? A.The weathering of minerals B.Volcanic emissions C.Cometary ices that melted after impact D.The dissolution of submarine salt domes
B.
Do you see a lot of change in salinity as the seasons pass based on the bottom scroll? A. Yes B. No
B.
From this video, how long does it take for the wave to travel around Beaver Stadium? A. 10 sec B. 25 sec C. 60 sec D. 120 sec
B.
How is the Walker Circulation Cell related to the Hadley Circulation Cell? A.Walker circulation currents are parallel to Hadley circulation currents. B.Walker circulation currents are perpendicular to Hadley circulation currents.
B.
How many spring tides occur over one month (approximately)? A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4
B.
If the rotational axis of the Earth were NOT tilted relative to its orbital plane around the Sun, then A.the Earth would orbit the Sun in a circular rather than elliptical trajectory. B.the Earth would not experience seasons. C.the poles of the Earth would be as warm as the equatorial regions. D.the equator would be cold and the poles would be warm.
B.
Is the CHANGE in velocity higher near the equator or near the poles? A.Near the equator B.Near the poles C.Change in velocity is the same
B.
Ocean currents are stratified on the basis of density. Are the most dense layers at the ocean surface or the ocean floor? A.Dense currents are at ocean surface. B.Dense currents are at ocean floor.
B.
So what is the celerity for a fast human wave in Beaver Stadium? A.0.04 m/sec B. 20 m/sec C. 40 m/sec D. 100 m/sec
B.
So, do waves speed up or slow down as they reach shallower water depths? A. Speed Up B. Slow Down
B.
Suppose that a wind from south to north blows along a coast to the east in the northern hemisphere. Will Ekman transport lead to A.Upwelling Or B. Downwelling?
B.
The Labrador Current off the east coast of Labrador, Canada? A.Upwelling OR B.Downwelling?
B.
The bending of waves as they shoal (approach shallow water) is called A.diffraction. B.refraction. C.osmosis. D.reflection.
B.
The graph below shows the change in water density with temperature. At what temperature is water density the highest? A.O oC - The freezing point of water B.4 oC C.8 oC D.10 oC
B.
The lighthouse below originally was built on land. Which of the following statements about the picture below is TRUE? A)Shoreline has advanced since the lighthouse was built •Called Oceanic Regression (drop in sea level) B) Shoreline has retreated since the lighthouse was built •Called Oceanic Transgression (rise in sea level) C) Shoreline hasn't moved since the lighthouse was built
B.
The tilt of Earth's rotational axis relative to the plane of rotation about the Sun is called Earth's obliquity. Which number represents that angular tilt? A.3o B. 23.5o C.75.6o D. 154.5o
B.
What is the inverse of the period (1/P)? A.Celerity B.Frequency C.Harmonicity D.Steepness
B.
What is the velocity at Santa's castle? A.Half of 834 km/hr, or 417 km/hr B.0 km/hr
B.
What might account for the desert belts at 30o North and South latitude? A.The average annual temperatures are highest at 30o North and South latitude. B.Air descending at the boundary between the Hadley and Ferrel cells has lost its moisture. C.High pressure cells at 30o latitude prevent the rise of evaporated sea water.
B.
Which American Founding Father first discovered the Gulf Stream? A.Thomas Jefferson B. Ben Franklin C. John Adams D. George Washington
B.
Which disturbing force is most responsible for Earth's tides? A.Magnetism B.Gravity C.Electrostatic forces D.Nuclear forces
B.
Which is NOT true of tsunami? A.Tsunami are shallow water waves. B.Tsunami are generated by tidal forces, which is why they often are called tidal waves. C.Tsunami can originate from submarine landslides and meteorite impacts. D.In the deep ocean, tsunami can travel over 500 miles per hour.
B.
Which of the following parameters of a wave is measured in meters per second? A.Period B. Celerity C.Frequency D. Amplitude
B.
Which of the following reflects the time that it takes for a wave cycle to pass? A.Wavelength B.Wave period C.Wave height D.Wave crest
B.
Which two factors are most important in determining the density of ocean water? A.Water velocity and pressure B.Temperature and salinity C.Viscosity and flow direction D.Dissolved CO2 and O2 contents
B.
Why does the Gulf Stream sink in the Labrador Sea? A.The momentum of the ocean current is maximized near the north pole. B.The Gulf Stream gets saltier and colder as it travels to the northern Atlantic Ocean. C.The Coriolis Force leads to downward convection.
B.
Why does wind blowing across the surface of water lead to upwelling? A.The wind carries off heat energy, and waters move upward to replenish the heat. B.Wind advects surface water, and water upwells to maintain isostatic balance. C.Winds make waves, which require vertical transport of deep waters.
B.
Why is the temperature in Pennsylvania hotter in the summer than in the winter? A.Because the Earth is closer to the Sun in the summer. B.Because the Earth's rotational axis is tilted relative to the plane that it orbits about the Sun. C.Because solar emissions vary in intensity on an annual cycle.
