govt

Speaker of the House:

Appoints membership, and chair and vice-chair of all procedural committees, substantive committees and the appropriations committee.

The Colonies & Constitutions

Colonists looked to their charters to protect against British interference with colonial politics. In 1685, King James ordered the repeal of Connecticut's charter and the government in Hartford was dissolved. The colonists hid the charter (in an oak tree) and, following the revolution of 1688, reinstituted it as their fundamental law.

Judicial Restraint:

"A doctrine holding that the Supreme Court should defer to the decisions made by the elected representatives of the people in the legislative and executive branches".

Forms of City Government:

1.Weak Mayor - Council Advantage: disperses power of city government and balances power of council / mayor - more democratic. 2.Strong Mayor - Council Advantage: concentration of power in hands of mayor - more efficient Mirrors separation of powers 3.Council - Manager Removal of day-to-day administration from partisan politics - more professional.

Bill Making Process

All bills must pass through both chambers of the legislature. The first step is that members must draft a bill and submit the bill to the presiding officer. Bills that have the greatest chance of success are those submitted on behalf of the President. The second step is that the bill is referred to a committee that has jurisdiction over the subject matter of the bill. This is where the most work happens in the bill process. The committees at the federal level have come to be called 'little legislatures' due to the amount of work they do. At this point in the bill making process, the bill can be stopped by getting stalled in the committee process. In the House, members may use a discharge petition to force a bill out of a committee however the petition must be signed by an absolute majority and is thus rarely used. The third step is to schedule the bill by placing it on a calendar. In the House, the House Rules Committee will draft a special set of rules that govern what will happen to the bill on the floor of the House such as time limits for debate. In the Senate this process is largely controlled by the Senate Majority Leader. At this point in the bill making process, the bill can be stopped by never getting scheduled to be heard on the floor. The fourth step is debate. Debate in the House is controlled by the House Rules Committee and can be limited. The Senate has a more open debate process where a Senator can filibuster (use unlimited speech/debate) in order to stop a bill at this stage in the process. A famous example of a filibuster can be seen in Mr. Smith Goes to Washington. However Senate Rule 22 refers to the concept of cloture wherein a filibuster can be ended with the approval of 60 members. After debate, a vote is taken. The fifth step is to have a conference committee if there are differences between the versions of bill passed by the House and Senate. Members of each chamber are selected by the leaders who will attempt to reach a compromise on the bill. If compromise is reached, the bill goes back to both chambers for a vote. If the vote passes, then the bill is sent to the President. The President may sign the bill or veto the bill. If the President vetoes the bill then the legislature can override the veto and make it law with a 2/3rds vote by both chambers.

Traditions & Sources

American law is based on a number of different sources. The main sources are federal and state constitutions, statutes and administrative regulations, and case law.

State Board of Education

Composed of 15 members, elected from SMD. Approves state curriculum and textbooks. Sets standards for passing scores for state educational testing. Manages Permanent School Fund. Commissioner of Education appointed by Gov, who administers the Texas Educational Agency. The TEA develops and enforces curriculum standards and does accreditation. Board decisions on textbooks and curriculum are often controversial on a state and national level. Due to TX large size and influence with textbook market, TX standards tend to be adopted nationally. Texas curricular and textbook decisions have a national impact.

Microcosom Theory

Developed by John Adams Legislatures should look like broader society (descriptive representation) Collectively, the legislature should 'look' like the Texas population Focuses on the demographic nature of representation. Ways the Texas legislature is unrepresentative: Gender Race Income Education

Other Revenue Sources

Federal Grants Strings attached for federal funding Programs often partner with state/federal to serve dual purpose. Licensing Professional license Business license Lottery Funds Investment Income Permanent School Fund is largest source of TX investment income

Hatch Act

Federal statute barring Federal employees from active participation in certain kinds of politics and protecting them from being fired on partisan grounds.

Specific Health Concerns

Health Care is a major political issue today. We spend about 15% of our income on healthcare. In addition, numerous scandals have arisen regarding the policies and practices of different organizations handling healthcare, much of which focuses on health insurance companies. Reforming the healthcare system is a volatile political issue that led to a great deal of tension in recent years. Read the following: Public Agenda Issue Guide: Healthcare Overview Both Medicare and Medicaid, like Social Security, are entitlement programs that must be provided by the federal government under law. The two programs combined are the second largest category of spending in the US (after Social Security). There is growing concern that Medicare will become the most expensive program for the government, outpacing Social Security, as the baby boomers begin to retire. The political importance of this issue can be seen in the current debate over how to alter the budget: Paul Ryan's GOP Budget Plan Changes Medicare The court's decision on the case has not yet come out, but is expected to very soon. It may be released while you are enrolled in this course. If so, I will provide links to the information on the decision. Until the case is decided, I am limiting by discussion of the act in any further detail

Governing Texas Cities

In Texas, cities have more discretion under the Texas Constitution in their organizational form. As a consequence, cities are better able to adapt their functional form to their population size, location, and resources. The Texas Constitution provides for two categories of city status: General law cities General Law Type A General Law Type B General Law Type C Home rule cities

Racial Gerrymandering:

In a series of US Supreme Court cases in the 1960s it was decided that it was a violation of the equal rights amendment of the US Constitution to draw district lines in order to minimize the vote of minority groups.

Representation:

In the American system of government, we elect representatives to make decisions to govern society. Members of the legislature are elected by their constituents to serve them. However, there are two different perspectives as to how a member of the legislature represents their constituents. Members will often use both perspectives together, but sometimes these perspectives are at odds with each other. The perspectives are: 1) Trustee where the legislator acts according to what he/she thinks is best for the people/society regardless of what his/her constituents may want and 2) Delegate where the legislator acts according to exactly what his/her constituents want regardless of his/her personal beliefs basically as an agent for his/her constituents.

Development of Social/Welfare Policy

It is important to note the historical development of social and welfare policy in the United States. It is important because it can be difficult to recommend possible changes to policies if you do not know what has already been tried with those policies.

Judicial Federalism

Judicial authority is shared between levels of government. States create court systems to deal with questions involving state constitutions, local or state law, etc. The state legislature establishes state courts according to the Texas state constitution. Courts in Texas are divided by their jurisdiction, origin, and geographical coverage. Court jurisdiction refers to the court's sphere of authority. Original Jurisdiction Appellate Jurisdiction Exclusive Jurisdiction: sole right to hear the case. Concurrent Jurisdiction - overlapping original jurisdiction.

Transportation Policy

Large state - major area of TX policy Eminent Domain See example with Houston Parkway What are the issues? Environmental Property

Local Government : State Government

Local government includes numerous types of entities, but it primarily includes: Counties cities Dillon's Rule: All local governments exist as an arm/extension of the state government. The powers, duties, structure, etc. of a local government are all determined by state governments.

Reforming Bureacracy

Over the years, there have been a number of different acts that have attempted to reform the ever-growing bureaucracy. These include the Freedom of Information Act, the Government in the Sunshine Act, and the Whistleblower Protection Act. Another reform that will be discussed here is privatization.

Spending and Budgeting

Pay-As-You-Go System Requires balanced budget Permits borrowing only in limited circumstances Primary responsibility for balanced budget: Comptroller of Public Accounts Legislative Budget Board Spending rises as the state population rises. Spending has increased steadily over the past 30 years.

1976 Government in the Sunshine Act:

Requires administrative agencies to hold meetings that are open to the public.

Executive Orders

Set Policy Create / Abolish Task forces Boards Commissions Councils Controversy Perry's RP47 - school districts must use at least 65% of revenue for direct classroom instruction Proclamation Ceremonial Perry Swine Influenza

The Texas State Legislature

Set up modeled after the U.S. Congress The Texas Legislature is bicameral - consists of two separate chambers (houses). Bicameralism makes it more difficult for the majority to control the legislative process - and hence more difficult to abuse power. Baker v. Carr & Reynolds v. Simms eliminated county-based representation: state senate districts and state house districts must be equal in population.

Texas Workforce Commission

TX gov't agency charged with overseeing & providing workforce development services to employers and job seekers in TX. Employers: Recruiting Retention Training and retraining. Job Seekers Career development Job search resources Training Programs

President:

The Constitution provides the President with a number of foreign powers such as the ability to make executive agreements with foreign nations during the President's term, to appoint ambassadors and to recognize the legitimacy (or not) of a foreign government. While the President serves as Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, only Congress can declare war, a topic we will return to in our discussion about the Vietnam War.

Department of Defense:

The DOD is responsible for military activity.

Department of State:

The DOS handles the daily operations of foreign policy by maintaining offices in countries we recognize as legitimate (not recognizing the legitimacy of a country can have negative affects on that country, such as the possibility that our allies will not engage in trade with that country, harming that country's economy) and administering foreign aid.

National Security Council:

The NSC consists of the President, Vice President, Secretaries of Defense and State, the Director of the CIA, and the Chair of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. It provides aid to the President in establishing overall foreign and defense policy.

Today's Court

The Supreme Court has 9 members: Chief Justice Roberts and Justice Alito both appointed by President George W Bush, Justices Thomas, Scalia, Kennedy, Ginsburg, Breyer and the two most recent appointments by President Obama, Justices Sotomayor and Kagan. The Supreme Court has addressed a number of controversial issues in recent years such as upholding the individual's right to bear arms an issue that had not been previously addressed by the Court (McDonald v Chicago , 2010), deciding that the death penalty can only be applied when the crime ended in or intended to end in death of the victim (Kennedy v Louisiana, 2008), gave enemy combatants who are not US citizens due process rights (Boumediene v Bush, 2008), and upheld the right to protest at military funerals (Snyder v Phelps, 2011). This last case, while an 8:1 decision by the court (meaning a strong decision), was controversial for the public as many people disagree with the protestors who picket military and other funerals with signs that say things such as 'pray for more dead soldiers' and 'God hates you'. To read/see a discussion of the case view: Westboro Baptist Church to quadruple funeral protests after ruling. In the current term of the US Supreme Court, meaning the cases they are currently hearing and deciding, also address a range of issues. For example, the court recently decided that you must obtain a warrant to use a GPS tracking device on a person's vehicle (US v Jones, 2012). In addition, the court will be deciding a case on the Affordable Care Act, the major healthcare reform act passed under the Obama administration before they end of this term. Arguments on the case can be found at: The Court and Health Care Reform The court currently has a mixture of conservative leaning and liberal leaning justices who sometimes behave under philosophies of judicial activism and sometimes under philosophies of judicial restraint.

Vice President

The Vice President's job is generally to strengthen the party ticket (for example when 2008 Republican candidate John McCain chose Sarah Palin as his running mate to court the more conservative vote in the Republican party) and to support the president on policy issues. The vice president must replace the president if the president resigns, dies or is incapable of performing his/her duties. This can be for even a short period of time. For example President George W Bush in 2002 had a 20 minute colonoscopy where he was under anesthetia and during those twenty minutes Vice President Dick Cheney was acting president. This is important as the country must always have a president. Another issue that connects to the above is the Twenty-fifth Amendment passed in 1967 that allows the vice president and a majority of the principal officers of the cabinet to assume the power of the president if the president is incapable of performing his/her duties.

Foundations

The United States Congress is the first area of government created by the framers of the Constitution. As your Zaino (2012) textbook points out, James Madison (pictured below), in Federalist No. 51 argued "among the functions of government, the power to make law in the first place is greatest. But Madison also believed that the Congress would be the most powerful branch of government because it is 'the people's branch'" (p. 54). Article I of the Constitution creates a bicameral legislature meaning there are two chambers or houses of the legislature: the House of Representatives and the Senate. The two chambers were created by what was known as the Great Compromise. The Great Compromise was meant to satisfy the desires of small states with small populations who wanted a government based on equal representation for all states (thus the Senate with 2 members for each state) and the large states with large populations who wanted representation based on population (thus the House of Representatives where representation is based on population). Rather than one chamber that would give either the small states or the large states more power in the legislature, the framers decided to have one chamber for each thus satisfying both the small and the large states. Article I also provided for the powers of the legislature. Article I, Section 8 states, in the first 17 clauses, the enumerated powers (a.k.a express powers) that the legislature has, for example the power to impose and collect taxes and the power to declare war. Clause 18 is the necessary and proper clause also known as the elastic clause. Clause 18 gives the legislature implied powers to make laws that are necessary and proper to carry out the enumerated powers. The legislature has used the necessary and proper clause to expand their lawmaking abilities in numerous areas. In addition, Section 9 of Article I states certain powers which are denied to the legislature such as granting someone a title of nobility. It is important to understand that the Constitution grants the legislature different types of powers because it is through the various powers the legislature has that they are able to pass laws and provide for the numerous things that the government provides.

