Globalization Midterm 2
the New Middle East
*The Mesopotamian Campaign (1971-1918)* - British are at war with Ottoman empire, want to protect oil supply, invade through modern day Kuwait and Iraq - Much to British shock, the Ottoman Empire (that had suffered many defeats) proved to be a more formidable opponent in defeating its own core territory - British army is defeated and captured, requires a second invasion to seize Iraq; instead of a site of strategic breakthrough, becomes another bloody front - Exacerbates turkish nervousness that leads to genocide *Armenian Genocide (1915)* - Armenians had been subjected to ethnic attacks; in wartime conditions, imagined security threats and ethno-religious prejudice - Mostly unjustified of a fifth column exposed in the east of the ottoman empire - conduct a series of purges and then death marches - Scale of the deaths are in the millions, armenians never recover, precedent to future genocides - Points to the problem of appointing an ethnic national framework (ie ethnic self-determination) *Arab Revolt (1916-1918)* - Focused on the Hejaz Railway - A campaign which is small scale, captures the global imagination; implications for post-war political arrangements in the middle east - British stands in the way of arab national independence and self-determination - Had promised Ottoman territory in exchange for support - TE Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia), British officer that publicizes himself as Lawrence of Arabia - Sykes-Picot Agreement: British had promised the same territories twice over; British attempt to fix things using a figure head model - Conflict remains unresolved; Balfour Declaration british promised a national home to the jewish people - Post war settling of promises is not undertaken in good faith
The Second Industrial Revolution
*precursors: Machine Tool Industry, Interchangeable Parts, Railroad Networks, Steamships, Global Markets who: King Ludwig of Bavaria (develops a sleigh, and is the first vehicle with lights) Thomas Edison (lightbulb) Michael Faraday (basis for electric motor) what: new industries in steel, chemicals electricity/electrification --> new energy and lighting systems (lamp, electricity, oil) huge expansion in railroads and textile, iron, coal production new applied sciences (chemistry) the bessemer process: removes impurities in iron when: 1870-1914 where: why: world is now recognizably modern the bessemer process decreases the cost of producing steel, improves railroads continuous improvement of old technologies new technologies could amplify old technologies and make them better new transportation technology (bicycle, car, early stage airplane) new agriculture, companies, markets, medicine, communications
the Pacific War
Begins with the burst of Japanese expansion: French Indochina, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, The Philippines, Hong Kong, Singapore, Burma, Dutch East Indies Called their empire the Great East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere Inspiration at the outset in its ability to rid european imperial rule Japan is dependent on American oil, unwilling to back down from war in China - Extraordinary aggression in the pacific that begins with the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor - Brilliant strategic victory for the Japanese, but did not issue a declaration of war - Leads the US to declare war on the empire of Japan Decisive Battle; Battle of Midway (6-7/1942) - Japanese lose 4 aircraft carriers; Japanese system had included very good pilots and very maneuverable aircraft (expensive level of training and irreplaceable) - US produces 1,000 of aircrafts w/ medium training, allow them to fly faster - Achieve aerial dominance which allow it to pursue a strategy of island hopping, overwhelming naval and air forces of bloody short, sharp battles - Japanese suffer huge casualties because they have nowhere to go US began with severe setbacks due to destruction of positions in the Pacific British forces in Singapore after defeats in Malaysia are captured, crumbling of European positions in south east Asia - Indian army fights loyally for Britain in WW2, stop Japanese in Burma US flies Supplies to Nationalist China Aerial resupply of isolated positions by the British and US; emulated later in the Berlin airlift
Berlin Conference and the Scramble for Africa
Berlin Conference (1884) who: 14 powers, no African states what: control is granted through mutual recognition from one of the 14 powers It is blank map, and things can simply be taken with minimal resistance can do because of change in european technological advantage why: sets the ground rules for european expansion in africa Meant to diffuse conflict, but causes rapid expansion on the ground unprecedented change in the political makeup of the continent Break from European precedent; had been in Africa for many years, established trade and treaties, but now colonizing A new tier of scientific racism British colonies turn out to be crucial when the scramble leads to colonization of the inland The Scramble for Africa (1881-1913) why: upwards of 90% is under european colonial rule by 1913 European powers focused on profit, what to minimize administration cost use authoritarian military based rule (no matter the original government) means the local investment on infrastructure is minimal Pretty destructive of native cultures/existing authorities Take their systems of indirect rule (believed to be effective in india) and rely on local authorities who are invested with great local power but less independence than before as europeans solidify in an authoritarian hierarchy The British and others rely on the chartered company Operating in multiple countries (Rodesia and Nigeria)
Ottoman Crises
Congress of Berlin (1878) - settles unsuccessful constitutionalist effort in 1876 (suppressed in 1878), ottomans defeated by the Russians - leads to the independence of the northern and central balkans - ottoman empires had been a major power in the balkans and is largely pushed out - balkans are a place of enduring conflict, bring big powers in *Bosnian Crisis (1908-1909)* - Austria-Hungary has its own internal conflicts, decides to annex Bosnia - accomplished easily, sets up a dangerous dynamic - Opens up an open season on the Ottoman Empire, because they cannot defend their territories - Alienation among Great Powers - The road to the Balkan Wars and the First World War *Italo-Turkish War (1911-1912)* - Italy takes Libya - Balkan League attacks weakened Ottomans, starting 1st Balkan War *First Balkan War (1912-1913)* - Balkan League defeats the Ottomans and expels them from the Balkans with exception of the area around Istanbul - Small balkan state gangs up on Ottoman empire to seize its territory → particularly ones occupied by orthodox christians - Bulgaria is the winner of this war *Second Balkan War (1913)* - Region of the balkans had been at war and had not settled before WW1 - All neighbouring powers team up against Bulgaria When ottomans perform well in WW1 its is shocking since they had suffered many defeats in the years prior