B.
With increasing salinity, the density of water increases A. Exponentially B. Linearly C. Parabolically
B.
Would you expect high pressure or low-pressure zones at the boundary between the Polar and Ferrel Cells? A.High Pressure B.Low Pressure
B.
why does Jupiter have such high temperatures
a lot of internal energy contributing to the heat budget
If Inputs < Outputs
Balance is negative •Erosion •Coast gets eaten away
If Inputs > Outputs =
Balance is positive •Accretion or deposition •Coast builds out (moves further into the ocean)
where are the highest displacements of tides in the world
Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia
what is another source of marine pollution
Biomagnification of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) concentrates toxins up the food chain (linked to cancer) New York State discourages pregnant women and children under 15 not to eat >1/2 lb of local bluefish or striped bass each week because of PCBs
Which statement concerning the movement of water in waves on the open ocean is correct? A.Water particles move with the wave, and thus can migrate tens to hundreds of kilometers as the wave moves. B.Water molecules go up and down, along a vertical straight line, as the wave passes. C.Water molecules follow a circular path as the wave passes
C.
what are the two remnants from the collision with the Mars-sized object that made the Moon
Both the rate of rotation and the degree of tilt
the day after Christmas in Great Britain
Boxing Day
How long does it take for the Earth-moon system to complete one full rotation? A) 1 day B) 2 weeks C) 27.3 days D) 1 year
C
If the wavelength of a tsunami is in the range of 200 km/cycle, and the ocean depth on average is 4 km, then tsunami must always be A.Deep-water waves B.Transitional waves C.Shallow-water waves
C, 200/4 = 50
Which of the following is NOT true of wind? A.Wind patterns affect surface temperatures on the Earth. B.Wind frictionally drives oceanic circulation. C.Wind is directed from regions of low pressure to regions of high pressure. D.Winds are observed on Jupiter and Mars.
C, high to low pressures
Which of the following is NOT an example of advection? A.The Chinook winds - warm, dry air that blows from the east flank of the Rockies each spring B.The Peru oceanic current, heading northerly along the west coast of South America C.The updraft of air from the sea surface to the tropopause at the Equator D.The flow of the Hudson River from upstate to downstate New York
C, vertical movement
Do you remember what heat source drives mantle convection? A.Earth's magnetic field B.Solar radiation C.Decay of radioactive elements D.Jovian tidal forces
C.
How does the formation of sea-ice in the winter influence seawater density? A.Sea-ice has no influence on seawater density B.Sea-ice formation decreases seawater density C.Sea-ice formation increases seawater density
C.
How many high tides does the New Jersey shore experience each day? A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. Varies with the season
C.
How many ocean-scale gyres do you see? A. 2 B. 3 C. 5 D. 7
C.
Let's use the equation L = C x P to determine the wavelength of a tsunami wave. Assume C = 800 km/hr and P = 17 min/cycle. What is L in km/cycle? A.47 km/cycle C. 227 km/cycle B.13,600 km/cycle D. 0.78 km/cycle
C.
Suppose we spray the bottom of a glass of water with liquid nitrogen (temperature = -196 oC) and create the temperature profile indicated. What would happen to the water at the base of the glass? A.The bottom water will turn to ice. B.The water will achieve a stable stratification of layers. C.The bottom-most layer will rise.
C.
The best course of action to take when you are caught swimming in a rip is to A.swim as hard as you can toward the shore. B.swim away from the shore. C.swim parallel to the shore.
C.
The effect of Coriolis forces on atmospheric convection generates three convection belts each in the northern and southern atmospheres. From the Equator to the North Pole, they are: A.Polar, Hadley, Ferrel Cells. B.Hadley, Polar, Ferrel Cells. C.Hadley, Ferrel, Polar Cells. D.Ferrel, Hadley, Polar Cells.
C.
The prevailing surface winds between the equator and 30o north latitude A.are called the "Horse Winds" and move from west to east. B.are predominantly directed in a vertical direction. C.are known as the "Trade Winds" and move from east to west. D.are unaffected by Coriolis forces.
C.
Today there are 365 days in a year. During the Cambrian (560 Ma), there were 425 days in a year. How many days will make up a year 280 million years in the future? A.395 days B.365 days C.335 days D.305 days
C.
What distance does the human wave travel around Beaver Stadium? Yellow Lines = 100 m Purple Lines = 80 m White Lines = 35 m (2 yellow lines, 4 white lines, 2 purple lines) A. 250 m B. 400 m C. 500 m D. 750 m
C.
What is the Earth's velocity at the Equator in km/hr relative to the North Pole? A.962 km/hr B.1214 km/hr C.1667 km/hr D.0 km/hr
C.
What is the definition of laminar flow? A.The viscosity changes in a uniform fashion. B.The molecules within the fluid flow in circular paths. C.The molecules within the fluid flow in straight lines. D.The flow is directed from high to low elevation.
C.