Globalization:

The idea of globalization is that as technology and communication grows that it leads to rapid changes in society and these changes will eventually lead to one global world that does not have borders between nations. While there are skeptics of globalization, many feel that the US has contributed to the expansion of globalization through the political/military influence of the American government and with the expansion of multinational corporations.

Public Opinion:

The last major check on the court is whether the public will heed to courts decisions. The public often does, even if it takes time, for example with desegregation but sometimes the public will continue to go against court decisions such as the decision by the court that banned school prayer and moments of silence in public schools.

United States Courts of Appeal:

These are also called US Circuit Courts of Appeal. They are appellate courts meaning they have jurisdiction to review cases that were originally tried in lower courts. They look at questions of law rather than questions of fact. For example whether flag burning is constitutional not whether the person actually burned the flag which should have been decided at a lower court. There are currently 13 US courts of appeal.

Standing:

These are the most important committees because they are semipermanent committees that handle specialized areas. All bills are sent to a standing committee. The most prestigious are those that handle money such as the House and Senate Appropriations Committees.

Social Insurance Programs:

These types of programs apply mostly to the working middle class. They are established using payroll taxes that individuals contribute. The taxes are basically held by the government until it is necessary to return them. The benefit amounts adjust with inflation and changes in cost of living. Social insurance programs are more widely accepted by the general public as individuals contribute to them and thus should reap the rewards of those contributions at a later date. Examples: Social Security, Medicare

Public Assistance Programs:

These types of programs apply to the poor, a determination based on income level. These programs are the most controversial as they redistribute wealth. Examples: Temporary Assistance to Needy Families, Medicaid

National Environmental Policy Act (1969):

This act established the first major national US policy on the environment and requires the federal government to issue environmental impact statements when taking federal action.

Clean Water Act (1972):

This act focuses on regulating water pollution.

Clean Air Act (1990):

This act is an updated version of the 1963 Clean Air Act. It regulates air pollution and leaves much of the work up to the states.

1938 Fair Labor Standards Act:

This act was the last major piece of welfare policy passed under the New Deal era. The FLSA established the 40hour work week and the first national minimum wage law at 25cents in 1938 (by 20009 it was $7.25). In 2006, President George W. Bush passed the first set of minimum wage increases since 1997. Click to view the Minimum Wage Chart Shortly after the passage of the FLSA, the United States entered World War II. This led to an economic boom and the momentum to establish new social and welfare programs dwindled. In addition, unions began to negotiate with employers for benefits. The private sector picked up and began to hire more workers, pay better wages and provide increased benefits. The government developed fewer new programs, however the demographics of the country began to change and by the 1960's there were pockets of poverty littered across the United States.

Casework:

This function occurs when the legislator responds directly to a member of Congress on some particular issue. For example Representative Steve Chabot from Ohio has engaged in casework for things such as passports and housing issues in urban settings. See Chabot's Casework Page [When an item is blue and underlined, basically when there is a hyperlink you are expected to go to that link and read/view/listen to the information on that link] to see the specific stories of these instances of casework.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964):

This gave the President broad powers to intervene in Southeast Asia without having to go through Congress

Executive Orders:

This is a rule or regulation issued by the President that has the effect of law. Executive orders usually enforce some legislative statute, enforce treaties with foreign nations or establish/modify the practices of administrative agencies. An example of the third type was President Truman's executive order that Desegregated the Armed Forces in 1948

Endangered Species Act (1973):

This is one of the more controversial environmental policy acts. It forbids the killing, taking or harming of threatened/endangered species and can affect a person's ability to use their property and business development.

Jurisdiction:

This refers to the authority of a court to decide certain cases. Not all courts have the authority to decide all cases, for example a divorce court will not hear a capital murder case. For federal courts, Article III, Section I of the Constitution limits the jurisdiction to cases that involve either a federal question (a question that has to do with the US Constitution, acts of Congress or treaties, for example free speech) or diversity of citizenship (when the parties to a lawsuit are citizens of different states, are citizens of a US state and citizens or the government of a foreign country)

Standing:

This refers to the parties who are bringing the case to the court where the parties must have suffered an actual/imminent injury in order to sue. They must have a sufficient stake in the controversy. For example, the US government plans to build a facility in foreign country A. You think you may want to visit foreign country A one day in the future and see the wild animals in that country. You think the US should file an environmental impact study that is normally required for development inside the US before the US develops in foreign country A. You sue the federal government. But, the court says you do not have standing because you cannot show that you have suffered an actual/imminent injury (see Lujan v Defenders of Wildlife, 1992).

Korean War:

This took place between 1950-1953 when the US attempted to stop communist North Korea from taking over noncommunist South Korea. When it appeared that North Korea would lose, China an ally of the Soviet Union, stepped in to help North Korea. In the end, the US withdrew and the result, for the US, was a draw.

Reagan Backlash:

When Reagan was elected to office he was elected on a platform to reduce the size of government. View/Listen to Reagan's 1987 Radio Address to the Nation on Welfare Refom. [remember you can turn on the closed captioning in the video]. Many Great Society programs were cut back most notably poverty reduction and elimination of numerous public service jobs. A backlash to these programs eventually came up as well, for example when average citizens started to see more and more homeless persons living on street corners and in bus stations. Eventually, more changes had to be made.

Medicare

federal health insurance program that covers persons over the age of 65. Medicare was created in 1965. At that time, prescription drugs were not covered but in 2006 Congress voted to include it.

Judicial Activism:

"A doctrine holding that the Supreme Court should take an active role in using its powers to check the activities of Congress, state legislatures, and administrative agencies when those government bodies exceed their authority".

History

"Historically, individuals of the party of the president staffed the bureaucracy. The first political party, the Federalists, held the early positions for the first twelve years of the government. When Thomas Jefferson was elected, he replaced many bureaucrats with members of his own party. The Jeffersonian Republicans controlled the government for the next twenty-four years, and so the bureaucracy did not turn over. Andrew Jackson found that many existing bureaucrats were unwilling to implement many of his programs. Thus, Jackson made the decision to fire more officials than any president before him, on the principle "to the victor belong the spoils." Thereafter, whenever a president was elected who was of a different party from the previous president, most federal employees were replaced.

Growth & Organization

"In 1789, the size of the federal bureaucracy was extremely small. The federal bureaucracy has grown considerably since that time. Most of this growth has been the result of a continuing expansion of the role of the government. In 1789 there were few policies implemented by the federal government. State governments made most policies that affected the people. Today there are about 2.7 million civilian employees of the federal government. The two biggest employers are the U.S. Postal Service, with almost 800,000 workers, and the Department of Defense, with more than 650,000 civilian staff. In recent years, the greatest growth in government employment has been at the local level. Federal employment has remained stable. However, the federal government also uses a large number of contractors and subcontractors who are not counted as employees. Federal spending today is equal to about 30% of the nation's GDP." The bureaucracy consists of the cabinet departments, independent executive agencies ("governmental entities that have a single function and are not part of a cabinet department. The director of the agency reports to the president") such as the CIA, and independent regulatory agencies (agencies outside the major executive departments charged with making and implementing rules and regulations to protect the public interest") such as the Federal Communications Commission. Independent regulatory agencies can become problematic however if they are captured which means the industries they are supposed to be regulating are dominating the agency and its policies (known as agency capture). A final type of bureaucratic organization is the government corporation ("agencies that charge the public for a specific service") such as the US Postal Service.

Problem identification:

"The stage of the policymaking process in which a societal condition or problem is recognized by government as an issue worthy of political attention and possible policy action" (Zaino, 2012, p. 250). Problems can be identified in a variety of ways including when a crisis occurs (9/11 and terrorism...energy and the environment with the BP Oil Spill...housing bubble and the market crash) or when changes occur in society (such as the need to upgrade classrooms with emerging technology due to our more tech-savvy culture)

Municipalities

"Like all local government in Texas, municipalities are given their authority to govern from the state. This is how a 'unitary system' of government operates. Three quarters of Texas cities are incorporated as "general law" cities operating under the general laws of the state. Most cities over 5,000 in population are granted the right to adopt their own charter of government and are thus called "home-rule" cities. There are three forms of government by which Texas cities operate. Most home-rule cities utilize a council-manager form in which the day-to-day operation of the city is in the hands of a professional city manager. A very few operate under a strong mayor-council system in which an elected mayor is the city's primary administrator. Almost without exception "general-law" cities use a weak mayor-council system in which a part-time mayor and council share responsibilities. Members of city councils are elected either from "single-member" districts, by a pure "at-large" system, or by an "at-large place" method. Some cities allow a "cumulative voting" system in which a voter may cast more than one vote for a single candidate. Mayors are generally elected in "at-large" elections. Municipalities in Texas are allowed to acquire unincorporated areas outside the city limits under liberal annexation laws. Depending on the size of the city, a buffer area, known as the city's "extraterritorial jurisdiction," extends from one to five miles beyond the city limits. The city may enforce zoning and building codes and may annex within this area."

Local Government in General

"Local government is the most pervasive form of government in Texas. It is also the level of government that most directly affects the lives of Texas residents. Correspondingly, it is the level of government with which most citizens feel connected through the services it provides as well as the laws, ordinances, and taxes it imposes. Fortunately, the overwhelming majority of the legislative and executive officials of local government are popularly elected. The most common forms of general-purpose local government are municipal and county government. Cities attempt to meet the most immediate needs of their citizens through city ordinances. Counties, on the other hand, act primarily as arms of state government, providing state services and implementing state laws locally. Texas also provides a number of unique local services through special districts. Independent of general purpose government, special districts provide both public and private functions. The most common of these governments are the ubiquitous public school districts. Other districts provide for economic development, resource management, and public transportation."

Counties

"Texas counties vary dramatically by geographical size and population. They are essentially creations of the state in order to perform many state-wide functions at a local level. These functions include conducting elections; registering voters, motor vehicles, and drivers; maintaining roads; providing law enforcement; maintaining vital records; and collecting taxes. Regardless of their size or population, Texas counties are divided into four "single-member" districts called county precincts. The governing body of the county is the county "commissioners' court" which consists of a county judge, elected "at-large," and four county commissioners, elected from the county precincts. The county voters also elect "at-large" a number of officials to perform the functions of county government. These include a county clerk, tax assessor-collector, sheriff, district attorney, and county attorney. Appointed county officials include an auditor, extension agent, and health officer. Texas counties have almost no legislative authority. Their responsibilities are designated and delineated by the state and administered through a fractured system of popularly-elected officials. Thus voters are confronted by a "long ballot" which defenders claim makes officials more directly responsive to the citizens. Proposed reforms of county government include the adoption of a "unit road system" which would place the responsibility for roads in the hands of a professional engineer, rather than the individual county commissioners. Reformers would also like to see a civil service system based more on merit and less on favoritism."

Agency & Politics

"The federal bureaucracy has become a major source for decision-making concerning public policy. Different theories have been advanced to describe the impact of outside groups on the process. An iron triangle, or a three-way alliance among legislators, bureaucrats, and interest groups that seeks to make or preserve policies that benefit their respective interests. Advocates of this theory usually believe that special interests have too much influence. The bureaucrats, then, no longer act as impartial administrators. Instead, bureaucrats act as agents for the special interests and attempt to influence Congress to enact laws that favor the special interest. The committee structure in Congress may help perpetuate this system. The members of Congress who serve on committees and subcommittees are interested in gaining support for their constituents who would benefit by the enactment of legislation favoring a particular special interest. Others assert that iron triangles do not fully describe the complex web of relations between the executive and legislative branches and interest groups. Most scholars now see the policy process as being one where issue networks dominate. That is, legislators, interest groups, bureaucrats, scholars and experts, and members of the media who share a position on a given issue may attempt to exert influence on the executive branch, on Congress, on the courts or on the media to see their policy position enacted. Obviously, issue networks with opposing positions may come into political conflict with each other."

Military-Industrial Complex:

"The mutually beneficial relationship between the armed forces and defense contractors". Industries that manufacture military equipment combined with the military itself can have a strong influence on foreign policy.