the Great Depression
Globally destructive consequences what: The Wall Street Crash of 1929; snowballing of crisis, globally linked to misfortune and bad policy - Banking crisis → banking bankruptcies make the problem worse - Deflation: bad policy; the relatively new federal reserve contributes to the fall in the money supply; Sharp credit and monetary deflation took place at the same time amidst sharp recession after a period of a high degree of credit leads to a wave of bankruptcies - Smoot Hawley and Protectionism: American protectionism leads to tariffs US institutes some of the highest tariffs in its history (Smoot Hawley Tariffs) - GDP and Unemployment: Extreme unemployment pushes extreme political radicalism; channeled in the US but not in Germany when: US; 1929; Global: 1931 why: banking: Provokes bank runs, contributes to the anti-semitic rhetoric because many banks are owned by Jews → Hitler Most people don't try to understand and they try to place blame (often on the bankers) debt: Deflation makes debts more burdensome; difficult to pay off in tight credit situations tariffs: retaliation against SH leads to huge drops in global trade and access to markets; This combined with policies pursued by fascist and communist leaders creates a very closed trading system and strongly politically mediated markets Unemployment: Germany had been very dependent on american loans and finance to sustain its economy and collapses
Radical Alternatives: Marxist and Fascists
Marxist - state led forced modernization, industrialization,and collectivization 5 year plans; vary substantially from country to country - Farm collectivization is a failure and often not pushed - Ways in which it can perceived as a success but there is a human cost that we know now (millions die, political oppression, expropriation of resources, inefficiency) why: New scientific theory of history → does make new factories and expands cities and have economic achievements - Appealing in postcolonial settings to break out of traditional capitalist solutions; usually a matter of trying to jump to modernity through radical political actions - Popular in autocratic regimes, provides the government with increased power over resources and employment Fascists - Regimes in Italy and Germany - Animated by similar ideas; states that embrace their model in South America - Corporatism: maintains a nominally capitalist economy with state involvement (state and company involvement, collusive) - Measurement: emphasize that trains run on time; fascination with speed and the automobile (autoban) - Hidden costs/opportunity costs; some of the policies works, investment programs - Love of the big and the centralized; things that are visibly modern - Seem to hold promise
Wave of 5 Revolutions
Revolutions against autocratic regimes; Russian Revolution, Iranian Revolution, Ottoman Young Turks, Chinese Revolution, Mexican Revolution *Chinese Revolution (1911-1912)* - Xinhai Revolution --> Qing Dynast falls, not a smooth transition *Revolution of 1905 (1905-1907)* - First one is provoked by the Russo-Japanese War → Russia remained a politically top-down autocracy, unable to reform, unwilling to bend - Pushed by a wave of assassinations, leads the administration to double down; loss to Japan was humiliating - Unlike other revolutions in Europe, establish Constitution of 1906; Imperial Duma = legislator - Tsar ultimately emerged in a powerful position, having survived the challenge *Constitutional Revolution in Iran (1905-1911)* - First begins in 1905-1906, restored regime is unsuccessful; successor, abolished the constitution and shelled Parliament - Britain and russia had been competing in central Asia - Largely suppressed; Constitutionalists topple the Shah, install a new guy; constitution restored *Young Turk Revolution of 1908* - Between the 2 waves of constitutionalist revolution in Iran - End of Sultan Abdul Hamid II's autocratic rule - Reinstatement of the Constitution of 1876 - Led by military officers, revolution is immediately contested, but they are successful initially, don't meet their end until WW1 - Do not save the Ottoman Empire *The Mexican Revolution (1910-1920)* - Prompted by similar tensions around conflicts with urbanization and modernization and social change - Presided over by an autocratic system (but nominally democratic), top-down system gives people no voice, politically unstable - Succession crises emerges with his reelection, replaced in 1911, but its is not a smooth transition (as with other countries with constitutional reform) - Wave of assassinations and coups, collapse of the center, violent conflicts between armies and citizens - Shares many of the same structural dynamics that we have seen before
Debt, Reparations, and the Gold Standard: the Collapse of an Old Order
The Gold Standard what: The money supplied is mediated through the banking system, government policy but is linked to the amount of gold and contingent on mining British attempt to return to the Gold Standard after the war (the British empire are heavily in debt and experienced significant inflation) Reduction in the amount of goods available and increase in the money supply, change the valuation and hold it against the gold standard when: 1890-1913 (peak of global integration and gold mining) why: system with in-built fragility, accelerated by war but present independently little hyper-inflation, but causes bouts of deflation British attempt to restore the pre-world system; deflationary intentionally Attempts to return to balanced budgets and free trade, gives up under pressure in 1931 Debt/Russia: Investing in equity and stocks is a good idea; critique of this points out that there is political risk; Shares in Russian companies in 1918 go to zero because they seize the means of production, default on debt why: Change in regime can lead to old debts not being honored and new ones being issued New states born from revolution and war began in a financially tenuous position Start to see a process of untangling of global capital, economic globalization is harder and riskier A series of costs from war that causes economic stagnation, leaves burdens for the future Debt/Reparations: The burden of debt tends to spike and therefore the burden of repayment - Allies covered their massive deficits through massive borrowing Wilson and Free Trade: league of nations pushed for international economic agreements and more open trade; the failure of this has an economic effect Reparations/Treaty of Versailles: Immediately the treaty was met with criticism by John Leonard Keynes; rested on the notion that punitive peace did not adhere to the 14 points (German had agreed to these during armistice) - The loss of territory, reparations was beyond what was necessary; the peace imposed on Germany will be destabilizing to the new german republic, bad for the global economy - Germany in crisis: Hyperinflation, the Dawes Plan, and the Young Plan - Conflict over reparations when german fails to pay them - France occupied the Ruhr, Germany encourages passive resistance which is financed by government money (This destroys the currency, no value, develop a new plan of payments underwritten by loans → circularity) - The US will loan money to germany, germany will pay reparations, the allies will pay their loans to the US - The Allies link their loan payments to the US to the german payments, which US resists (Stop receiving payments in 1931 and then stop to payback the US in 1933) why: German only pays back a small fraction of the reparations, and then defaults, breeds resentment and disastrous effects on Germany