What is the scientific definition of a wave? A.A hairstyle in which the curls are combed and flattened out, creating a ripple-like pattern. B.A back-and-forth movement of the hand to connote a greeting C.A disturbance caused by the movement of energy through some medium (solid, liquid, or gas)
C.
What two forces work together to create an Ekman Spiral and begin the motion of the surface currents? A.Global winds and gravity B.Magnetism and solar heating C.Global winds and Coriolis forces D.Continental shelf bathymetry and gravity
C.
Which is the best definition of inertia? A.The sluggishness of an object in motion B.Your response to a new homework assignment C.The tendency for a moving object to keep moving (or for a resting object to stay at rest) D.A force that is inversely related to gravity
C.
Which of these Deepwater Currents is the most dense? A.Arctic Deep Current B.Antarctic Intermediate Current C.Antarctic Bottom Current D.Surface Water
C.
Why do we not find built-out deltas on the Atlantic coast of the United States? A.Unlike the Gulf Coast, the East Coast of the US is subject to frequent hurricanes. B.There are no major rivers that transport sediment to the East Coast. C.The Atlantic ocean currents are so strong that they redistribute river sediment before it accumulates in a delta. D.North Carolina IS a built-out delta on the East Coast.
C.
Why is the temperature at the equator hotter than at the poles? A.The equator is always slightly closer to the sun. B.The velocity of Earth's rotation is fastest at the equator, and the frictional energy is converted to heat. C.The sun's rays hit the equator most directly, and they impinge the poles at a high angle. D.The equator overlies a magmatic dynamo.
C.
what happens when depth gets bigger
C^2 gets bigger --> C gets bigger --> speeds up
what happens when depth gets smaller
C^2 gets smaller --> C gets smaller --> slow down
example of how tidal drag can slow Earth's rotation
Cambrian (560 Ma): 425 days Permian (280 Ma): 395 days Today (0 Ma): 365 days
What does El Nino cause?
Cause of major famines in Asia due to failures of monsoonal rains and in South America due to collapse of fishing
what leads to a doming of water in the North Atlantic Gyre
Caused by a piling up with pushes the thermocline lower so the gyres have a higher elevations than the areas surrounding it
what happens at the boundary at the converge of these cells
Classic inverted "V" forms when cold front from west swoops in on cyclonic warm front to east; creates a lot of storms at this convergence
impacts of El Ninos
Climate changes are global •Hot and dry in southeast Asia •Leads to droughts and famine •Wet along west coast of North America •Leads to storms and mudslides (major rain storms) Climate impacts of El Nino on US weather realized by 1980s (Saunders et al. 1981)
In an ocean eddy that is downwelling in the northern hemisphere, will the rotation be clockwise or counter-clockwise?
Clockwise
Suppose instead of a low-pressure cell with upward drafts of air, we have a high-pressure cell with downdrafts. Is the flow clockwise or counter-clockwise?
Clockwise
Passive continental margins (no plate activity)
Coastal Plains and Sandbars
when does the current turn
Currents do not turn until they hit the coast; Rightward direction at the coast is very weak so it takes longer to turn the current
what happens to the currents as you head North
Currents turn sharply as they head north
what causes Earth's tides
Combination of 1.Gravity 2.Inertia
what causes for not every coast to see 2 tides per day
Continents interrupt ocean water flow and not every coast sees 2 tides a day
what is the temperature like in high-pressure mass
Cool, dry air rushes downward and can absorb moisture
result from changes in momentum as objects move Towards or Away From a Rotational Axis
Coriolis Effect
what creates the clockwise flow of high-pressure mass
Coriolis forces deflect winds to make clockwise flow
According to the dynamic theory of tides, since the Moon is usually not in the equatorial plane of Earth... A.In the Northern Hemisphere, tides are especially high in the southwestern corners of ocean basins. B.Coriolis forces divert tide waves towards the southwest in the Southern Hemisphere. C."No-tide" nodes called amphidromic points occur in each ocean basin. D.B & C are true.
D.
So, in the northern hemisphere... A.Anti-cyclones spin counter-clockwise and have rainy low-pressure centers. B.Anti-cyclones spin counter-clockwise and have dry high-pressure centers. C.Anti-cyclones spin clockwise and have rainy low-pressure centers. D.Anti-cyclones spin clockwise and have dry high-pressure centers.
D.
Which is a correct statement about tides? A.Every location on Earth experiences 2 tides a day. B.Tidal reaches are most extreme when the Moon-Earth axis is perpendicular to the Sun-Earth axis. C.In general, neap tides are higher than spring tides. D.None of these statements is true.
D.
Which of the following is NOT true of the Coriolis forces? A.The Coriolis forces explain why cyclonic systems in the northern hemisphere rotate in a counter-clockwise sense. B.Coriolis forces in the northern and southern hemispheres are mirror images. C.Coriolis forces will occur on any spherical planet that rotates about a fixed axis. D.Coriolis forces cause a westward deflection of winds heading northward from the Equator.