Privatization:

"The privatization of services occurs when the government contracts with the private sector for certain services, in the belief that some services can be provided more efficiently by private firms. This practice occurs more frequently on the local level". The basic idea is that instead of the government providing a service, it will either completely privatize (basically sell off) the service to the non-profit or private sector or it will contract out with the non-profit, private, or another government sector (for example if a small town pays a contract fee to the Sheriff's department instead of having its own police force). The idea is that it can be more efficient and more cost effective (cheaper) to have another sector provide the service. One example of privatization is provided by the EPA and Public-Private Partnerships. While there are many positive examples of privatization and contracting out, it can lead to potential problems such as corruption or being more costly in the end: Security Companies: Shadow Soldiers in Iraq

Public goods:

"goods or services that cannot be divided up and cannot be controlled by any single individual or organization. Everyone can benefit from them and none can be excluded. A few examples are national defense, clean air, and public parks. These goods are often controlled by government to ensure that their use reflects public values" (Zaino, 2012, p. 244)

Policy evaluation:

Once a strategy has been put into action it is important to determine whether that strategy has accomplished what it was meant to accomplish. Questions must be asked as to whether the strategy chosen (the policy decision) had unintended consequences and whether it was the most cost-effective strategy? Based on the evaluation of the policy, changes may or may not need to be made to the chose strategy.

Policy formulation:

Once an item is on the agenda, debate must occur in order to formulate strategies about how to address this problem. Debate can involve the policymakers, constituents, the media, and interest groups.

Environmental Policy (v2)

Environmental regulations - governmental rulemaking and enforcement designed to protect citizens from firms. Environmental policy deals with environmental externalities - when costs are imposed on someone not participating in a transaction. When businesses pollute, this imposes externality costs on the citizens. Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ) NIMBY - Citizens support environmental policies in general, but often oppose environmental policy on a local level when they are expected to shoulder the costs. The Not In My Back Yard predisposition of citizens means environmental policy is politically sensitive.

Terrorism:

Ever since the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center on September 11th 2001, terrorism has been a major issue in US foreign policy.

Texas State Legislature

One of 8 state legislatures that is biennial: it meets once every two years. Legislatures that meet biennially do less. TX Regular session meets for 140 days. May hold special sessions 30 days Called by Governor - Governor determines topics for special session. Work during the session always includes: Setting the state budget

Texas Public Policy: A Case Study in the Politics of Policy

In 2007 Texas passes HB 1634 - Texas Moving Image Industry Incentive Program. Gov. Perry signs and signs revision in 2009. Robert Rodriguez's Troublemaker Studios promote law, credit it for keeping Machete production in TX. Conservative lawmakers campaign against law citing Machete production about an illegal immigrant fighting corrupt TX officials. What challenges does this case illustrate with respect to TX public policy? Consider the challenges of economic development in a state as large and diverse as TX. Did Perry make the right policy choice? Why? Why not?

Powers & Limitations: Formal Powers of the Governor

Executive Powers Appointive Power Appoints to Texas state boards and commissions Removal Power No independent removal power except for staff and legislatively created offices. Military Power Commander-in-chief of military forces of the state. Law Enforcement Texas Department of Public Safety - gubernatorial appt Budgetary Power Gov & Legislative Budget Board prepare budgets. Line-item veto of appropriations bills Executive Orders & Proclamations Legislative Powers Message Power State of the State Bill-Signing Power Veto Power Line-item veto 2/3rds override Postadjournment veto w/n 20 days cannot be overridden Special Sessions Judicial Powers Appointment / Removal of judges & justices Executive Clemency Pardon, reprieve, commutation Board of Pardons & Paroles

Powers & Limitations Informal Powers of the Governor

Four aspects of informal gubernatorial powers 1.Electoral mandate 2.Political ambition ladder 3.Personal future as governor 4.Performance ratings Sway public opinion Rancher Mythos Public Appearances Speech-Making Campaigns

Texas Supreme Court

Highest court in Texas for civil cases in the state. Consists of a chief justice and 8 associate justices. Texas SC: makes procedural rules for lower courts approves law schools in the state appoints members of the Board of Legal Examiners Cases can be appealed to USSC if they involve federal question.

Redistribution:

If the American public is not acting in their own best interest (such as not saving for retirement) the government may intervene (creation of social security)

New Deal Programs:

In 1929, the stock market crashed and the United States entered the Great Depression of the 1930s. When President Franklin Delano Roosevelt was elected to office, he began the use of Keynesian economics in the federal government. In order to ensure that people could consume, FDR pushed for the passage of several major acts. Two acts which remain important today for social and welfare policy are the Social Security Act and the Fair Labor Standards Act.

Hatch Act of 1939:

In 1939, the Hatch Act prohibited civil servants from active involvement in political campaigns. It sought to ensure a neutral bureaucracy, and sought to protect bureaucrats from being pressured by their superiors to make political contributions or engage in campaigning. While some have complained that the Hatch Act violates the constitutional rights of civil servants who wish to be politically active, the Supreme Court ruled in 1973 that the government's interest in preserving a nonpartisan civil service was so great that the prohibition should remain. The Federal Employees Political Activities Act of 1993 removed some Hatch act restrictions, allowing bureaucrats to participate in campaigns voluntarily."

Property Taxes

A property tax is the tax on the value of real estate paid by the property owner. Localities in TX impose significant property taxes in the absence of an income tax. The property tax is an ad-valorem tax - a tax based on the value of property. Hence government can increase tax revenues without increasing rates, by increasing the amount of the appraisal - the official estimate of a property's value. This creates a "stealth tax increase" as increased property values (Dallas saw a 60% increase from 2000-05) bring in more tax revenue with no change in the rate. Taxes are progressive when they place higher rates on people with higher incomes and regressive when they take a higher proportion of income from people with lower incomes. Are property taxes progressive or regressive? What about sales taxes?

Patriot Act (2001):

Another result of terrorism was the passing of the Patriot Act. The Patriot Act was passed in order to break down the walls between intelligence agencies and increase communication between them. However, some people feel that the Patriot Act has violated certain civil liberties such as privacy, due process and free speech. For example: Patriot Act and the War on Civil Liberties

Great Society:

In 1964, then President Lyndon Baines Johnson decided to embark on the War on Poverty and created the Great Society programs. For example, there were increases in federal spending on education, job training, and housing. In addition, both Medicare and Medicaid were established during this time (we will return to these programs momentarily). By the late 1970s, the country was facing an economic downturn. Taxes were on the rise and controversy surrounding social and welfare programs began to appear in public avenues.

Governor Rick Perry: Controversies & Power Plays

In 2001, set a record for vetoes in a legislative session with 82. During 2007 legislative session, allowed 400 appointees to expire, allowing current occupants to continue serving past the end of their terms. Controversial plan to expand toll rolls in TX. Controversial executive order mandating 65% or more of state education funds go to classroom instruction. Approximately 1/3 of Perry's appointees made contributions to Perry's campaign. Called three special sessions in 2003 after state failed to redistrict during normal business. Perry rented a house while Governor's mansion was under renovation - was criticized for cost of rental house ($10,000 a month).

Getting to the Presidency

Article II, Section 1 of the US Constitution lists the qualifications to be US President. The two major requirements are that the President is a minimum age of 35, 14 years of continuous US residency and is a natural born citizen (which means former California Governor Arnold Schwarzennegger could never be President because even though he is a citizen of the US he was not born in the US). The second requirement was also a question for Senator John McCain, the 2008 Republican presidential nominee who was born on a US military base outside of the US. The court has decided however that a US military base does count as the US and Senator McCain was considered to be a natural born citizen. While the constitutional requirements are minimal, other issues can affect who becomes president. One such issue is the idea that because the US is dominated by a two party system of Democrats and Republicans that it can be very difficult to run for president if not representing one of the two parties most notably based on the cost of the campaign process. Campaigns begin early, for example even though Mitt Romney is expected to be the Republican candidate for the presidential election this year, the official nomination will not take place until August even though the campaigns have already gotten under way. Current President Barack Obama will be the Democratic candidate. The President is not elected through a direct system, but is instead elected by the Electoral College. The way it works is that each state has a certain number of Electoral College votes which is equal to the number of members they have in the US House + their 2 Senators. Most states use what is called the unit rule where if a candidate wins the vote in their state, that candidate receives all of the states electoral college votes. This was a big concern in the 2000 election for example when George W Bush was seen as winning the state by less than 0.5% but was awarded all of the states electoral college votes. The Florida win gave George W Bush the win as the votes made him receive a total of 271 Electoral College votes, 1 more than the 270 Electoral College votes needed to win the election. The 12th amendment to the Constitution adopted in 1804 specifies that there's a separate election for the President and Vice President by the Electoral College.

Sessions & Qualifications

Because many Texans believe that a shorter legislative session helps to limit problems that legislators could cause (basically the idea that less government is better government), the Texas Legislature has a limited session where it meets on the second Tuesday of odd-numbered years for 140 days. In addition, the Governor has the right to call a 30-day special session on a particular topic where legislators are not allowed to bring up any other topics. While this appears to be a good plan to minimize mischief, a drawback to short sessions is the large volume of legislation that must be handled in a short amount of time, that means many bills only get a little consideration. It is possible that the limited sessions work against orderly legislative practice and the public interest. Texas Senators serve 4-year terms, must be at least 26 years of age, have lived in Texas for 5 years, and their district for 1 year. Texas House of Representative members serve 2-year terms, must be at least 21 years of age, have lived in Texas for 2 years, and their district for 1 year.

World Trade

As discussed earlier in the semester, the United States is involved in the global community. Part of global involvement is being a part of world trade. This involves importing goods and services produced in another country to be sold and purchased within the United States and exporting goods and services produced within the United States for sale and purchase in other countries. This system of imports and exports constitutes the balance of trade which is "the difference between the value of a nation's export of goods and its import of goods". The balance of trade is positive when exports exceed imports, however the balance of trade in the United States has been negative for several years. While economists tend to be in favor of world trade, the public is often skeptical of it. Criticisms are largely based on the loss of American jobs to jobs overseas. However, it is important to remember that restricting trade, while it may help job loss in certain industries, may harm jobs in industries that export goods from the United States to other countries and can cause prices to increase due to lack of competition. Two ways that imports have been restricted are by imposing tariffs which are taxes on imports and by imposing quotas on the number of items that are imported. It is important to note here that there are several types of organizations involved in world trade for example the European Union and the North American Free Trade Association. Another organization involved in world trade is the World Trade Organization (WTO).

Failure of competition:

As mentioned above in the firm behavior example, if competition fails the government may intervene in order to ensure that competition continues to take place. Competition is supposed to help in keeping prices low and quality high. When competition fails, a monopoly could form that would control all aspects of a particular industry and could force consumers into unfair situations. Thus, the government may intervene. [market failure, natural monopolies, negative externalities]

Legislative Practices

Blocking Bills: First bill introduced in a session. It is not introduced to be passed, but rather to hold a place atop the calendar - it prevents bills below it from being considered. Killer Amendments: make bill unacceptable to the majority by amending it such that a majority of the chamber no longer supports the full bill. Chubbing - delaying action on a bill to prevent consideration of another bill. Rider: addition to the bill that deals with an unrelated subject. Closed Rider: not made public until after legislature has voted on bill.

The Governor - Constitution & Authority

Constitution of 1876 deliberately weakened the power of the governor 2 year terms Few formal powers Few appointments Plural executive Formal powers have expanded since, but have not kept pace 4 year terms Legislatively granted appt powers Informal Powers National policy-making Border Issues - nat. security High political profile Stepping stone to National Office

County Governments

Counties employ thousands of Texans in a variety of county-level government jobs. The primary source of revenue for counties are property taxes. Most of these jobs are filled through patronage. In a patronage system, elected officials give out government jobs to whomever they want. Some larger counties (200,000 pop +) can institute a merit-based civil service system. In a MBCS, government jobs are determined through formal systems - based on qualifications and training. Civil service system for counties are administered by a county civil service commission.

Texas - Capital Punishment

Capital punishment has been used in the U.S. state of Texas and its predecessor entities since 1819. As of 15 November 2012, 1,243 people (including six women) have been executed. Only Virginia has executed more individuals overall; however, since the death penalty was re-instituted in the United States in the 1976 Gregg v. Georgia decision, Texas has executed (all via lethal injection) more inmates than any other state (beginning in 1982 with the execution of Charles Brooks Jr.), notwithstanding that two states (California and Florida) have a larger death row population than Texas. Since 1923 the Texas Department of Criminal Justice (TDCJ) has been in charge of executions in the state. TDCJ houses death row prisoners after they are transported from their counties of conviction, and administers the death penalty on a condemned person's court-scheduled date of execution barring any last-minute stays. The imposition of a death sentence in Texas results in an automatic direct appeal to the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals, the state's highest criminal tribunal (the intermediate Texas Court of Appeals is bypassed), which examines the record for trial error. In addition to seeking judicial review of the sentence, a defendant may also appeal to the Texas Board of Pardons and Paroles, a separate agency from TDCJ, for commutation of the sentence to life in prison. The Board, after hearing testimony, decides whether or not to recommend commutation to the Governor of Texas.