Northeast Asia Crises
Who will control korea, and by extension manchuria? Japan will win first round Issue of reform and the role of westerners in china *Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)* - Japanese navy wins this war - seizure of the island of taiwan - a major coming out point for the meiji restoration - Decisive break of model of civilization, Japan had looked to china - Makes the rest of the world reconsider the role of japan → now one of the great powers - Industrialized military might and imperialist aggression - This defeat is shocking to china *Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901)* - China after the war, shock to China - 100 days of reform to address the defeat, stopped by a conservative coup - Dynasty then condones the Boxers (patriotic, anti-foreign, anti-missionary group, engages in massacres in northern china) - Allows an international coalition to operate in close cooperation in service of civilization, defend the weak *Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)* - Between Russia and Japan - Trans Siberian railroad, Russia is looking east (seen as limitless opportunities to expand) - Railroad does not achieve its purpose of providing military support to the front - Korea and Manchuria represent essential national interest for Japan and they stop the Russias there (both the russian military and fleet) - Russia's humiliation leads to revolution *Xinhai Revolution (1911-1912)* - Qing dynasty falls to revolution driven by internal dynamics due to the collapse of prestige of the dynasty, increasing foreign intervention, weakness of the dynasty (young leader) - Transition from empire to republic is not smooth
Oil Boom
what: parallels gold rush (i.e. boomtowns, resources mobilized, etc.); surface deposits are the easiest to find, get things going, but not sustainable in the long run; extreme expansion of oil industry in Pennsylvania, takes place quickly because it is a widely spread resource; Baku Oil Boom; need massive financing, an effective well, need demand; US is a very large market, access to capital and expertise (same ones that had fueled the rail industry), access to infrastructure that can move product to markets, subsurface rights are privately held when: 1859 - where: Pennsylvania, Baku, Azerbaijan, Texas, California why: oil booms become a global phenomenon; transforms oil industry from whale oil to petroleum; discovery of oil in LA transforms the city into a boomtown (and then later transformed through the film industry) California-Arabian Standard Oil Co.
WW1 in Africa
what: recruiting sergeant raising forces to fight at home and mobilizing to extract resources 3 sets of campaigns in Africa, focusing on the german colonies in Africa - German Cameroon (1914-1916): falls after 2 years of conflict, German colonial troops based in Nigeria - German Southern Africa, had pioneered some of their harshest policies, effectively conquered by South Africa → becomes Namibia - East Africa → largest conflict German military strategy is undefeated for the entire war, intended to avoid defeat and tie down soldiers that could be fighting in Germany why: expensive, but very effective - Involves mobilization of Belgian forces in the Congo and Portuguese forces in Mozambique, and British in Kenya (merging Tambinica and Zanzibar eventually, under British)
The Battle of Omdurman and the Fashoda Incident
the Battle of Omdurman who: British, Mahdist forces what: the British build a railroad down the nile for their army advantage, have more advanced military technology but the Egyptians provide powerful forces and have room to maneuver the British slowly move down the nile to deliver a crushing defeat to the Mahdist forces when: 1898 where: Egypt why: creates anglo-egypt sudan under an anglo-egpytian administration; Winston Churchill took part the Fashoda Incident who: French and British what: a smaller french force heading east met the larger British force heading south in Fashoda the French and British faced off briefly, but came to an accord based on Britain's greater power when: 1898 where: South Sudan why: transformed by the abolition of slavery a site of nationalist posturing, talk of war inflames tensions between Britain and France; symbolic of the way in which imperialism and national rivalries can exert power, ignoring existing political authorities
the Congo Free State and the Heart of Darkness
the Heart of Darkness who: Joseph Conrad what: The campaign to demonstrate the violent qualities in the Congo is conducted in a poem when: 1899 why: demonstrates english moral outrage over coercive practices overseas/human rights abuses (seen before with abolition and the slave trade) the Congo Free State who: Portugal withdrew in the 17th century King Leopold II (Belgium) what: Leopold built up a personal colony, it was the most coercive, violent, european colonial possession guns, ammunition, chains, rubber, and ivory come in develop a system of quotas, enforced by amputations when: why: birthplace of imperial ambitions in Europe An epic act of forgetting europe's previous relationships or dismissing them as insignificant causes scandal and outrage (even in the midst of high imperialism) based on indirect observation from accounts of shipping companies becomes a huge embarrassment for Belgium Leopold is forced to give it up, demand regime change transformed into the Belgian Congo, comes out of the period with some of the lowest education levels in the world shows that colonial powers that did not invest in infrastructure justify the need for their paternal rule based on the lack of development of their subjects
Ethiopia and the Battle of Adwa
who: Italy and Ethiopia; Emperor Menelik II what: Ethiopia was undering a period of modernization under a new ruler and Italy underestimated it had been a christian country and pretty isolated because of internal fracturing Ethiopia armed using modern equipment thanks to Russians and French; much more numerous forces when: 1896 why: italy regrets its involvement in Africa, their first invasion of Ethiopia culminated in a a humiliating defeat follows it up with securing international reconifiont of its territorial boundaries part of the league of nations before fascist Italy reconquers it shows the limits of european high imperialism