D.
Why is the Earth's rotational axis tilted with respect to its orbital plane about the sun? A.The Earth has more continental landmass in the northern hemisphere, and the unequal weight tips it over. B.The gravitational attraction of Jupiter exerts tidal forces that tilt the Earth. C.Earth's magnetic field attracts the iron core of the Moon, and the Moon is usually closer to the northern portion of the Earth. D.The impact of the planetesimal that created the Moon 4.5 Ga ago left the Earth tilted.
D.
the effect of an Eutrophication
Dead organic matter soaks up oxygen and leads to hypoxia, leading to more fish deaths than any other source. (promote algae to grow phosphate)
relationship between the Coriolis effect in the northern and southern hemisphere
Deflections due to the Coriolis effect in the Northern Hemisphere are the opposite of those in the Southern Hemisphere
what happens to the density of H2O with lower temperatures
Density of H2O INCREASES with lower temps... until reaching a maximum at 4 oC •H bonds hold molecules further apart in solid than in liquid
When the Moon is north of the Equator, it pulls the bulge of ocean water to the north...
Dynamic Theory of Tides (tidal force)
Which of the following could explain the oceanic transgression? A)Extra sediment was brought into this area B)Sediment was removed from this area C)Sea level has risen D)A & C E)B & C
E.
what did the release of methyl mercury in Japan lead to
EPA and environmental regulation
how much energy from the sun hits the Earth every hour
Each hour, 430 quintillion Joules of energy from the sun hits the Earth. That's 4.30 x 1020 Joules
how long does Earth rotates about its tilted north-south axis
Earth rotates every 24 hrs about its tilted north-south axis
what creates the opposing bulge
Earth's motion
What happens to the winters in North America during an El Nino
East: warmer and wetter West: warmer
Due to the Coriolis effect, hows the wind deflected when it moves from the equator to the north pole?
Eastward deflection
Coriolis forces deflect the surface current created by a southerly wind to the EAST
Eckman Spiral
small scale gyres
Eddies
A semi-regular cycle in atmospheric pressure in the western Pacific; Climate cycle originating in equatorial Pacific with global amplification, off the coast of Australia when circulation patterns reverse
El-Nino
what creates the swirling pattern in the oceans
European continent forces the water to the West
A "green tide" resulting from discharge of nutrients into oceans from agricultural fertilizers that lead to explosive algal blooms.
Eutrophication
what is the result of no thermohaline circulation
Extreme weather variations
how much oil was released by the Exxon Valdez
Exxon Valdez tanker spilled 10.8 million gallons of oil in Prince William Sound, Alaska in 1989
True or False: All major and minor oceanic gyres in the northern hemisphere rotate clockwise.
False
where is the desert belt located =
Ferrel cells
who first described El Nino
First described in 1904 by Sir Gilbert Walker
effects of global warming
Flooding of coastal regions by melting of continental ice sheets (transgression) •Sea level rise due to glacial melting and water expansion •Agricultural productivity shifts •Changing weather patterns (more intense hurricane from higher water temps that are happening later than normal, and more intense droughts)
what does the average of amount electricity each house uses a year
For context, the average American home uses 39 billion Joules of electricity each year.
why are colder water temperatures more saline
Freezing ice removes H2O and increases salinity •Winter season •Ice Ages
How are waves generated?
Friction of wind combined with high surface tension of water leads to high and low amplitudes as wind blows
2 main people involved in the Eckman Spiral
Fridtjof Nansen Vagn Ekman
what was found during the Nansen's Fram expedition of 1893-1896
Fridtjof Nansen had observed that icebergs tend to drift not in the direction of the prevailing wind but at an angle of 20°-40° to the right.
what gravitational forces attract ocean water
Gravitational forces from Moon and Sun attract ocean waters
CO2 + H2O
H2CO3
another name for Hadley cells? Ferrel cells?
Hadley = tropic Ferrel = temperate
what are the three convection cells
Hadley, Ferrel, Polar
The shape of a gyre in the presence of Coriolis Effects
Highly Asymmetric
The shape of a gyre in the absence of Coriolis Effects
Highly Symmetric
what is Earth rotation in the simplistic system
In a simplistic system, we think of the solid Earth rotating through an ellipsoidal envelope of ocean water
what is the total amount of energy that all humans use in a year.
In comparison, the total amount of energy that all humans use in a year is 4.10 x 1020 Joules.
the effects of methyl mercury
In the 1950s, an industrial plant in Minimata Bay, Japan discharged methyl mercury directly into the ocean water. Children were born with horrific deformities. 2,265 victims have been officially recognized.
what is unique of Indian Ocean gyre
Indian Ocean gyre is complex, with northern and southern subgyres.
What causes the bulges on the sides of the Earth opposite the Sun and Moon?
Inertia
where is the North Pole now located
It was now established that the North Pole was located not on land, nor on a permanent ice sheet, but on shifting, unpredictable pack ice.