Impact of Decisions

Decisions of the Supreme Court can have legal impacts on parties, other courts and government units. In addition, court decisions can impact political issues. Parties involved can be impacted because they must abandon what they were doing or fix it to comply with the courts decisions. Other courts are impacted because Supreme Court decisions create binding precedents on all lower courts since the Supreme Court is the major legal authority in the country. Government units such as school systems and police departments can be affected by court decisions such as desegregation and having to read suspects Miranda rights. Supreme Court decisions may also help to promote public acceptance of a law's legitimacy. This has been discussed already in the area of civil rights, but it also comes up in areas of privacy and criminal procedure rights as well.

Governor Wilbur Lee "Pappy" O'Daniel

In charge of radio advertising, had own radio where he sold flour - hired a band to play "old timey" music called the "Light Crust Doughboys" Nickname from his radio show catchphrase: "pass the biscuits, Pappy" Ran for Governor and won in 1938 on platform of tax cuts, no sales tax, and higher pensions. Won re-election in 1940, despite failed effort to pass a new sales tax. Considered to be a largely ineffectual governor. Inspired a character loosely based on himself in the 2000 Coen brother movie, "Oh Brother, Where Art Thou"

Criminal Justice Policy

Crime has always been an issue in public policy, however its importance wanes with how high the crime rate is. One of the current issues with criminal justice policy is the high cost of prisons that is influenced by the increasing prison population. One idea to minimize this problem has been to privatize prisons. This is also a concern for states and localities as well. We return to this issue later in the semester with Texas public policy. Another criminal justice policy issue that has been debated over the years is capital punishment. The Supreme Court has recently decided that you cannot give the death penalty to the mentally handicapped or to juveniles. They have also decided that the death penalty can only be applied in cases where the crime ended in or intended to end in death. Lethal injection has been upheld as constitutional. Federal drug policy is also a major concern. The issue is that the federal government has done little to change their policies on drugs (such as incarcerating first time offenders for drugs such as marijuana) whereas the states have been experimenting with things like drug courts and rehabilitation facilities. Not all politicians are in agreement with the federal war on drugs, such as Ron Paul: Ron Paul- End the War on Drugs! (internet article). A drug policy issue that has caused tension between the federal and state governments is the issue of medical marijuana. The issue has been debated under the commerce clause to the US Constitution. Recall from earlier in the semester that Congress has the power to regulate interstate commerce. See the links below, the first explaining the US Supreme Court case addressing the commerce clause and medical marijuana and the second on the debate over the issue. Gonzales v Raich (2004) Debate Continues to Rage Over Medical Marijuana.

Criminal Law

Criminal prosecutions Often involve issues related to constitutional rights Defendant can seek Injunction against the application of an unconstitutional statute File a demurrer to an indictment through a pretrial motion Appeal of conviction to higher court Habeas Corpus Ancient common law device persons use to challenge the legality of an arrest or imprisonment (recognized by Constitution).

The Texas Executive Paradox

Current Governor: Greg Abbot TX Governor Paradox Institutionally a weak office Few formal powers Strong limits on office Yet, TX governors have exercised a great deal of informal power. Powerful influence within Texas politics And Texas governorship has been a stepping stone to national office

Secretary of State

Current office holder: Carlos Cascos. Cascos is a Mexican-American, and a certified public accountant. Only office of the executive branch appointed by the governor - confirmed by 2/3rds vote of Senate. Serves 4-year term concurrent with governor. State record keeper Publishes The Texas Register - a list of rules and regulations for TX bureaucracy Administers state election law and runs state elections Tabulates election returns for state / district offices Voter registration drives Certifies election results Grants corporate charters and issues business permits Processes extradition requests Recent Governor-granted additional responsibilities: Oversees Mexican-Texas affairs as chief administrator Chief international protocol officer Texas Census Ambassador (Andrade first to serve in this capacity)

Lt. Governor

Current office holder: Dan Patrick Elected for 4 years, no term limits. Assumes governorship when the governor is temporarily out of state or permanently if the governor is impeached, dies, or is otherwise incapacitated. While most Lt. Governor positions have little formal power or role in governance, that is not the case in TX. The office of Lt. Governor is perhaps the most powerful office in TX - due to his legislative rather than his executive role. As presiding officer of the Senate, the Lt. Governor exerts great influence on debate and on the bills that reach the floor.

Land Commissioner

Current office holder: George P. Bush Oldest agency in state - dates back to just before TX independence. Administer the state's public lands (20 million acres). Public lands are a major revenue source for the state. Chairman of Veteran's Land Board - does Vet loans In charge of wind turbines - TX is the nation's leader in wind production. TX has begun leasing wind rights in the Gulf coast. George P. Bush is the son of former Florida Governor Jeb Bush, the nephew of former Texas Governor and President of the United States George W. Bush, and grandson of George H.W. Bush, also a former president. Bush has focused on raising funds for future development of the Alamo site.

Comptroller of Public Accounts

Current office holder: Glen Hegar. Elected to 4-year terms and one of the most powerful elected positions in TX state government. State Chief Accounting Officer and Tax Collector Estimates how much revenue the state of TX will generate in a year. TX Constitution requires comptroller certification for spending bills that there will be revenue to cover the budgeted expenditures - comptroller has great influence over TX state budget. Designates TX financial institutions as depositories for state-collected funds. Collects taxes (fuel, alcohol, cigarette, etc. taxes) and fees (vehicle registration, higher ed fees, etc.).

Attorney General

Current office holder: Ken Paxton (former member of TX legislature) Elected for 4 year terms in off-year elections. Considered second only to Lt. Governor in power and prestige in the plural executive. 4,000+ employees in office of AG. Gives advice on constitutionality of pending bills. Represents TX in state and federal courts. Gives opinions on jurisdiction and law-interpretation to branches of the government - though not binding these are considered authoritative unless overruled by courts. Enforces child-support orders & administers justice-related funds (i.e. Crime Victim's Compensation Fund). Paxton ran for AG when the sitting AG, Greg Abbot, decided to run for governor. Paxton promised to defend Texas state laws and keep Texas a "beacon of freedom and liberty to the nation". In 2015, Ken Paxton was indicted on a third-degree felony charge of securities fraud. He has plead not guilty and refused to step down from office.

Agricultural Commissioner

Current office holder: Sid Miller. Head of the Texas Department of Agriculture. Described as a "practicing farmer." Implements all agricultural laws in the state, serves farmers and ranchers. Also charged with agricultural promotion. Oversees school nutrition - Texas Public School Nutrition Policy. As noted in your textbook, Commissioner Miller recently called for a controversial revision of the TPSNP. The revision was enacted by the TX Legislature.

Districts

Districts refer to the way a state is divided into areas from which we elect our senators and representatives. Texas has single member districts where each district votes on one person to represent them in a legislative body. There are 150 seats in the Texas House of Representatives and 31 seats in the Texas Senate. Redistricting became an issue in Texas in 2003 when Texas was redistricted again after the 2000 census redistricting. Some citizens were concerned that the additional redistricting had violated the US Constitution, however the US Supreme Court in the 2006 court case League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) v Perry determined that it was okay for the state to redistrict as many times as it wanted so long as it redistricted at least once following the census. To hear/read the US Supreme Court announce its decision in the case, click on the oral argument. When you click on the link, a box should show up where you can hit play. It should be the opinion announcement. After a few seconds of play, the transcript should show up where as the announcement is read, the transcript is highlighted. In 2012, new plans for redistricting in Texas were put into place. The plans were established in 2011 which was the first legislative session following the 2012 decennial census. There was controversy with the redistricting which had an impact on East Texas where several longtime incumbent members of the Texas Legislature lost re-election. Arguments have been made that the redistricting of these districts had a major impact on the losses of these longtime incumbents. The effect of their loss is that East Texas will lose seniority in the Texas Legislature. See the article: Did new voting lines doom incumbent East Texas legislators? It should also be noted that according to the Texas Constitution, if the legislature fails to come up with a redistricting plan in a timely fashion following the census, than the Legislative Redistricting Board (which consists of the Lieutenant Governor, Speaker of the House, Attorney General, Comptroller and Commissioner of General Land Office) may conduct the redistricting. In the U.S. Supreme Court's most recent term, the Court upheld 10 of the 11 districts that were challenged in the case of Abbott v. Perez. The Court ruled that the legislative redistricting plan did not intentionally discriminate against minorities, with the exception of House District 90, which was found to be an impermissible racial gerrymander. Here are a couple of links to the Texas Tribune discussing the case: Oral Arguments in the Texas Redistricting Case U.S. Supreme Court upholds Texas Redistricting Plan

Imperfect information:

Economic entities may not always want to provide information that could harm profits. However, the government may feel that the protection of the consumer is more important and may thus force the information to be provided such as warning labels on everything from cigarettes to prescription drugs. [information asymmetry]

Economic Policy: Key Concepts

Economic policy is an important issue in American government. The President and Congress (as well as the American public) want to see a solid federal budget and continuous economic growth. This is because the state of the economy is connected to employment, housing, trade, and many other things. The economy is currently one of the major political issues. Migrant Mother: "Dorothea Lange's "Migrant Mother," destitute in a pea picker's camp, because of the failure of the early pea crop. These people had just sold their tent in order to buy food. Most of the 2,500 people in this camp were destitute. By the end of the decade there were still 4 million migrants on the road." San Antonio Squatters: "Squatters in Mexican section in San Antonio, Texas. House was built of scrap material in vacant lot in Mexicansection of San Antonio, Texas. March 1939. Photographer: Russell Lee." Before discussing some important areas of economic policy such as regulation and fiscal and monetary policy, some key terms and issues of federal taxation are discussed below.

Governor Rick Perry

Elected Lt. Governor under GWB, elected to three 4-year terms as Governor in 2002, 06, 10 (unprecedented). Longest tenured Governor in TX history. Tapped into Texas political style better or as well as any previous TX politician has. Campaigned on tough-on-crime, job growth and low taxes. Expanded power of governorship through veto, appointments, special sessions, and public speaking. Has played successfully as a politician on the national stage, despite unsuccessful bid for 2012 Republican presidential nomination. The FDR of Texas Governors.

Local Government: Elections

Elections At-large No districts Candidates run for any seat At-large by place No districts Candidates run for particular seats SMD (see Congress lecture) Cumulative (see Congress lecture)

Elite & Mass Opinion:

Elite persons in society along with the public can influence what positions the US government takes on particular issues of foreign policy. One example is The Ford Foundation

Cold War Era

Following WWII it was clear that two superpowers were emerging, the United States (a capitalist democracy) and the Soviet Union (a communist dictatorship). The ideology underlying these two superpowers brought them head to head in a battle known as the Cold War. The two competing sides were the United States who had a military alliance with a number of European nations called the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Soviet Union who had alliances with a number of eastern European countries known as the Soviet Bloc. Winston Churchill, a political powerhouse of Great Britain, stated that the Soviet Bloc had created an iron curtain that was drawn between eastern and western Europe. President Truman, who took office after Franklin Roosevelt, passed the Truman Doctrine that would help to stop the expansion of communism in southeastern Europe, specifically Turkey and Greece. This policy soon became a broad policy of the US and was known as containment policy, where we would contain communism in its existing boundaries. While the US and the Soviet Union never met in battle, containment policy helped to pit the US in a number of situations where we would aid particular countries in order to stop the spread of communism. Two main instances of this were the Korean War and the Vietnam War. Another major concern during the Cold War was the technology battle that was taking place between the US and the Soviet Union. The most important being that of arms development. Both sides were in a race to build as more nuclear weapons than the other. The arms race created a major crisis in 1962 called the Cuban Missile Crisis. This was seen as the closest thing to a nuclear confrontation when the US discovered that the Soviet Union was setting up nuclear bases in Cuba that could easily reach the West. After two weeks of very tense negotiations, agreements were made where the US would agree not to invade Cuba and to remove certain missiles in Turkey if Cuba would dismantle the nuclear bases. The fear of nuclear war and the possibility that both sides could completely destroy each other led to a series of treaties aimed at reducing nuclear proliferation. For example the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (1972) that was meant to stabilize the nuclear competition between the US and the Soviet Union. The Cold War lasted for several decades. It was not until 1989 that the last bastion of the iron curtain fell. This occurred with the fall of the Berlin Wall. Watch the following series of clips to understand more about the wall itself and about what happened after it fell. (1) The Berlin Wall (2) Reagan--Tear Down This Wall After the fall of the Berlin Wall countries that were part of the Soviet Bloc began to falter. The final dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War came in 1991.

Qualifications

Formal Requirements 21 years old for House, 26 years old for Senate TX Resident for 2 years for House, 5 years for Senate Resident of district (House & Senate) for 1 year Informal Requirements Party affiliation Win party primary Term of Office No term limits 2 years for the House 4 years for the Senate - staggered so that ½ of legislature is up every 2 years. Exception: after redistricting, whole Senate is re-elected.