Bretton Woods Conference
what: Clear the allies are on the path to win the war; stock to make a new economic system Town in New Hampshire; creation of the Bretton Woods system, creation of a new international monetary system Foreign exchange rates → pegged to the dollar and convertible to gold, meant to be stable International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (now part of the World Bank, originally for rebuilding Europe) Discussion about development → narrative pushed is about financial stability Exchange rates: flexibility and convertibility, prevent tensions from building up around deficits IMF: original premise to provide short term loans in line with quotas of contributions to the fund (still exists today and helps countries with economic problems, covering debts) when: 1944 why: Reaction to currency problems and the competitive devaluations, protectionism, and destructive economic nationalisms -- don't want to make the mistakes that occurred in the interwar period US is lynchpin, does not pursue policies consistent with these in the 1960s, inflationary, US gold coverage slips, Nixon withdraws from Bretton Woods; replaced by floating exchange rates Suffering endured during the war means they have earned some support from the state → creation of a welfare state, Beveridge report and the NHS, mainly British GI Bill and American Universities
the Department Store
what: Le Bon Marche when: 1852 where: Paris why: epitomized the new era of good, new consumer goods and technologies are rooted out never the dominant retail format but it is a global format (Japan and Egypt demand side of industrial revolution, could provide goods from around the world
New Urban Organization
what: Metropolitan Police Act (1829) the Police: new police force that is professional, efficient, and of the city character by parliament for the entire metropolitan region; managed fairly and professionally, the new instrument of a liberal regime, instrument of public order; separate from the military and from preventing revolution the Metro: the London Underground, develops from a metropolitan railway to deep tube lines using electric trains, connected to other railways; mechanism for moving people around in a congested city the Water Infrastructure: new urban infrastructure is created in the net-gothic style, take new architectural study from the world and use it for public health; new water architecture when: 1820s-30s ; 1890 where: England why: 'the Bobbies' named after Robert Peel, become the template for all professional police forces most effective method for new public health system along with professional nursing and better organized hospitals; more cleanliness, becomes a showcase of urban display speeding up the pace of circulation because less crowded streets (and with the other things in general for the city) allows for the spreading out of the city because easier to travel leads to huge population density problems because before skyscrapers
the New Technologies of WW2
what: Radar Defense System: Britain endures the Blitz and the Battle of Britain that involved a campaign of urban bombing to drive Britain out of the war because it is in possession of this new technology to direct air defenses Allows it to use smaller and less impressive military forces to great effect; know when german bombers are coming and can deploy their fighters to minimize the damage Sonar Technologies: help defeat german U-boats Code Breaking: Polish officers smuggle essential information to break the german codes to the allies use a combination of early computers and clever math and understanding the german weather reports usually had the same formulaic phrase allowed them to break the codes (Heil Hitler) where: Bletchley Park why: The Allies break the codes and keep the secret even after the war; focus more on redirecting convoys to make the attacks less successful Alan Turing is mistreated and is key in breaking this leads to no further development Kept it a secret, allowed raids to get through if no persuasive other means could be demonstrated that the British knew of
New Technologies of War
what: Submarines, Airplanes, Tanks, Mustard Gas; All are effort to create strategic breakthrough but do not achieve it; Aircrafts are not essential, but capture imagination; Gas is used extensively in the first world war; Easier to deploy in the fixed position of trench warfare; Not all new technologies are rolled out for the war effort why: None of them change the fundamental dynamics of the conflict All have precedents in civilian technologies from the late 19th and early 20th century → cars Hitler is gassed in the first world war, and is willing to use it against his own people but unwilling to use it in combat Dramatic improvement and extensive use of new technologies due to the state military industrial complex Will return to the civilian sphere after the war
the Holocaust
what: The worst genocide in history → 'the final solution' The majority of the deaths are directed toward an effort to exterminate the Jewish population in Europe Systematic and bureaucratic elimination of an entire people; exploitation, followed by death A policy at the heart of the Nazi regime, open secret in Germany; known during the war and then quickly forgotten afterwards People are aware of what they were doing but did not stop it The horror is compounded by the utter innocence of the victims 6 mil Jews, 200k Roma, 200k disabled, 2 mil Soviet POWs; up to 11 mil killed Complete vision was to exterminate more in eastern Europe when: 1933-1945 why: Not the bloodiest event of WW2 (that is the eastern front) but has a special horror Changes the perception of what the war was; this had been mostly invisible to the allied public Leads to modern international human rights law, the Creation of Israel, the need to intervene in matters of genocide and rights violations
The World's Fair/Universal Expos
what: first takes place in London; attracts people from around the world; success is measured by the number of visitors, countries that come, and the grandeur of the buildings; include both fine/liberal arts, and technological innovations (from 2nd industrial revolution); place to test out new infrastructure and urban amusements, meant to get better each time Electricity/Electrification is put on display at the Chicago World's Fair when: 1851-1915 where: London (Crystal Palace), Paris (its the universal city, Eiffel Tower is built), Melbourne, Chicago, San Fransisco why: captures essential themes in the 19th c urban frame, notion/image of progress and civilization; idea that success of the worlds fair will bring all people together in harmony and progress; increase in visitors demonstrates population growth and popularity of these events --> leads to the development of the olympics paris is the #1 tourist center in the world development of amusement parks because use rides as part of the celebration in Chicago (first ferris wheel) underneath this internationalism there is still this competitive national pride that will swamp this internationalism indicate participation in the modern world, mastering the new technologies and european universalism