Son of famed Norwegian meteorologist Vilhelm Bjerknes; Born in Stockholm, Sweden but taught at UCLA; authored 2 papers in later 1960s proposing a connection between SO reversals and El Nino
Jacob Bjerknes
what is doing the same thing as the oceans
Jovian atmosphere
2 headland beaches
Kelafonia, Greece Kauai, Hawaii
Wave bottom slows down when depth =
L/2 due to friction
Below, positive numbers mean that the eastern Pacific is warm and negative numbers mean that the eastern Pacific is cold. Are we in an El Niño or La Niña today?
La Nina
if the cold water is in the east and the warm water is in the west is this an El Niño or La Niña?
La Nina
the effect of the Exxon Valdez oil spill
Led to deaths of •100,000 and 250,000 seabirds •2,800 sea otters •300 harbor seals •247 bald eagles •22 orcas
when did El-Ninos likely started
Likely started at least ~10,000 years ago, based on 13,000 year-old corals
where does most of the water evaporate?
at the Equator
characteristic of subpolar gyres
Low pressure region at boundary between Ferrel and Polar cells.
Storms rotating counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere =
Low-Pressure Cyclones with Updrafts
when ass the Tsunami at Fukushima Nuclear Plant, Japan
March 11, 2011
what percent of the total animal protein consumed by humans comes from marine sources
Marine sources account for 17% of total animal protein consumed by humans
why do warmer water temperatures lead to lower salinity
Melting ice and river inputs dilute salinity •Summer season •Greenhouse Ages
example of an uplifted terrace
Mendecino, CA; Pacific plate under the North American plate
how mercury is a source of marine pollution
Mercury is a known neurotoxin that can bioaccumulate in humans causing (methyl-mercury): •numb or tingling fingers, lips and toes •developmental delays in children •muscle and joint pain •increased risk of heart attack. Controlled in the US
Aligned with lines of longitude
Meridional
example of a tombolo
Mont St. Michel, Northern Coast of France An abbey built 1000 years ago at the end of a tombolo
what allows for eddies to now be visualized
NASA satellites
are uplifted terraces exposed to weathering
NO
an attempt by the Norwegian explorer Fridtjof Nansen to reach the geographical North Pole by harnessing the natural east-west current of the Arctic Ocean.
Nansen's Fram expedition of 1893-1896
An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
Newton's First Law of Inertia
Is the ice in icebergs salty?
No! The formation of ice takes H2O out of seawater and leaves NaCl behind, making the water saltier and denser
rotation of the thermohaline circulation looking from the north pole? south pole?
North = counter-clockwise South = clockwise
rotation of gyres in the Northern hemisphere? Southern hemisphere?
Northern = clockwise Southern = counter-clockwise
June Solstice
Northern Hemisphere tilts toward sun and has longest day and shortest night (summer); Southern Hemisphere tilts away from sun and has shortest day and longest night (winter) - June 21
what happens to the ocean wave orbitals with increasing depth
Ocean wave orbitals diminish with increasing depth
how much higher is the doming compared to the rest of the oceans
Only 2 meters higher than surrounding ocean
Why do weather systems move from the west to east
PA falls in the temperate cells so wind currents come from the west
what causes global warming
Rising CO2 in the atmosphere leads to the capture of infrared radiation, leading to increased temperatures
What causes ocean acidification?
Rising CO2 in the atmosphere leads to the production of carbonic acid and bicarbonate
effect of ocean acidification
Rising acidity dissolves calcareous shells of mollusks and corals
what are the shapes of coastlines controlled by
Shapes of coastlines controlled by sediment supply
•Mathematician in British Colonial Service tasked with predicting famines in south Asia after 1877 catastrophe, collapse of the monsone
Sir Gilbert Walker
dumptruck and recreate the beach
beach nourishment
how do we calculate Earth's circumference?
The circumference of a circle is 2*pi*r = 2 x 3.14 x 6371 km
how was the moon created
The debris of a planetary crash; extracted magnesium and aluminum silicate
why is relocation bad
beaches are constantly changing trying to fight nature which is impossible
Coupling between wind and solids =
The entire solid moves in the direction of the wind
Does Sun or Moon have the stronger influence on Earth's tides?
The moon
why do planets come from the same planetary nebulae
The planets lie in nearly the same orbital plane, or ecliptic
what is the result of asymmetric gyres
The result is a dome shifted to the east called the Sargasso Sea
Vertical Circulation
Thermohaline Conveyer Belt
what slows down Earth rotation
Tidal Drag Slows Down the Earth's Rotation!
•Called barycenter •In Earth, barycenter is located beneath Earth's surface
Two-body systems orbit about a center of mass
when does upwelling occur
Upwelling occurs when winds blow along the west coast of a continent in the northern hemisphere
what happens as water vapor evaporates
Water vapor rises, cools, and falls
Tsunami in Hilo, Hawaii 1946
Wave Height: 9-16 m (33-55 ft) 159 dead
wavelength of capillary waves
Wavelengths less than ~2 cm
what does weather reflect?