Governor Sam Houston

Fought against Santa Anna for Texas Independence Leading role in bring Texas into the Union Twice elected President of the Republic of Texas (over Stephen F. Austin) Ran twice as a Unionist for Governor - won once. Was evicted from position after Texas Convention votes to join the Confederacy Predicted calamity for the South as a consequence of session.

Education

From Brown, Langenegger, et al: "Comparison of Funding Sources for Public Education (2000-2008)": 2001-2002: 56.1% of funding from local taxes; 40.5% of funding from the state; 3.5% of funding from federal grants 2003-2004: 51.4% of funding from local taxes; 38.3% of funding from the state; 10.3% of funding from federal grants 2005-2006: 54.6% of funding from local taxes; 33.9% of funding from the state; 11.5% of funding from federal grants 2007-2008: 45.7% of funding from local taxes; 44.8% of funding from the state; 9.5% of funding from federal grants Elementary & Secondary Schools State Laws that address elementary and secondary education include: Compulsory attendance (1915), Free textbooks (1918), and the Gilmer-Aikin Law (1949) that established the Texas Education Agency. State Administration agencies include: State Board of Education that is a 15 member elected board that sets the general rules and guidleines for the Texas Education Agency and the Texas Education Agency that is the primary administrative unit for education and manages the textbook adoption process, oversees curriculum and assessment programs. Political Issues in elementary and secondary education include concern over what curriculum should be taught and what textbooks should be used. Another major political issue was the Texas Assessment of Knowledge & Skills (TAKS) and controversy over passage rates. For example the following article discusses TAKS controversy. This controversy has been addressed, in a way, in that the state has altered the testing system so now, rather than TAKS (which many of you likely took), there is the State of Texas Assessments of Academic Readiness (STAAR) program. The program begins in Spring 2012: STAAR Resources. You will read more about STAAR for discussion three. Financing for education comes from federal grants, state funding such as the Permanent School Fund, and local funding (Ad valorem property taxes & General-obligation bonds).Higher Education Higher education is controlled by the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board (THECB) that has 18 members appointed by the Governor. About 90% of college students in Texas are enrolled in public institutions of higher education. Some of the political issues invovled with higher education are cost, accessibility and diversity. Attached is a factsheet regarding the THECB Closing the Gaps program geared toward increasing the rates of higher education in the state. An issue that students are concerned with, and something that has been examined by the THECB is textbook cost. Following this information are two documents, the first is a portion of a chapter by Keith and Haag that discusses education policy on the secondary and higher education level. The second document is a report on the cost of college textbooks.

Specific Poverty Concerns

Government Programs There are a number of government programs that attempt to help those living in poverty. These range from TANF, discussed earlier, to food stamps distributed based on family income and assets. Read the following informatio on SNAP/food stamps: Food Research and Action Center Homelessness One of the most obvious problems stemming from poverty is homelessness. It is difficult to count the number of homeless on any given night, as it is a transitory group. Estimates are from 230,000-750,000.There are many categories of homeless. For example, those living on the street, sleep in parks, bus stations, etc., such as runaways. Those living in shelters for reasons such as economic turmoil, natural disasters or sometimes domestic violence/abuse. . For example, the Will Smith movie 'The Pursuit of Happyness' focuses on the true life story of a father and son who experienced homelessness firsthand due to economic turmoil. [the link is not a film clip but a discussion of how the true story compares to the film version] The final group of homeless to discuss are the chronic homeless who have been on the streets for a significant time such as a year or more and often experience problems with mental disorders and drug/alcohol abuse. Another group often in this category are veterans who are homeless. Homeless Veterans CNN (remember to select CC and transcribe audio to turn on the captions). Read the attached document pages 20-22 on the document (but it is p. 24 on the pdf....the section that deals with veterans).

Historical Landmarks

It is important to mention briefly some landmark decisions made by the Supreme Court that have aided in establishing the structural elements of government as well as promoting causes of individual rights. These landmarks also connect to two major judicial philosophies: judicial activism and judicial restraint. Marbury v Madison decided in 1803 set forth the idea that the Supreme Court is the final interpreter of the Constitution. This power, called judicial review, is not stated expressly in the Constitution but it has become a foundation of American law and of the American legal system. McCulloch v Maryland decided in 1819 set forth the idea that federal law is supreme to state law. This helped to establish the ideals of federalism as set forth in the Constitution. Over time, as the court used its power of judicial review as new issues began to arise. Most notably, following the civil war the legislature passed what are known as the post civil war amendments (the 13th, 14th and 15th) that shifted the focus of court decisions from the structural elements of the constitution to issues of individual rights such as free speech and equal protection. We also see a more clear development of two judicial philosophies:

The Plural Executive

Legacy of the 1876 Constitution. The plural executive in Texas limits the power of the Governor by distributing power usually associated with a chief executive among many elected political leaders. The only cabinet-level executive office appointed by the governor is the Secretary of State. Campaigns are separate, encourages turf-wars, and can result in divided partisan power within the executive branch. Governor of Texas Greg Abbott Lieutenant Governor Dan Patrick Attorney General Ken Paxton Comptroller of Public Accounts Glenn Hegar Agricultural Commissioner Sid Miller Land Commissioner George P. Bush Secretary of State Carlos Cascos

How a Bill Becomes a Law

Legislator drafts/introduces bill: Bills are the only method to introduce, enact and amend or repeal a law. Texas legislators sometimes draft bills on their own, but may use the services provided by the Texas Legislature such as the Texas Legislative Council and may get help from various organizations. Texas legislators may sometimes co-author bills with other Texas legislators. However, the Legislative Budget Board must draft appropriations bills (bills that provide funds). A bill may be introduced in either the Texas House or the Texas Senate. Each chamber has the right to amend, alter and/or reject the bills of the other chamber. Bill is sent to committee: Because of the amount of work required to be done in the short legislative period and the complexity of many bills, the committee process is essential to getting laws passed, amended, or repealed. In the Texas House of Representatives, the Speaker of the House assigns bills to committees based on the subject of the bill, where particular committees handle particular subjects. The Texas Senate Rules of Procedure do not contain the same rule, however the Lieutenant Governor often follows the pattern of sending bills to committees that pertain to the same/similar subject as the bill. A committee's activity can result in a number of things. Sometimes the committee chooses not to report on a bill, essentially killing it in the committee. The committee may recommend amendments or even introduce a new version of the bill. Also, the committee may recommend where the bill shall be placed on the calendar. Bill is placed on calendar: The Texas House of Representatives has a number of different calendars and groups bills together based on category to determine which calendar the bill will be placed on. The Texas Senate has one calendar, the Intent Calendar, and bills are placed in the order in which they come out of committee. Debate on bill: Under Article 3, Section 21 of the Texas Constitution, Texas Senators and Texas Representatives cannot be questioned about what they may have said while engaged in debate on the floor of the Texas House or Texas Senate. This gives senators and representatives the opportunity to discuss potentially controversial subjects while in a debate and provides them with free speech. Texas Senators may tag a bill that halts all debate on the bill for 48 hours. Texas Senators can also filibuster wherein a Senator maintains discussion on a bill for an extended period of time, which halts the vote on the bill and can serve as a mechanism to try and kill the bill. Floor action is taken: While the final vote of the Texas legislature on a bill has been recorded under Texas law for some time, it was only recently that the individual votes were recorded. In November of 2007, the Texas Constitution was amended to require the recording of individual votes in the legislative record. This was partially in response to concerns of ghost voting (CC is available but a transcript is not; the clip shows the practice of legislators casting votes for other legislators on the TX floor; visual depiction showing legislators voting for each other, with arrows pointing out the practice), a practice disliked by the public. Bill is sent to other chamber: If the bill is agreed on, the Speaker of the House and the Lieutenant Governor sign the bill. If there is disagreement then the bill is sent to the conference committee. If the conference committee cannot fix the problems with the bill, the bill dies. Bill is sent to Governor: The last stage is to send the bill to the Governor who may sign or veto the bill. If the bill is vetoed, a 2/3rds majority vote in each chamber can override the Governor's veto. If the Governor takes no action the bill becomes law. There are several reasons why a bill may be opposed by a legislator throughout this process including that supporters of the legislator may see the bill as a threat to their interests, as punishment for those who have not been supportive in the past, bill supporters may not be able to match bargaining level of bill opponents, and the bill might take funds away from programs supported by a presiding officer.

TX Budget Process

Like most other states and unlike the federal government, Texas operates on a pay-as-you-go basis that prohibits deficit financing. The comptroller must certify that each budget can be paid for with anticipated revenue from taxes, fees, and other sources" This means that the state must pass a balanced budget. The Texas budget is a 2-year budget as, if you remember from the prior lesson, the Texas Legislature only meets every other year so they pass a two year budget. The main source of revenue for the state (meaning the main way the state gets money) is the sales tax. The main source of revenue for local governments is the property tax. Texas is generally considered to have a regressive tax system (regressive tax: "a tax in which the effective tax rate falls as the tax base increases") as compared to a progressive tax system (progressive tax: "A tax rate in which the effective tax rate increases as the tax base increases") According to Brown, Langenegger, et al: "Percent of Average Annual Family Income Paid in Local and State Taxes in Texas": If your income is <$27,088 then you pay an average of 12.4% of that income in taxes; If your income is around $38,100 then you pay an average of 7.4% of that income in taxes; If your income is around $62,257 then you pay an average of 6.3% of that income in taxes; If your income is around $96,650 then you pay an average of 6.0% of that income in taxes; and if your income is >$117,899 then you pay an average of 4.9% of that income in taxes. Remember this is in the form of local and state taxes not income taxes. Texas does not have a state income tax. The federal government does collect an income tax (along with other taxes mentioned in the comment I posted on D2L such as FICA).

Case Law:

Most American law is based on the English system in particular common law which is judge made law where decisions are shaped according to prevailing custom meaning decisions were applied to similar situations and gradually became common to the nation. What this led to was the use of precedent (a court rule where judges rely on decisions in past cases to determine current cases) which can also be referred to as stare decisis (to stand on decided cases).

Texas Governors Common Characteristics

Most TX Governors: White Protestant Wealthy Men Highly educated - Law Politically Experienced Conservative Democrats Rancher / Farmer Mythos

Funding Local Governments

Most revenue for local governments come from property taxes. State & local tax collections have been on the rise in recent years - due mostly to property tax increases. Furthermore, as a consequence of the economic downturn, state and local debt loads have increased.

Lieutenant Governor:

Officially appoints membership, chairs and vice-chairs of all senate committees and permanent subcommittees. In general, senior senators serve on more powerful committees and standing committee chairs appoint membership, chair, and vice-chairs of subcommittees.

Railroad Commissions

Oldest regulatory agency in Texas, and one of few elected commissions (Hogg) Originally created to challenge the power of the railroads - encourage fair competition. Three members, independently elected, serve 6 year terms. Mandate has expanded beyond railroads to include regulation of: oil and gas industry environmental protection alternative energy sources. Three quarters of the commission's efforts focused on oil and gas exploration and production. 2005 - commission's responsibility for rail safety transferred to the TxDOT.

Agenda building:

Once a problem has been recognized, it is important for a policymaker to get that problem placed on the public's agenda. Problems can get on the agenda in many ways such as if an interest group gains the attention of the public (environmental groups and endangered species). Another way a problem can be brought to the agenda by a policymaker is if that problem is important to a constituent of that policymaker. There are numerous examples of this especially in the area of the safety of children, for example the creation of Amber alerts regarding missing children or the recent story of internet bullying being recognized as a problem after a young girl committed suicide based on interactions on myspace. See Teen Suicide and Cyberbullying Legislation for more on the story.

Policy implementation:

Once a strategy has been debated it is adopted and then it must then be implemented. Action must be taken by the necessary groups in order to ensure that the adopted strategy is put in place. Action may need to be taken by all levels of government including the bureaucracy and courts. As Zaino (2012) points out this is the stage where "the details of policy management are worked out in this phase, and administrative agencies wield significant authority since they determine the eventual reach of a policy" (p. 251).