Muhammad Ali and Egyptian Modernization
when: 1805-1848 who: Ali is an Egyptian ruler that takes advantage of relative freedom to embark on a period of radical modernization; massacres people to get control helps suppress the revolution in Greece to win favor with the Ottoman empire pushes his luck too far, miscalculates the european powers willingness to provide him with support or remain neutral in gaining independence what: creation of a strong centralized state, powerful army and navy, infrastructure projects, investment in showcase capital cities, and the desire to receive european recognition of independence (get almost all of these) army occupies Sudan which eventually carries into the British occupation of Sudan why: creates the suez canal (but is very expensive and Egypt is unable to sustain it) Canal shares and its independence are conceded to the British on the grounds of recouping debts Could not afford military expenses, makes them indebted to europeans allowing Britain to take over Charles George Gordon → gov gen of sudan until 1880, dies in battle, British use him as an imperial symbol
the Eastern Front
when: 1939-1944 where: eastern europe, the balkans, and the Soviet Union what: begins with the partition of Poland the Winter War (1939-1940); disastrous for the Soviet Union - Seize the Balkans and keeps them - Also invades Finland, expected to easily defeat them (Finland defeats Russia, but they still end up losing valuable territories) - Stalin had engaged in purges that had wiped out much of the Soviet military leadership The Invasion of the USSR - Shocking military success at first, combination of speed and maneuver, in particular Germans benefited from Stalin's blindness (ie didn't think he would be betrayed) - Allowed the Germans to isolate and capture huge soviet armies; soviet military loses would have knocked out any other power from war - However, these huge defeats were not sufficient to knock the Russians out of the war; distance and winter did in the Germans, incapable of getting supply and begin to be ground down The Siege of Leningrad (1941-1944) - St Petersburg is almost completely cut-off German offensive never captures the city but inflicts horrible losses on civilians and soldiers The Battle of Stalingrad (1942-1943) - Forces are initially pushed in and then are cut-off - Germans are defeated at Stalingrad, turning point in the war; incredibly costly to completely expel them from Russia why: The weakness of the Soviet Union is demonstrated (in the Winter War) and publicized; Germans see an opportunity in 1941 the vast majority of the casualties take place between the Germans and Russians on the eastern front; the scale of the forces is 10x that on the western front The 2 great battles take place after 2 key soviet figures (Leningrad and Stalingrad) Victories are driven by ideologies
The Skyscraper
where: Chicago, St. Louis, New York what: steel frame buildings, elevators, electric lighting, massive increase in height (from 5-6 stories to 10+ stories), the Woolworth building is 57 floors high when: 1891 why: capture the same ethos of european cities (neoclassicism, avenues, railroad structures, etc.) brings together new technologies of the 2nd industrial revolution --> increasingly affordable steel, embrace of electrification, the elevator issues of density and the demands on urban infrastructure a new step change in urban density and a new modern world
Showcase Cities
where: Vienna and New Delhi what: Vienna the Ringstabe, replaced the city walls with a ring road, constructed along with a series of public buildings, all of the things a modern capital city should have, neoclassical structure copied in New Delhi (capital of British India) when: 1860s-1980s why: meant to express imperial pomp and circumstance, meant to be a modern place of government and infrastructure but also a place to have grand public events (ND)
the Bicycle
who: what: origins --> velocipede (bike w/ no pedals); Michaux/Boneshaker is the first popular pedaled bicycle; introduction of pedals is a breakthrough, creation of safety pedals; The bicycle underwent rapid development from the 1860s -1880s resulting in a recognizably modern bicycle; popular bicycle riding took off in the 1890s; rapid increase in the amount of bicycle riding and the price falls; gendered bicycles to accommodate victorian style clothing when: 1860, 1890s why: opportunity for personal autonomy and separate travel, beginning of mass campaigns for women's suffrage (site of social contestation); women change their clothing to ride normal bicycles
the Versailles Treaties
who: Allied Powers v. losers what: Germany's peace treaty; treaties are signed with each individual central powers; conference comes as a surprise to participants, leaves some key players disappointed; has appearance as being international but it is a negotiation among the heads of state physically present Conference among allied powers to decide what should be done to the defeated powers does not consider any reforms to the existing empires or honor existing treaties of the war Germany: must pay war reparations, lose territory, loses all colonies, demilitarization (can only have 100,000 man army), must express its war guilt, left under blockade throughout the whole conference (wasn't really able to participate) when: 1919 where: Versailles why: serves as an international gathering that brings hope to national reformists Reduction to conference among key leaders and allied powers of smaller countries accounts for the problematic quality of the conference leads to revolution in Germany after the fall of the empire Austria Hungary ceases to exist as an empire
ANZAC and Gallipoli
who: Australia and New Zealand what: Australian and New Zealand Army Corp, mass mobilization for WW1, suffer many casualties *Gallipoli* is a small peninsula between the aegean and black sea - the idea (bold strategic vision) that the British at one stroke can knock out the ottoman empire and allow a direct transit of allied supply through a war water port if they can knock turkey out of the war - Gallipoli campaign: brainchild of a young winston churchill - Australia, NZ, British, and French troops create a miniture version of the western front in Constanstinople that makes no progress where: Gallipoli when: 1915-1916 why: allows for the increase in position and prestige of a turkish commander, Kamal Australian and New Zealand identity created
JFK's New Frontier Speech
who: JFK what: JFK is accepting the democratic nomination applying the problems of the west to the current political situation in the US; the new frontier of science and space; the phrase developed into a label for his administrations domestic and foreign programs when: 1960 why: demonstrates the frontier metaphor that is used throughout history