Weather reflects local (geographically smaller) atmospheric convection cells
In the Northern Hemisphere, west currents? east currents?
West currents: Fast and Deep East currents: Slow and Diffuse
what causes the joining of high or low pressure cells
Westerly winds from Coriolis forces drive systems to the East, but high-pressure cells move more quickly than low-pressure cells, so they often takeover low pressure cells.
when are wind speeds the highest
Wind speeds are highest when pressure gradients are strongest; poles have particularly low pressure in the winter months.
what happens to the winds in high-pressure mass
Winds spread outward from margins of air mass
biggest delta
Yukon delta
If you are stranded in the desert and you want a bottle to travel as far as possible you want to chose what type of current
a current off the east coast in the northern hemisphere
what do winds along the coast cause
a flow away from the coast
why does hot air rise
because it is less dense and then cools and sinks due to becoming more dense
normally proportional t 1/R^2 is multiplied by distance between 2 parts of the object (delta r) normalized to size of object (R), or delta r/R. Leads to 1/R^3 dependence.
acceleration
what creates plunging waves
active margins, subduction zones, and steep seabed gradients
the transfer of heat or matter horizontally by fluid flow
advection
the transfer of heat or matter horizontally by fluid flow (left to right)
advection
what happens at the center of a cyclone
air collects at the center and rises upward due to warm air
what happens at the center of a high-pressure mass
air deficit at center creates vacuum
what creates a high-pressure mass
air goes down from the North to the South deflected West and air from the South to the North deflected east
A body of air measuring >1,500 km across with uniform physical characteristics
air mass
what happens during the equinoxes
all latitudes have 12 hrs of sunlight; equal night and day
movement of water from south to north
along lines of longitude and then sinks
Where are diurnal tides found?
along the west coast of the gulf of Mexico
•Distance from still water level to crest (or trough)
amplitude
where are Eddies found
are found closer to continents
when does El Nino typically occur
around Christmas and caused a drop in the fisheries and no monsonal rains causing droughts and less fishing
what happens when a tsunami arrives to shore
arrive at ~50 km/hr as wall of water 10 m high (30 feet can be over 100 feet)
2 solutions for oil spills
bacterial species in the Gulf of mexico that can eat the oil disperns to spread out the oil
where do the large amounts of phosphate come from
bubbling up from the ocean floor
what is the other way waves can be defined
by there period
period is 1/10th of a second
capillary wave
"babies" from which larger waves grow (tiny ripples on the surface)
capillary waves
Wave Speed in distance/time units
celerity
Wave velocity (m/sec)
celerity
M =
center of mass
Inertia of rotating object =
centrifugal force
what is the path of an individual water molecule in deep water
circular (diameter of orbits gets smaller with increasing depth)
what happens to the current when winds move from south to north and are deflected east
current moves northeast
what happens to the current when winds move from north to south and are deflected west
current moves southwest
what happens when the thermohaline circulation after sinking
current travels south and connects with Antarctic Bottom Current
What happens as surface air currents head from north to south on a world that is rotating from west to east?
currents get deflected = known as the Coriolis effect
what do straight wave fronts evolve to
curved wave fronts
pressure of cyclones? anticyclones?
cyclones = low pressure anticyclones = high pressure
flows of low- and high pressure air masses
cyclonic
what happens to the angle of the waves as you move closer to the shore
decrease angle
3 types of waves
deep water transitional shallow water
d > L/2 =
deep water waves
more saline =
deeper and more dense
Which path correctly depicts the Coriolis force for winds from the equator to the south pole?
deflected to the East
characteristics of Ferrel air currents
deflected to the east come from the west
Which path correctly depicts the Coriolis force for winds from the south pole to the equator?
deflected to the west
characteristics of Hadley air currents
deflected to the west come from the east
what generates winds
differences in air pressure
what causes the Coriolis Effect
differences in momentum between the Equator and the poles
what does advection of water by wind causes?
displaces water and allows colder and denser water to rise
velocity =
distance/time
what are waves generated by
disturbing forces and by restoring forces
what is the disturbing and restoring force of a tsunami
disturbing: seismic disruption and landslides restoring: gravity
Wind Waves Disturbing Force: Restoring Force:
disturbing: wind forces generated from capillary waves restoring: gravity
once/day =
diurnal
what causes a rip current
due to a build up of water due to high wave activity
why is equatorial water slightly diluted during the summer
due to more rainfall at the equator diluting the water
what can terminate or reverse the westerly movement of the water in the walker circulation
due to the stopping or weakening of trade winds
Where do you see the ellipse flatten
during fall and spring (September and March Equinox)
1.Adds complexities of coastlines, bays, ocean basin geometry, Earth deformation, and role of the Sun
dynamic theory
what contribute to the unequal distribution of heating at the equator and the poles
earth being tilted at 23.5 degrees creating a different path of sun rays between the equator and the poles.