Education Policy

One of the primary responsibilities of Texas state government. TX education policy has national implications. Education Reform Act Required teachers & administrators to take TECAT - competency test No pass, no play Increased funding State of Texas Assessments of Academic Readiness (STARR) Tests students on reading/math from the TEKS (Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills) in grades 3-8. No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) Federal law requiring testing and national education standards Also provided funds to states for education. Higher Education Permanent University Fund Higher Education Coordinating Board

Appointment Power

Only appoints Secretary of State Gradual expansion of appointment power below PE level Appointees Share Gov political philosophy / party loyal Patronage Recess Appointments Senatorial Courtesy Appointment Expiration

Governor James "Pa" & Miriam "Ma" Ferguson

Pa Ferguson Established Farmer's State Bank Self-styled image: "Farmer Jim" Elected governor in 1914 as an anti-prohibitionist Democrat Vetoed appropriation for University of Texas - was impeached and convicted. Ma Ferguson First woman governor of Texas Promised to follow advice of her husband and provide a "two for one" governorship Campaign slogan: "Me for Ma, and I Ain't Got a Durned Thing Against Pa." Served two non-consecutive terms of office. Opposed prohibition and the KKK Granted nearly 4000 pardons - lead to TX constitutional amendment stripping Governor of clemency powers.

Texas Fiscal Policy

Political Scientist Harold Laswell defined politics as: "who gets what, when, and how." Governments engage in this kind of politics through fiscal policy: influencing the economy through taxes and spending. The state influences the economy through different methods revenue collection (taxes), and expenditures on government programs (spending). One example of fiscal policy is a state-provided subsidy: where government provides an incentive to encourage production or purchase of certain goods in certain businesses and industries. As the figure demonstrates, subsidies can have a substantial impact on supply and demand - the lifeblood of the economy. A subsidy generally acts to increase supply while driving prices downward.

Governor George W. Bush

Popular 2-term governor (1994-2000) turned 2-term president. Won 69% of popular vote in 98 & 41% of Latino vote. Championed conservative causes such as tort reform, criminal justice reform, and higher educational standards. Pushed through $2 billion tax cut. But also increased TX use of wind power and increased educational spending. Originated "faith-based" welfare programs where gov't partners with private charities to provide welfare goods. Executed more DP convicts than any governor in history - granted only one DP clemency during his tenure.

Governor James "Big Jim" Hogg

Popular advocate of the common citizen Elected AG on railroad reform platform. With the support of farmers, ranchers, and small merchants, Hogg won the election for Governor in 1890. Appointed the first Texas Railroad Commission, and successfully got a law passed to make the TRC elected positions. Fought hard against the railroads as a monopolistic interest. Was an intimidating at 6'2" and 280 pounds and that stature contributed to his tough reputation.

Pre-New Deal Programs:

Prior to the 1930's, social and welfare policy in the United States was very minimal. The main programs provided (1) aid to veterans of the Civil War and their families, and (2) aid to single mothers. While the first type of aid was generally accepted, a number of qualifications were placed on the second type of aid in order for it to be accepted at the time the programs were in place (late 1800s and early 1900s). The main qualification for a woman to get aid was that she must be of good moral character. Good moral character could be shown through things such as focusing on raising children, learning to speak English (if necessary), and remaining celibate. These early programs were quite minimal and restrictive however they show that the United States government has had a historical role in establishing some type of social and welfare policy, even if at a minimal level.

Privatization of Prisons

Privatization in incarceration is the use of private companies to run prisons and house prisoners. Texas leads the country in using private prisons Proponents argue privatization lowers costs and create jobs. Opponents argue privatization leads to poor conditions and poorly trained guards.

1989 Whistle-Blower Protection Act:

Protects employees from retaliation who have exposed government wrongdoing that is harmful to the public.

Public Policy in General

Public policy concerns the decisions and plans regarding a range of issues that are dealt with by government. As Zaino (2012) states, public policy is "a collection of governmentally led responses to scoietal issues" (p. 241). Public policy can focus on domestic issues or foreign issues. In this lesson, we cover the general idealized policy making process in the United States. We then focus on one area of public policy that transcends both domestic and foreign issues, economic policy. There are three broad types of public policies: 1) Distributive policies 2) Redistributive policies 3) Regulation

The Pendleton of 1883:

Reform of the bureaucracy selection process began in 1883. The Pendleton Act established the Civil Service Commission and created a situation in which civil servants were to be selected on merit, not political affiliation. At first only 10 percent of federal employees were covered, but the program expanded over time to cover most administrators. This act was passed in part as a response to the assassination of President James Garfield in 1881 by a job seeker who had not been given the job they wanted: "An unsuccessful lawyer, evangelist, and insurance salesman, Guiteau believed Garfield owed him a patronage position in the diplomatic corps, and that the president's political decisions threatened to destroy the Republican Party. Guiteau was convicted of murder and hanged on June 30, 1882. In 1883 Congress passed the Pendleton Act; it sought to reform civil service and limit the number of patronage seekers like Charles Guiteau." (http://americanhistory.si.edu/presidency/3d1d.html)

Economic Policy: Regulation

Regulation controls ('regulates') the behavior of an individual or entity (firm, agency, corporation, etc). Regulations can be placed on how much pollution can come from a power plant, on what percentage of peanuts must be in a jar of peanut butter (as compared to butter, salt, and whatever else goes into peanut butter), or whether new cars must have passenger side airbags. Economic regulation is often split into two broad categories: In the United States, some believe that government should not intervene in the free market. Deregulation movements take place where there is a push to remove the rules that may be hampering the free market by imposing costs on the entities involved in the markets. Why then does the government intervene? Six reasons as to why the government may intervene in the market and create economic regulation are listed below.

Theories of Representation

Representation: the relationship between the legislator and the citizen. Theories of representation: Delegate Representative re-presents the views of the district Expected to vote according to district perspectives, irrespective of personal beliefs. Representative as agent of constituents (principals) Trustee Formulated by Edmund Burke Elected officials have info citizens do not Have better grasp of issues and policies Should vote/decide based on own belief a/b what is the best policy - not necessarily what constituents believe/want. Politico Combination of Delegate / Trustee roles Follows majorities on major issues Able to go own way on less important issues - has more leeway to follow own beliefs.

1966 Freedom of Information Act (FOIA):

Requires the government to disclose information. There are a number of exemptions for personal and national security information. Some examples of information found through FOIA requests are information on the BP oil spill and on potential illegal campiagn contributions made by the former owner of the Yankees. See the FOIA Spotlight for more on these two items as well as some others.

Change of Leadership: Greg Abbot

Rick Perry announced he would not seek another term as governor. Texas Attorney General Greg Abbot ran against Democrat Wendi Davis, and won. Governor Abbot has emphasized political reform and continuity in his new administration. In the first Texas legislative term with Abbot as executive, Texas has adopted a limited medical marijuana law, open carry for hand guns, and permitted concealed carry on campus.

Medicaid

joint/federal program that provides health insurance to those unable to work, for example the poor. Much like TANF this is handled by the states so we return to it with Texas public policy, however you can view: Texas Medicaid statistics

Poverty

level determined by the government by comparing a family's income to the consumer price index. Originally, it was defined based on whether a family's income was 3 times greater than the cost of a nutritious food plan. This is why many early welfare programs focused on providing food and nutrition for poverty level persons.

Recession:

occurs when "two or more successive quarters in which the economy shrinks instead of grows". Along with the concept of recession, there is also something called a depression. To get a better understanding of the difference between a recession and a depression read the following Newsweek article: Exactly how bad is it?

Governors of Note

Sam Houston James Stephen Hogg James E. "Pa" Ferguson Miriam A. "Ma" Ferguson W. Lee "Pappy" O'Daniel John Connally Bill Clement Ann Richards George W. Bush Rick Perry

Governor Ann Richards

Second woman governor in TX history. Reflected new & old Texas politics Worked aggressively for a state government inclusive of women and minorities. Tapped into Texas mythos with colorful quips and a bombastic political style. Tough on crime - dramatically increased size of Texas prison system and limited parole. Championed educational and environmental causes. Richards was a well-regarded feminist: "Ginger Rogers did everything Fred Astaire did. She just did it backwards and in high heels." Perry at her eulogy: "Ann Richards...was the epitome of Texas politics: a figure larger than life who had a gift for captivating the public with her great wit."

Districts & Councils

Special Districts Special districts are the most numerous of all forms of local government in Texas. These districts provide unique services not normally provided by either municipal or county government. The most numerous of special districts in Texas are the public school districts. Other examples include: hospital, river, transit, and airport authorities. Special districts should not be confused with dependent agencies. Dependent agencies are closely linked to general-purpose governments such as cities and counties, and they lack the independence of special districts. There are, for example, a number of crime control districts in Texas authorized by various municipalities. Councils of Government Texas has encouraged the coordination of local government activities through the establishment of twenty-four regional councils of government (COGs). Not another form of government, the COGs are voluntary associations of over two-thousand local governments, mostly counties and municipalities. Traditionally the COGs have provided services in the areas of regional planning, grant applications, and technical assistance. Recently, COGs have helped to facilitate the state's homeland security project.

Local Government: Special Districts

Special Districts are created when residents within the proposed boundary of the district petition to create it. Examples include: Airport authorities Library districts Municipal Utility districts Community college districts To fund special district services, they are allowed to level their own property taxes. Special districts can cross county lines - solving the coordination problem of fixed county government under TX constitution. Governed by a board (usually 5 members) MUDs: municipal utility district

Inflation:

refers to "a sustained rise in the general price level of goods and services" (things cost more) and can also refer to "a decline in the purchasing power of money over time" (money won't but you what it used to).

Texas Lower Courts

State Trial Courts District Courts Every county in TX is served by at least one DC. Jurisdiction can be specialized (i.e. family courts) but mostly involves original jurisdiction over civil cases & criminal cases involving felonies. County Trial Courts Constitutional County Courts Exclusive and original jurisdiction over misdemeanors with +$500 fines and/or jail time. Original civil jurisdiction on civil cases from $200-$10,000 - concurrent with JP courts. Appellate jurisdiction from JP and municipal courts. County judges do not have to have law degrees. Statutory County Courts & Probate Courts Created by legislative statute. 232 statutory courts. Jurisdiction varies greatly - civil, criminal, and probate. Local Trial Courts Justice of the Peace Courts Precinct-level courts 822 JP Courts Courts of original jurisdiction only. Civil cases less than $10,000 and misdemeanors. Mostly deals with traffic cases. Municipal Courts Created by legislature for cities. 917 municipalities with at least one court each. Original and exclusive jurisdiction over municipal ordinances - mostly traffic and related offenses. Concurrent jurisdiction (with JP) over Class C misdemeanors. Perform magistrate functions - issue search and arrest warrants, conduct preliminary hearings, set bail. Appeals from municipal courts are heard de novo - with a new trial in county-level courts.

Statutes & Administrative Regulations:

Statutes are the laws, codes and ordinances passed by the legislature and regulations are issued by agencies as ways to implement the statutes. For example the legislature passed the Clean Air Act which says that air must be clean, but the Environmental Protection Agency determines the actual parts of pollution per air molecule that are allowed (not all people in congress are scientists!)

Focus Point: Subsidies & Video Games

Suppose that the government wishes to boost the video game console market. The government has two choices - it can either give the suppliers a subsidy per console produced, or it can give the consumers a subsidy per console bought. In the graph, the government is subsidizing consoles on the supply-side. When suppliers receive a subsidy, they are more likely to produce consoles at each and every price. When, the quantity supplied changes at all prices, there is a change in supply altogether. In other words, when there is a supply-side subsidy, the supply curve shifts to the right. The demand curve remains constant, but the quantity demanded will increase. Sellers are willing to offer lower prices since they are receiving a subsidy from the government. The new equilibrium point is at a higher quantity and a lower price. Though sellers are receiving a lower price than before the subsidy was instituted, they still benefit from the subsidy. In the graph, sellers receive an eighty dollar subsidy and a forty dollar reduction in price. So, they get an additional $40 in revenue per console, represented by the red highlighted area on the graph. Since the consumer has to pay less than before, he also acquires additional gains of $40 per console, green highlighted area on the graph. In addition to additional gains to sellers and buyers on the transactions that would have occurred regardless of the subsidy, there are gains from new trades made due to the lower price. These additional trades are shown in the blue portion of the graph. What happens if the subsidy just goes to Microsoft and its X-Box, but not to Nintendo and its Wii?

Health Policy

Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) Federal program that gives assistance to the poor State Nutritional Action Plans (SNAP) TX version of food stamps for low-income seniors Medicare Federal health insurance program for seniors Medicaid Federal health insurance program for low-income households

Texas Bureaucracy

Texas Bureaucracy is complex and diverse. Executive Bureaucracy consists of: Agency heads Board Members Commissioners Sunshine Laws Texas Public Information Act Sunset Review Process Reviews effectiveness of agencies Reviewed every 12 years

Judicial Selection

Texas Method With the exception of municipal judges, judges in Texas are elected in partisan elections. Just as in other political offices, judges must raise campaign funds and advertise for election and reelection. Judges are often elected as a consequence of straight-ticket voting. Through advertising, Judges can increase their name-recognition among the electorate, increasing their chances of reelection. The Governor can appoint judges to fill vacancies on district and appellate courts. These appointments are confirmed by the senate, and most will go on to stand for re-election to their positions. Alternative Methods Appointment Political office holders appoint/confirm judges. Merit System: Missouri Plan Panel of experts review potential candidates and develop list of potential nominees. Governor nominates judicial candidates from the list.