From Bosnia to Belgium: the Summer of 1914
who: Austria, Russia, Serbia, Germany, France, Belgium, Britain, US (kinda) what: Assassination of the heir to the throne of the Austro-hungarian empire, seems to be a state-backed assassination (by the Serbians) Austria's reaction (produced by own domestic politics and long frustration and successful experience in annexing Bosnia and expansion in the Balkans) would be to punish Serbia European alliance system made it so that this was not okay → Russia was Serbia's protector so this was not okay (Serbia was aligned with the pan-slavic movement in Russia) Austria was allied with Germany, and Russia could not take them on alone, so they pulled in France Germany did not want to fight a 2 front war, so they preemptively try to defeat France by invading Belgium Belgium is a neutral player; the German invasion of Belgium is resisted This is known as the Schlieffen Plan, this is not successful, but is close Belgium was more a international political actor that originally anticipated, German time table is constrained because need to mobilize Belgian Relief provided by US and Britain when: 1914 why: small countries of europe prove to be the catalyst of conflict even though they are ignored by the big powers Germany was the decisive figure (at least that's what everyone decided in the Treaty of Versailles); Willingness to carry out plan to take out france, and not willing to compromise → war guilt None of the great powers had standing armies large enough for a world war → took civilians and mobilized them Europe was already in a fixed alliance system, already heavily militarized, under a series of illusions that only war could resolve and that war was short, but it wasn't Belgium becomes the sight of one of the first humanitarian relief efforts → truly innocent party beset by the ravages of the german army (international relief efforts should and could be organized because they were innocent → organized by Herbert Hoover) Essential in keeping civilians alive
British Dominions
who: British Empire what: British win 2nd Boer War, pushes them into reflections on their position in society (High rates of death from malnutrition and disease from lack of planning --> Devastation to Britain's public status worldwide); develop new political settlement Colonial Conference (last one), dominions are no longer cosines and are granted autonomy, will eventually lead to independence when: 1907 where: Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Union of South Africa why: India is upset that it is not given dominion status (Bengal Partition, 1905) mass protest, pushes the Indian National Congress to prominence (rescinded in 1911) *2 sets of challenges that are related; first with the governance of settler colonies (treated differently that India/Egypt, potentially sights of self governance) British are still insistent with their position in the empire and the need for subordination
The Boxer Rebellion
who: China, US; Society of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists what: an anti-western and christian rebellion; quite bloody, the US is involved because it threatens the various groups of foreigners living in China; the rebels were referred to by Westerners as Boxers ; besieged the foreign district of Beijing until an international force subdued the uprisings when: 1900 where: China why: Buffalo Bill replaced the San Juan Hill act with the Rescue at Peking; US is being portrayed as an alliance leader/ and the US will be a leader among nations
The Significance of the Frontier in American History
who: Frederick Jackson Turner what: an essay on the frontier; American identity (customs, culture, etc.) comes from the frontier experience, symbolized economic opportunity when: 1893 why: puts the west at the center of American History (think Manifest Destiny, slavery question, empire of liberty), the frontier closing puts a close to the first phase of American history
Georges-Eugene Haussmann's Paris
who: Georges-Eugene Haussmann what: program of massive, expensive building and demotions to create grand new avenues; autocratic regime is determined to reshape the capital and is willing/able to trample over existing rights of property wants to create broad straight avenues, allow for circulation, more light, and harder to barricade (before very easy for revolutionaries to overwhelm authorities and difficult to get across town) when: 1853-1870 ; part of the 2nd empire under Napoleon III why: this new urban organization/aesthetic captures the global imagination and is now found all over the world; the mystic and prestige of Paris allows for this thing done in one city to quickly spread to central locations
New Industrial Giants
who: Germany and America; Karl Benz (automobile) what: dominance in industrial production during the 2nd industrial revolution - Germany dominates the chemical industry, electrical industry, and invents the automobile; has advantage of their modern research universities when: by 1913 why: Britain was previous top producer (why it was able to create such a large empire), and continues to grow during the 2nd industrial revolution, but does not grow as much as Germany and the US The US now produces ⅓ of all world goods in 1913
Rubber
who: Goodyear Tires what: originally based on tapping and resources for niche uses; creation of rubber tires, create a process that makes rubber less temperature sensitive 3 stages: initial boom in tapping sources of rubber in distant places, an effort to transport that to plantations and agriculture, effort to reduce demand for rubber through substitution Natural rubber was tapped in the Brazilian rainforest (25% of their exports) Congo Red Rubber when: late 19th, early 20th c where: Brazil, Congo, Malaysia, Indonesia why: brief but huge accumulate of wealth and effort to cover too cultural capital; a remote city in brazil develops a huge lavish opera center --> participating in global high culture Bioprospecting: rubber is taken from Brazil to many botanical gardens/expo centers Brazil benefited from the same type of transfers with their other goods
the British Empire Loosening the Ties that Bind
who: Ireland, India, Egypt, Iraq what: apex of empire: 1921; largest and most powerful empire in the world Britain ends the war as a debtor, economic position is undermined Ireland- civil war and peace settlement Uprising (easter rising) in Dublin is suppressed; Ireland's war of independence followed by a civil war; made a free dominion and then becomes its own republic India: governed as a colony, Gandhi is opponent to British (nonviolent residence, secures indian independence) Egypt: revolution in 1918-19 means that British recognizes the constitutional independence of Egypt Iraq: conquered bloodily in WW1 by British, immediately an insurgency that is attempted to be squashed; Iraq celebrates independence, joins league of nations, cheerleaders of decolonization following WW2) when: 1918-1931 where: British Empire why: Internal structural problems causes disintegration in the empire Dominions suffered to fight with British empire in WWI, unwilling to accept their colonial status Dominions fall in line and fight with British in WWII Statute of Westminster 1931 marks the independence of Australia, NZ and South Africa