Winds from the Equator to the North Pole are deflected from east or west
east
Where are semidiurnal tides found?
east coast
due to the rotation of the Earth what currents do not feel the effects of the Coriolis Effect
east to west
How will Coriolis Forces affect the direction of water flow from south to north in the northern hemisphere?
easterly direction
reverse flow =
el nino
what shape does the Earth orbit around the sun
ellipse causing different areas to experience different amounts of sunlight
what are waves
energy cycles in motion •Sometimes it is useful to think of wave cycles rather than wave distances
what do waves move
energy not matter
hottest temperature =
equator
are temps at the equator stable or variable? far from the equator?
equator = stable far from the equator = variable; experience seasons
effect of the Coriolis effect at the equator? poles?
equator = weakest (0) poles = the strongest
March Equinox
equator faces the sun directly; neither pole tilts toward the sun; all regions on earth experience 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of darkness - March 20
September Equinox
equator faces the sun directly; neither pole tilts toward the sun; all regions on earth experience 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of darkness - September 22
low air pressure =
equatorial low
1.Assumes Earth is a smooth ball
equilibrium theory
what happens at hot ocean water at the equator
evaporates
How many wave crests pass a fixed point each second -Measured in cycles per second -So Period = 1/Frequency
frequency (inverse of the period)
what direction do atmospheric convection cells generate surface winds
from high to low pressure
what is net movement of waves
from left to right
The boundary between air masses
front
C^2 =
g x d, or C = √(g × d) where g is the gravitational acceleration (a constant = 9.8 m/sec^2) and d is depth (in m)
what are waves generated
generated by wind
what are energy budgets analogous to
geochemical cycle
what should you do in the face of a tsunami
get to tallest building or highest ground
moving away from the equator =
getting ahead
Glacially carved valley flooded by sea level rise with characteristic U cross-section
glacial fjords
Waves "spill" shallow sea beds located at a passive margin (no subduction) found on the east coast
gradual slope
A flow of current around the periphery of an ocean basin
gyre
within an ocean not around a continent
gyre
what does downwelling contribute to?
gyres
Zone of major salinity change
halocline
-Structures built to prevent movement of sand along a beach; prevent sediment from moving
hard stabilization
what does the temperature remain relatively constant on Earth
heat inputs = heat outputs
what does the input of sediments lead to
leads to regression
what does the outgo of sediments cause
leads to transgression
longer period =
longer wavelength
•Migration of sand in direction of wave approach
longshore drift
•Transport of sediment by currents parallel to shore
longshore transport
lots of islands =
lots of eddies
what does an updraft pulling air away from you (rising air) create
low pressure at the surface
what are hot spots associated with
low pressure cells
another name for cyclones
low pressure masses
updrafts =
low pressure zones
convergence aloft =
low to high pressure; move downward towards the surface
divergence aloft =
low to high pressure; moving away from the surface
air moving away from the surface (moving away from you)=
low-pressure zone
low salinity and higher temperatures =
lower density
gravitational force for tides
mass of planet/distance^3
what is the net water flow over the water column
may be perpendicular to the wind direction
is methane or CO2 more efficient at absorbing infrared radiation
methane
successive high and low tides have significantly different heights (double bumps)
mixed
why does rising air rotate counter-clockwise
more air needs to rush down to replace it
colder temperature + more salinity =
more dense
what happens to the motion of water molecules as you move closer to the beach
move from being orbital to elliptical
what direction does the the Antarctic Circumpolar Current
moves Northerly; Eckman spiral in the South causes leftward deflection
why is methane not worried about as much as CO2 when it comes to greenhouse gases
much shorter half-life (30-40 days)
where are nutrient rich waters typically found
near the poles
The Ekman Spiral for winds from north to south
need to compensate for the loss of water diverging to the west pulling water away from the coast
what colors does the moon becomes during a lunar eclipse
red
what happens when toxins are released during Eutrophication
red tides
example of a cycle of energy
reflected by clouds --> can be absorbed by the ocean --> released through infrared radiation
bending waves =
refraction
capillary waves restoring and disturbing force
restoring = surface tension disturbing = wind
a strong, localized, and narrow current of water which moves directly away from the shore
rip or rip current
what is the incorrect term for rip current
rip tides
river builds out into ocean from coastline (protected from strong currents), Mississippi River
river-dominated
what happens as mountains erode or icebergs melt
roots get shallow and boundary shifts upward
what smooths out the shores
rough shoreline headlands are more vulnerable to weathering leads to embayments (sediments move inward)
characteristics of Polar air currents
same as the Hadley cell
what can contribute to differing surface temperatures
sea temperatures
what does Earth's tilt give rise to
seasonality
what are the interactions between wind and water complicated by
the fluidity of water
circular river flowing in the middle of the Atlantic =
the gulf stream
what generated the moon and the tilt of the Earth
the impact of Theia
what do fisherman rely on
the upwelling of cold water bring up lots of nutrients so more fishing
Zone of major temperature change
thermocline
what do pynoclines coincide with
thermoclines and haloclines
Movement of ocean water caused by density differences due to temperature and salinity
thermohaline circulation
Walter Broecker =
thermohaline circulation
what causes objects that are launched at the equator causing it get ahead
they are traveling faster at the equator (due to the angular velocity)
what happens to the boundaries between convection cells with seasons
they move with the seasons
thickness and width of jet streams =
thickness = 3-4 miles width = 100's miles
represent difference in gravitational forces acting on different parts of an object.