Prison System & Incarceration

Texas Prison System US has highest incarceration rate in the world, and Texas is the 4th highest in the country. Texas prison incarceration rate is 659 inmates per 100,000 residents. Texas political culture demands politicians who are "tough on crime." Texas prisons struggle with issues of overcrowding and recidivism. Recidivism is where released criminals return to crime after their release.

Firm behavior:

regulations on how an entity behaves such as ensuring that a group of grocery stores cannot get together and fix the price of milk at 10 dollars a gallon which would remove competition and thus violate the underlying ideals of our capitalist system

Product regulation:

regulations placed on products such as how much lead can be in the paint of a child's toy

Texas State Legislature: A comparative perspective

Texas State Legislature: A comparative perspective Every state legislature has an upper house smaller than the lower house. The Texas Constitution determines the size of the two houses of the Texas state legislature: Senate has 31 seats Sets a minimum number of 93 seats for the House Size of the state legislature is not proportional to the population. Some states have large legislatures compared to their populations. Other states have relatively small legislatures in comparison to their populations. Large population states have the largest legislatures, but may have small legislatures relative to their populations. Texas has the 11 the largest legislature of the 50 states. But with the 2nd largest population, it is 49th in ratio of legislator to citizen. Large legislatures are more difficult to organize - less efficient.

Local Government: Counties

Texas has the most counties in the country: 254. Texas Local Government Code Texas Constitution defines county governments - all county governments in Texas are of the same basic form. Texas county governments serve six basic functions: 1.Operate courts for the state 2.Carry out public health regulations and services. 3.Maintain state records (e.g. marriage licenses) 4.Collect funds for the state (e.g. property taxes) 5.Conduct elections 6.Enforce civil and criminal codes (e.g. county sheriff)

Bureaucratic Officials

Texas operates a fragmented or plural executive system of administration. So there are numerous elected and appointed officials. The Attorney General is an elected official who gives opinions on whether a law does or does not violate the Texas or U.S. Constitution and represents state and government in civil and criminal litigation.The current Attorney General, Ken Paxon has focused on human trafficking as one of his office's priorities. Spend some time reviewing some of the AG office's school safety proposals, including the video at the link: Texas Attorney General on Human Trafficking Other elected officials include the Comptroller of Public Accounts who is the chief financial officer for the state, the Commissioner of the General Land Office who oversees public lands in Texas, the Commissioner of Agriculture who must respond to both agribusiness and consumer concerns and the Lieutenant Governor. Appointed executives (by the governor) include the Secretary of State who is the chief election officer for Texas, the Adjutant General who is the top-ranking military officer in the state, the Health and Human Services Commissioner who oversees the Consolidated Texas Health and Human Services System and the Insurance Commissioner who monitors the insurance industry in the state. Elective boards include the Texas Railroad Commission, one of the most important regulatory commissions as they oversee the oil and gas industry in state and the Texas Education Agency that oversees elementary and secondary education in the state. We return to this agency later in the semester when we look at education policy in the state.

Texas Public Opinion on Death Penalty

Texas public is firmly in support of the death penalty. Proponents argue it serves as a deterrent on crime, and serves moral retribution. Opponents argue the death penalty is more expensive than life-in-prison, does not deter crime, and is morally wrong.

Texas Public Policy

Texas public policy must deal with complex political issues in a policy environment with a diverse set of groups, institutions, organizations, and citizens with competing values and preferences. Texas policy must balance economic interests in development, growth, and jobs with interests in cultural values, environmental protection, public health and safety, and personal and property rights. It means that policy-makers must strike a delicate political balance when involving government, through its taxing and spending powers, in the political economy.

State Taxes

Texas ranks 49th out of 50 in state tax burden. Texas is one of seven states with no income tax (a tax calculated as a percentage of income for a given year). Texas has a general sales tax - an across-the-board tax imposed on goods and services in TX. Texas taxes the production of oil and gas with a severance tax - a tax on natural resources charged when they are "severed" from the Earth. Texas primarily taxes business with the franchise tax, which is based on business revenues. The iron law of taxes is that when you tax something, you get less of it. TX uses sin taxes to burden certain products or activities, thus discouraging them. The paradox of sin taxes is that it puts government in the position of generating income from products/activities they ostensibly want less of. A type of sin tax is the excise tax, which charges a certain percentage at the point of purchases for a product. TX has excise taxes on alcoholic beverages with separate rates on liquor, beer, wine, malt liquor, and mixed drinks. It has an excise tax on cigarettes. Some Texans cross state lines to make purchases of items heavily taxed - LA has one of the lowest taxes on cigarettes.

TX Local Government : Revenue

Texas state and local revenues have been hurt by the 2008 downturn. Revenues have declined much more sharply than expenditures. The trend of increased spending has plateaued since the spike between 2006-08, but not enough to offset the revenue loss. Most states, including Texas, increasingly have local governments with operational deficits.

Texas Court of Criminal Appeals

Texas's highest court for criminal appeals. Reviews trial record and briefs to make de jure decisions. Consists of a Presiding Judge and 8 associate judges. Can hear cases in 3-judge panels but most are heard en banc. Hears automatic appeals in death penalty cases. Final court of appeals for questions of state law and the state constitution. Can appeal to USSC in cases that present a federal question.

The Cabinet:

The Cabinet consists of department secretaries and the attorney general who provide the president with information, advise the president on certain issues and receive policy directives from the president. The president may appoint other people to the cabinet such as the vice president or the head of the National Security Agency. In addition to the official cabinet, the president may use what is called the 'kitchen cabinet' for advice. This could consist of informal advice from persons close to the president (for example President George W Bush may have gotten advice on matters from his father former President George H.W. Bush).

The Executive Office of the President:

The EOP consists of a number of different entities in the executive branch. The White House Office is highly political and includes the various secretaries, president's legal counsel, and the chief of staff. The Office of Management and Budget prepares the president's budget and does a great deal of oversight of administrative agencies. The National Security Council contains the president's key foreign policy advisors and includes the secretaries of state and defense and the president's national security advisor among others.

The Texas Executive Structure & Function

The Governor Plural Executive Constitutional Roles Appointment Power Executive Orders Institutional Limitations Texas Gubernatorial History Policymaker Political Leader Public Opinion Relationship with Legislature The Executive Branch Executive Offices Attorney General Comptroller of Public Accounts Land Commissioner Agricultural Commissioner Railroad Commissions Boards & Commissions State Board of Education Texas Bureaucracy Secretary of State Public Utility Commissioners Texas Commission on Environmental Quality Insurance Commissioner Health and Human Services Commission Public Counsels Reform? The Sunset Process The Revolving Door

The Texas Executive Structure & Function

The Governor Plural Executive Constitutional Roles Appointment Power Executive Orders Institutional Limitations Texas Gubernatorial History Policymaker Political Leader Public Opinion Relationship with Legislature The Executive Branch Executive Offices Attorney General Comptroller of Public Accounts Land Commissioner Agricultural Commissioner Railroad Commissions Boards & Commissions State Board of Education Texas Bureaucracy Secretary of State Public Utility Commissioners Texas Commission on Environmental Quality Insurance Commissioner Health and Human Services Commission Public Counsels Reform? The Sunset Process The Revolving Door

House of Representatives

The House of Representatives currently has 435 members. States are given their number of members based on population. In order to achieve this, the US Constitution provides that a national census be taken every 10 years. In addition to the 435 members of Congress, nonvoting delegates are elected from DC, Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa and the Virgin Islands. Members of the House serve 2-year terms and must be at least 25 years old, US citizens for 7 years and inhabitants of the states they hope to represent. Historically the House was dominated by committee leaders, but today we have seen a shift towards domination by party leadership. The Speaker of the House is elected by the House to preside and often serves to represent not only their constituents but also as leader of the party and of the House as a whole. The House also has a majority leader and a minority leader.

Checks on the Court

The Supreme Court is generally considered to be a highly independent branch of government as justices have lifetime tenure and in order to be removed must go through an impeachment process in the same manner as the president. The Supreme Court tends to have higher trustworthiness ratings than the other branches. Even so, the court is part of the overall political process and thus the framers placed certain checks on the court.

Transportation

The Texas Department of Transportation was established in 1917 originally as the Texas Highway Department and is responsible for deisgning, building, operating and maintaining the state's transportation system. The Texas Transportation Commission is a five member board appointed by the Governor and largely oversee the planning of transportation in the state. Political issues include the concern that per capita state highway funding is among nation's lowest and the controversy over the Trans-Texas Corridor (TTC). The TTC was a plan with an estimated cost of $200 billion that would have required the taking by eminent domain of thousands of acres of private property. While the project was eventually cancelled, the controversy was widespread.

Spotlight: Third Court of Appeals

The Third Court of Appeals is composed of a Chief Justice and five justices. It has intermediate appellate jurisdiction of both civil and criminal cases appealed from district or county courts in twenty-four counties of Texas. Appeals in the Third Court are usually heard by a panel of three justices. The Third Court of Appeals is one of fourteen intermediate Courts of Appeals in Texas. Each Court is presided over by a chief justice and has at least two other justices. The specific number of justices on each Court is set by statute and ranges from three to thirteen. In addition to criminal appeals, business disputes, and personal injury cases, the Third Court of Appeals may also hear appeals in cases ranging from utility rates, water rights and land use, to public education. The Third Court also hears appeals in many cases involving the Attorney General, State agencies and boards, and rulings of the Court in these cases can have statewide impact.

Federal & State Constitutions:

The US Constitution is the supreme law of the land and state constitutions are supreme within their respective borders. This means that while federal law will trump state law, states can place additional issues in the states' Constitutions not handled by the federal government so long as the issues do not contradict federal law. For example, the Texas Constitution has an amendment that requires a fair and equitable education system whereas the US Constitution does not mention education at all.

Organization of the Executive Branch

The US Constitution provides for the president and vice-president. The remaining structural elements are left to the discretion of the president and the legislature. This has allowed for an expansion of the executive branch. The two main structural elements we discuss here are the Cabinet and the Executive Office of the President.

Court System Generally

The US has a dual court system where there are state courts and federal courts. For this lesson we focus on federal courts. Article III of the US Constitution creates one national court (the Supreme Court) and gives Congress the power to create additional inferior courts (meaning federal courts below the Supreme Court). The article also gives the President the power to appoint judges with the consent of the Senate. This can become a highly political battle when the government is divided wherein some senators may try to block the president's appointments for example there were concerns that Republicans were going to try to block President Obama's last appointee to the Supreme Court: GOP filibuster to block Kagan appears unlikely Not all cases can get to court and not all persons can take cases court. In any court system before the case can be brought to court two big requirements must be met: jurisdiction and standing. The Supreme Court generally only hears ½ of 1 percent of the cases it is asked to decide each year and exercises a great deal of discretion (choice) over the cases they hear. There is no absolute right of appeal to the Supreme Court. In order for the case to be heard 4 justices must vote to grant a petition for review, called the rule of four. If they decide to hear the case, the court issues a writ of certiorari which is an order to the lower court to send up the record of a case for review. The court may affirm the case which upholds the lower courts decision, reverse the case which voids the lower courts decision or remand the case which sends it back to the lower court to be fixed. The courts opinion could be unanimous where all the justices agree (there are 9 justices on the court), majority where on the Supreme Court at least five agree, and justices can file concurring opinions where they agree with the outcome for different reasons or dissenting opinions where they disagree with the outcome of the case.

Chief Diplomat:

The president has the responsibility of setting the direction of foreign policy and determines which governments the president will recognize as legitimate. The president negotiates treaties which the Senate then approves before the treaty can go into effect.

Regulation:

regulatory policies are meant to alter the behavior of an individual and/or entity (agency, corporation, etc), for example speed limits and fire exits. Zaino (2012): "government actions that compel an individual or organization to perform or refrain from certain actions"

Immigration Policy

The US is experiencing a high rate of immigration. The two groups that we are currently receiving the most legal immigrants from are Asia and Latin America. It is said that by the end of the 21st century that the US will be a majority-minority country. Advantages of legal immigration are that they expand the workforce and pay into programs such as social security and Medicare. "In 2006 the controversy over illegal immigration reached a boiling point as some argued that jobs were being lost, wages were being depressed and services were being stretched to the breaking point. In response hundreds of thousands took to the streets protesting in favor of immigrants and their rights. Congress split over the issue, with some members favoring amnesty for illegal immigrants, some favoring a plan for the gradual awarding of citizenship and others favoring sending illegal immigrants back to their home countries. Ultimately no substantial action was taken and Congress moved toward the midterm elections with promises to study the problem" The issue has recently been thrust once again into the national spotlight with the Republican primary campaigns (where Republicans are running against one another for the chance to be nominated as the Republican candidate to run against President Obama in 2012): Perry Defends Texas Immigration Policy (internet article).Immigration will likely be one of the issues addressed in the upcoming presidential race.