Japan's Invasion of China
who: Japan, China, US what: Japan had encroached extensively in manchuria and other places in years prior - Battle of Marco Polo bridge in Beiji Civilian government in Japan had been eroding in Japan in the 1920s; 3 or 4 power centers that do not speak to each other (The civilian government, the army, the navy, and the imperial palace) - 2 factions in the army: a more cautious faction at home and gun-ho junior factions in china - Civilian government is unable to control the Japanese army and senior leadership is unable to prevent junior members from provoking large-scale conflict - Japan cannot afford to lose the war and china, unable to leave, and incapable of winning The Rape of Nanjing: Huge surprise to the imperial army, nationalist suffer many casualties, Japanese unleash a reign of terror in Nanjing - Exceptionally bloody conflict - Japanese army moves out of the control of the its superiors and engages in sexual violence, murder, and torture - help make Japan's ultimate strategic plans unachievable → Chinese see no attraction to Japanese occupation Japanese Invasion in China take 2 - Japan concentrates on occupying major coastal cities and ports and railroads - keeps nationalists in western china → eventually these people will become communist insurgents - Japan never controls even all of poor china - Also a large scale conflict of indirect losses (through famine, malnutrition, mistreatment) Sino-American alliance: China and US fought as close allies particularly from volunteer air forces and providing supplies → weaponry and ammunition when: 1937 why: The pursuit of victory in china leads Japan to expand the war to achieve a victory that never comes - Japan has a lack of a strong regime willing to accept that it has lost a short, sharp war; unwilling to make peace - Japanese invasion is sometimes greated as a liberation from European control, but not in China China has a seat on the UN security council because it was one of the 5 great allies Fall out after WW2
Motorized Transportation: Automobile, Bicycle, Airplane
who: Karl Benz, Henry Ford, the Wright Brothers what: (bicycle see above) Automobile: Benz Patent-Motorwagen adds a combustion engine to a traditional wagon, Bertha Benz takes the BPM and takes a lengthy ride around SW Germany, demonstrating the capabilities of the car; problems: refueling (w/o gas stations); First purpose designed automobile (1888-89), industrial take off for the automobile with the Model T (1908) Airplane: brought together components and experience from other applications (the propeller, a nautical technology; the internal combustion engine, core tech for cars); developed a system of control to allow 3D transportation to prevent it from falling to the ground; launch it on a ramp under proper conditions when: 1885-1908 (car) where: US, Germany why: a global car, General Motors; society was much poorer, less people, but incredible popular focus on affordability and reliability; mass production, moving assembly line, industrial standardization
Turkey's Peace
who: Ottoman Empire, now Turkey what: Treaty of Sevres, loses all of its Arab territory, territory ceded to neighboring powers (Greece, Armenia) when: 1920 why: meant to be broken up in the extreme way like AH but does not stick *the Magali Idea* greece sees its moment to reconstitute classical Greece, Greece tries to pursue extensive campaign of territorial expansion (wants to control all of Aegean); allies radically underestimated Turkish nationalism/military power - Mustafa Kemal Ataturk (won at Gallipoli) defeats greek invasion, founder of republic, switches Turkish langue, becomes transformative westernizing figure, founding figure of turkey Treaty of Lausanne (1923): new treaty, pursues ideals embodied in the league of nations
National Parks
who: TR, John Muir (convinced TR to created Yosemite) what: Yellowstone; the notion of a park is extended on a grandiose scale; the notion of a nation is essential to this and it has general land that can be set aside; carved out of federal lands that could be sold off or exploited (cannot be spoiled land) when: 1872 (Yellowstone) 1890 (Yosemite) where: why: transformation of the notion of nature and wildlife as dark, dangerous, etc. ; romantic and gendered notions form the 19th c; TR is the first president to create the national park system and to promote conservation on a federal scale; more than 100 countries now have national parks or equivalents
Marshall Plan
who: US Secretary of State George Marshall what: aid to 18 European countries from 1948, Dramatic effects to provide aid in times of great stress, Provides aid in east Asia as well (not part of the same plan, but same premise), It also required economic reform under trade; GATT: general agreements on tariffs and trade (1849-1994) Agreed on in Geneva, movement in the direction of freer trade, through tariff reductions and trade liberalization Replaced by the world trade organization when: 1948 why: solidifies US role in europe in creating a western bloc with a vibrant economy (1950-1980 there is rapid economic growth) Restarting europe's economy A political project; the Soviets prevent their allies from receiving this contributing to the cold war polarization
American Research University
who: US gov what: revolutionized by the related notions of bringing them into scientific and systematic organization, making them useful to society, and including research (before focused on teaching) - land grant colleges and universities, the Morill Acts; government provides federal land to institutions in each of the states (exception to state schools: Cornell and MIT) - private research universities: applied science and engineering of a newly industrialized society is supported when: late 19th century why: push for social reform in 1890 due to the issue of access, leads to historically black colleges private universities already in existence remodel themselves along these lines creation of a campus the research university goes global --> driving forces: modernization, set of missionary ventures
The Spanish American War
who: US, Spain what: causes: humanitarian intervention in spanish counter-insurgency in Cuba; destruction of the battleship Maine. relatively bloodless and short war; American lose very little soldiers (mainly from disease); the war resulted in a rushing American victory first volunteer calvary unit (led by TR) calls itself the 'rough riders' when: April 21- August 13, 1898 where: Cuba why: US gained PR, Guam, the Philippines, as well as protectorate over Cuba US as a great military power (capable of defeating europeans), not just economic power Buffalo Bill takes this battle (Battle of San Juan Hill) and puts it in the show; life imitates art and then art imitates life building military link with the west