tidal force
measures the vertical distance between low and high tide (difference between low and high tide) •Up to 16 m at Bay of Fundy
tidal reach
tidal flow inward and seaward causes channels and islands perpendicular to coast; huge change in tides creating islands
tide-dominated
Why has NASA selected Cape Canaveral for rocket launches
to gain added oomph (=momentum) of southerly location; Earth is doing some of the work that the engine does not have to
two types of surface winds
trade winds and westerlies
what is in between deep water and shallow water waves
transitional waves
3 techniques used to determine temperature
tree rings corals ice cores
what areas are effected the most by El Ninos weather changes
tropics, rising air leads to more rainy weather
where does water condense into rain
troposphere
Every fluid molecule follows a very complex path; not a straight and disrupted flow of H2O
turbulent flow
what will happen to each layer of the water in the Eckman Spiral
will be deflected to the East
what is the lateral movement of air from high pressure to low pressure called
wind
Winds that blow for a short time will not generate large waves
wind duration
Wind must be moving faster than the wave crests for energy transfer to continue
wind strength
3 factors that control wave development
wind strength wind duration fetch
"wave trains" =
wind waves
wavelength of wind waves
•2 cm to 100 m (due to long wind duration, large fetch, and large wind strength)
ratio of wavelength to wave height =
•7:1 •If L = 70 m, then H = 10 m
what does advection apply to
•Applies to water flow on land or in oceans •Applies to groundwater circulation •Applies to wind
What is the Earth's velocity halfway between the north pole and the equator (45o N latitude)in km/hr?
•At 45o N latitude, the circle's radius & circumference are half that of the Equator •So speed at 45o N latitude is half that at the Equator •834 km/hr
what are the steps for a surf to occur
•Bottom of wave hits shore bottom •Bottom of wave slows down from friction •Wave height increases •Wave topples over as a breaker in surf - top of the wave going faster than the bottom
what is the general rule for wave depth
•By a depth (d) of ½ the wavelength (L), energy transfer (and orbital wave motion) are negligible (can not longer feel the effects)
what is celerity related to
•Celerity is related only to water depth (d)
In the northern hemisphere, Coriolis Forces lead to:
•Clockwise rotation around downwelling and downdrafts •Counter-clockwise rotation around upwelling and updrafts
"Boxing Day" Tsunami - Dec. 26, 2004
•Countries Most Affected: Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, India •187,000 Dead and 43,000 Missing = 230,000 •Second largest earthquake ever recorded • After 9.5 in Chile on 22 May 1960 •Faulting lasted 500 to 600 seconds (faulting usually 10 sec.) (lasted 10 min) • Longest duration ever observed •Energy released equal to 0.25 gigatons of TNT •Earth's surface oscillated 8-12 inches at epicenter (went up) • About half an inch over whole planet
Earth and moon rotate around this center of mass (like figure-skaters), what is created?
•Creates an ocean bulge on the opposite side •Ocean is flung outward because of centrifugal force
what are rip currents like
•Cut through the lines of breaking waves like a river running out to sea
what shape is the energy transfer seen in water
•Energy transfer occurs by circular motions of water molecules, or "orbits" •No net lateral motion of water or seagull as wave passes by - some frictional drag that would move it a little bit further but not enough to make a noticeable difference
why are capillary waves able to coalesce to wind waves
•High wind velocity •Long wind duration (sustained winds) •Long fetch (uninterrupted by land)
dynamic theory of tides
•Includes the effect of continental margins on tides •Predicts that Coriolis forces will move tidal bore in a counterclockwise fashion in northern ocean basins (opposite of gyres) - clockwise in the Southern hemisphere •Rotation occurs about central amphidromic points
Tsunami at Fukushima Nuclear Plant, Japan
•Known as 2011 Tohoku Earthquake •Magnitude 9.03 earthquake •Most powerful ever to hit Japan •Fifth most powerful known •Focal depth of 20 miles (since it was so strong and so close to shore) •Tsunami reached heights of 133 feet •15,882 deaths, 6,142 injured, and 2,668 people missing •Three nuclear reactors experienced full meltdown (still a problem today) •380,000 buildings collapsed
what causes oceanic transgressions
•Periods of fast ocean spreading that make shallow seafloor (e.g., Atlantic Ocean relative to deep Pacific) •Longshore sediment removal outpaces river inputs •Melting of glaciers and ice caps due to global warming