German Research University
who: Wilhelm von Humboldt (Prussian diplomat) what: a comprehensive education system, which Prussia engaged in reforms of after the war; University of Berlin is a new model meant to be at the top o the system and state supported (teaching and research) - not all people should end up in the same place but everyone should be educated - general education is done in high school and then you join a faculty to get a formal education --> intensive specialization where: Prussia/Germany when: late 19th century why: assists in german unifications Germany leaps ahead in research productivity if knowledge is legitimate, it appears in a university professional separation: now there are specific terms (scientist, historian) accumulation of resources enduring tensions: triad of research, teaching, and socialization (there are institutions that do only one of these things, but universities do all 3) resources (who pays) how a university functions in a community (politics, religion, society, industry, immediate utility) rising use of engineering changes kind of research done
Buffalo Bill's Wild West
who: William F. Cody (Buffalo Bill) and Nat Salisbury what: massive arena show, takes the history of the American west and the american frontier; a massive spectacle of the violence of the progress across the west; acts included rodeo-style trick riding and shooting, as well as set-piece battles between cowboys/settlers/indians; show also included a military element; due to debt and increasing competition from movies, the show shut down where: when: 1883-1913 why: congress of Rough Riders of the World reflected America's increasing role overseas, emphasizes America's growing military power this is a story about the globalization of American power and popular culture: applied the conflicts of the American frontier to new imperial conflicts overseas introduced Europeans to US pop culture
the League of Nations
who: Woodrow Wilson what: War should not be pursued and peace should be achieved through security Collective Security; Disarmament; Peace - Disputes settled through arbitration; International agreements on everything from labor to health - Suffers because of tension of what to do with empire - Tension about what to do with countries who didn't want to be bound by international institutions (ex: US, President accepts and shut down by congress) when: 1920-1946 why: Captures idea of moving away from military force to solve disputes. Shift in american attitudes Failure of security provisions, and revolution (other vision for how peace should happen)
Collapse of Liberal Internationalism
who: everyone what: policies of immigration restriction based on nationalities; idealistic treatises (in accord with the league of nations, banning use of war for international affairs, policy of disarmament and naval reduction, largely ignored); Britain, France, US, signed these treaties when: inter-war period why: cannot keep WW1 alliance together (Japan and Italy fall away) and none of the allies are willing to punish violations of the league of nations Illiberal Solutions (Fascism, Communism, Nationalism), Appeasement, & Isolationism Liberal internationalism nearly died. It would take another, larger war to bring back a partial vision of it for some of the world *Manchurian crisis - Fakes a terrorist attack - Pretext for the japanese army to extend empire - Lays groundwork for Japan's involvement in china *Abyssinian (ethiopian) crisis - Border incident in late 1934 - Fascist Italy invades from Italian Eritrea - Italy completes the conquest of Ethiopia - Italy ignored the League of Nations' objections and sanctions, withdrawing from the League
German War Politik, Crises, and the New Alliances
why: Crises become locus for the entire political system (ex. Assassination of Duke) Series of short sharp wars with big political consequences - Notion that WW1 will be over quickly from these conflicts - Loses that all the major powers found acceptable - Military force begins to distinguish victors and victims; competitive system, expansionist system, and intrinsically unstable who: Bismarck: had prevented the formation of powerful, opposing blocks; kept germany from this race for a global empire - Aware that germany's humiliation of France (by taking Alsace-Lorraine) was not something that France would ever forgive - Did not want a block to form against Germany what: Weltpolitik was the name given to Germany's foreign policy in the years following its unification; changes in high imperial Germany - Germany had become confident that they were a world power after 3 victories - Partially democratic, partially autocratic government - Agreements can be solved in berlin if bismarck remains the 'pilot' *Intrinsic weakness in the system: the kaiser reserved constitutional powers that allow him to sack bismarck and move german policy of pursuing overseas colonies - not beset with internal crises, does not have problems with overseas claims, it is a great beacon of stability, but the changes in the policy become destabilizing Pursuit of a naval arms race with Britain → need a fleet to support overseas colonies - Britain had a very powerful navy, no one challenged them, they believed they didn't need allies - Germany says they want to challenge that; global move to develop the best battleships, arms race - Germans develop a powerful battleship, immensely expensive competition - Sets off a process of political re-alignments that weaken its position *Entente Cordiale (1904)* - British and France are ancient enemies, rivals for a global position - British and France form an alliance of sorts, isolating Germany *First Moroccan Crisis (1905-1906)* - German isolation becomes apparent in this crisis - French Domination of Morocco ratified with slight modifications at the Algeciras Conference → efforts to intervene are met with German resistance, but do not have international support that they expected - Germany only has Austro-Hungarian support - Franco-British alliance solidified *Anglo-Russian Entente (1907)* - The British and the Russians had engaged in a long cold rivalry (think Crimean War, conflicts in the Balkans, the Great Game in Asia) - A weakened Russia after the 1905 revolution agreed to spheres of influence (in the Balkans) and a political agreement with the British empire - Solve all outstanding disputes with Britain *Agadir Crisis (1911)* - 2nd Moroccan Crisis - French and Spanish intervention in a Moroccan internal political crisis - Confirms many of german fears; rather than leave the great powers to do their thing, Germany sends a warship - Crisis settled with French territorial concessions in the Congo and German acquiescence to the French position in Morocco *Alliance of 1914* - Italy, Austria-Hungary, Germany - Russia, France, Britain - Balkans: Bulgaria, Serbia **Highly competitive and highly militarized europe is headed to war