Calendars

The calendar is the schedule that determines where and when the bill is heard. Timing of bill may be critical to its passage when a legislator is trying to build or minimize opposition/support for a particular bill. The House has 7 calendars each of which is designed to consider different types of bills. Speaker exercises no formal control over house calendars but does appoint the members of the House Calendars Committee that controls the calendar. There is only one main calendar in the Senate. Bills are supposed to be heard chronologically. It is common for a bill to need a 2/3rds majority vote to be taken out of order on the calendar. Thus if a bill can get off the calendar it has a good chance of passing because only simple majorities are needed to pass a bill, but 2/3rds majority is needed to bring bill to floor for consideration.

Governing Texas Counties

The commissioner's court (5 person). Four commissioners elected in partisan elections. Responsible for running county government in their district. County Constitutional Court Judge Serves all three government functions. In charge of county budget (executive) Serves on commissioner's court (legislative) Hears cases on the county court (judicial) It serves a legislative, not a judicial function. Other county officers County Sheriff County Clerk County attorney County tax assessor Justice of the Peace / Constable Big Counties: auditor

Emergency Powers:

The president has the right to use different types of powers during a national crisis. For example in the 1930s President Roosevelt was able to put an embargo on weapons that were being shipped to warring South American countries. However, this power is not absolute and President Truman was found to be in violation of the US Constitution when he attempted to seize control of private steel mills in order to stop a labor strike [see Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co v Sawyer (1952)].

Current Crisis

The country is currently facing an economic crisis. To learn more view the following clip on the award nominated documentary: I.O.USA [you can create closed captioning on the video if it is not showing up by clicking the CC icon on the bottom of the video and select 'transcribe audio' ] A more updated version of the documentary focuses on the solutions to the budget crisis: I.O.USA Solutions Even with this updated version, remember (from when you viewed the previous Debt Clock link) that the current debt of the nation is over 15 trillion dollars. The main items the government pays each year in the budget are: Social Security and Medicare/Medicaid (all three are entitlement programs), Defense (discretionary spending) and interest on the debt (mandatory spending). I attached a pdf from a nonpartisan organization called Public Agenda that contains slides about the national budget, including charts about the main categories of revenue and spending. It is extremely useful in understanding budgetary issues. The budget has become a major political battle this year and had the potential to shut down the government. Fortunately, the crisis was averted and government is still functioning. However, the battle is not over and you will hear over the next few months ever increasing debate over our national budget crisis. The following link explains How it came to this

Civil Law

The court case is the basic building block of American law ¡Civil suits ¡Criminal prosecutions Civil suits ¡One party (plaintiff) files suit against another party (defendant). ¡Suits against governments involve respondents (government officials) and must per se invoke an exception to sovereign immunity if it seeks monetary damages ¡Civil suits seek a remedy for an alleged wrong ÷Actual damages ÷Punitive damages ÷Specific performance ÷Declaratory judgment ÷Injunction

Executive Checks:

The court does not have its own enforcement mechanisms and must rely on the executive branch to enforce judicial decisions through the bureaucracy. The executive could refuse to implement a court decision, however this is almost never used. The main check the executive has on the judiciary is the power to appoint judges.

Elections & Apportionment

The election process is decentralized meaning elections are conducted by individual state governments. According to Article I, Section 4 of the US Constitution states are able to control the time, place and manner of holding elections but the legislature may alter these for example when the legislature passed the 1965 Voting Rights Act to ensure that states and localities were not violating the voting rights of minority groups. It is generally easier for a current officeholder (called an incumbent) to win again as they are able to focus on what they have already accomplished while in office, have name recognition and often get free publicity. A major concern that comes up regarding elections involves how the legislative districts are split up, i.e., how districts are drawn within states and what areas and populations fall within those districts. The redrawing of the district lines is called redistricting and the allocation of the seats in the legislature as a result of redistricting is called reapportionment. The reason that redistricting is a concern is because of two activities that have taken place: political gerrymandering and racial gerrymandering.

Court Structure

The federal court system has three main layers: district courts, courts of appeal, and the Supreme Court. The structure of the Texas court system is distinct in that there are two state high courts of appeal, the Supreme Court and the Court of Criminal Appeals. Supreme Court justices and Court of Criminal Appeals judges in Texas are elected on a statewide basis, and must be at least 35 years of age, US and Texas citizens, and have served as a lawyer or judge in a court of record for 10 years. District Courts are the main trial courts for the state. As we discussed with respect to the federal judiciary, trial courts are the triers of facts and the law, and where a case is initially adjudicated, while appellate courts are triers of the law, and review decisions made by the trial courts to correct application and interpretation errors of constitutional and statutory law. Justice courts and municipal courts are not courts of record, meaning that a record of those proceedings are not captured or preserved. Be sure to examine the attached document that contains a diagram of the Texas court system from top to bottom and will show you how the Texas court system is structured.

Actors in Foreign Policymaking

The first thing to understand about foreign policymaking is just who exactly is involved in it. The main (but not only) actors in foreign policymaking in the United States include the President, Department of State, National Security Council, Intelligence Community, Department of Defense, elite and mass opinion, and the military-industrial complex.

Presidential Approval

The framers of the Constitution purposefully set up a system where the different branches might be at odds with one another in order to maintain a system of checks and balances such that one branch doesn't take on too much power. The Constitution requires the president to share certain powers with congress such as the finalizing of laws and approving treaties. In addition it is possible to have divided government where different parties control the executive and legislative branches. This happened under President Clinton when the legislature was controlled by a strong group of Republicans who tried to push through a ten point agenda called the Contract With America and during President George W Bush's last term in office. How successful the president is in getting policies pushed through and getting the support of the legislature is closely connected to how strong public approval of the President is. For example right after the bombing of the twin towers on September 11th, 2001 it was easier for President George W Bush to get policies through than it was in the last year of his presidency which correlated with his Approval Ratings. President Obama's popularity has risen and fallen in relation to his ability to get policies passed (or not passed) in relation to job growth

Chief Executive:

The president is considered to be the head of the executive branch. In this role, the president has the power to appoint/remove members of the executive branch and to grant reprieves and pardons among other things.

Head of State:

The president is seen as the embodiment of the nation. This is considered an informal ceremonial role. It refers to the idea that when people think of the US government in its current sense, they imagine the president as representing what the country is really about.

Commander in Chief:

The president is the head of the military branch, the branch that enforces the governmental authority. While the President has control over military matters, the president does not have the power to declare war (this is reserved to the legislature) and the President must follow the 1973 War Powers Resolution wherein he/she must ask congress to take some action within 60 days after the president has engaged in military actions.

Roles & Powers of Governor

The governor serves as chief of state much like the president serves as head of state. The governor is also seen as a leader in the party the governor is a member of since Texas has a large number of Electoral College votes. Legislative powers of the governor include the power of the veto and the item veto on the appropriations [budget] bill, but not the pocket veto (meaning if the governor does not take any action in signing or veto-ing the bill [like putting the bill in your pocket and forgetting about it], the bill does become law). The governor has the power to bargain with the legislature which is affected by a number of factors including how committed the governor is to the issue, timing of the issue, political/financial/campaign support, support of the legislature, and postgubernatorial opportunities [meaning what the governor plans to do when the governor is no longer the governor]. The governor has the power to call 30 day special sessions of the legislature, can use the state of the state address (you can watch or read the speech) as a message power and can call blue-ribbon commissions for example the Texas Emergency Technology Fund Advisory Committee. Executive powers of the governor include the power to appoint and remove numerous executive branch officials, planning powers such as in transportation policy, budget powers, law enforcement powers by being able to appoint members of the Public Safety Commission, military powers as commander in chief of the state militia and clemency powers such as by postponing an execution for 30 days.

Committees

The key to understanding how the legislature operates is to understand congressional committees that basically determine if a bill will reach the floor and thus be called to a vote. The major types of committees are standing, select, joint and conference. Political parties conduct the selection of committee members. Once assigned to a committee, a legislator is likely to remain there for the rest of their career in the chamber. The longer they serve the more seniority they have. This rewards those legislators who are from safe districts.

Legislative Checks:

The legislature can check the court by overriding court decisions using constitutional amendments, for example when the legislature passed three amendments following the civil war that were meant to overturn prior court decisions that had upheld slavery. In addition, the legislature can alter laws that have been found unconstitutional and make them constitutional. For example, in 1972 the court found the way in which the death penalty was being used made it cruel and unusual punishment so the federal government and legislatures in numerous states altered their laws, brought the death penalty back to the court, who in 1976 found it to be constitutional. However, this tactic does not always work. When Congress passed a law saying that flag burning was not protected under free speech (Flag Protection Act of 1989) but that flags could be put to rest by burning, a law which was meant to overturn the famous Texas v Johnson court case that held flag burning was a constitutionally protected under the first amendment, the Supreme Court held that the new law (the Flag Protection Act) was itself unconstitutional.

Rulemaking

The legislature enacts enabling legislation that creates an administrative agency. In the enabling legislation, the legislature states what powers the agency should have. One of these powers is that of rulemaking where the legislature lays out the policy (an intelligible principle) and the bureaucracy then puts the details into place by passing rules and regulations that will enforce those broader policy directives.

Functions

The legislature engages in numerous functions including lawmaking, representation, casework, oversight, public education and conflict resolution.

Oversight:

The legislature will often follow up on laws they have passed using the oversight function to ensure those laws are being enforced and administered in the way the legislature had planned. For example, see the website for the Committee on Oversight and Government Regulation

Conflict Resolution:

The legislature will sometimes help to resolve societal conflict by taking action, for example when the legislature passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

State Agencies

The main agencies that handle criminal justice issues in Texas other than the courts are: The Texas Department of Criminal Justice: Mission is: "The mission of the Texas Department of Criminal Justice is to provide public safety, promote positive change in offender behavior, reintegrate offenders into society, and assist victims of crime" (from the TDCJ Website) The Department of Public Safety: They handle everything from vehicle inspections and collecting crime statistics to narcotics and intelligence. The largest division is the highway patrol and the most famous is probably the Texas Rangers. The Alcoholic Beverage Commission: Enforces regulations concerning the sale, distribution and possession of alcohol. The Commission on Law Enforcement Officer Standards and Education: Sets the qualifications for the training of police officers. Local Agencies: These include sheriffs departments, constables and city police.

Roles of the President

The president serves in a number of different roles that include head of state, chief executive, commander in chief, chief diplomat, and chief legislator.

Social Welfare Policy

The major organization that handles social/welfare policy in the state of Texas is the Health & Human Services Commission (HHSC). The HHSC is the umbrella organization that oversees the following four specific agencies: Department of Aging & Disability Services, Department of State Health Services, Department of Family & Protective Services, and the Department of Assistive & Rehabilitative Services. Social services include: Temporary Assistance to Needy Families that "is designed for children whose parents are incapable of providing for children's basic needs. More than two-thirds of TANF recipients are children. Unless they are disabled or needed at home to care for very young children, adult TANF and food stamp recipients are referred for employment counseling, assessment, and job placement." The requirements to be able to receive (and continue to receive) TANF benefits in Texas can be found at: TANF benefits "If a child's parent or relative is also approved for TANF, the parent or relative must sign and follow the Personal Responsibility Agreement. By signing the Personal Responsibility Agreement the parent or relative agrees to: Train for a job or look for employment if capable (assistance is provided by the Texas Workforce Commission). Cooperate with child support requirements. Not voluntarily quit a job. Not abuse alcohol or drugs. Take parenting skills classes if required. Get medical screenings and all required immunizations for all children in the household (adults and children who receive TANF can get health care services through Medicaid). Make sure that children are attending school." (From *TANF website) Health insurance programs such as CHIP, a program aimed towards childrens health care. See the attached document containing facts about TX CHIP. Unemployment insurance that is handled by the Texas Workforce Commission (TWC). Scan through the attached document to learn more about the TWC and unemployment insurance in Texas.

The Executive Bureaucracy

The most significant limitation on the governor's power in TX is the plural executive. Plural executive: when the power of the executive branch is fragmented among a number of independent offices rather than vested exclusively in the governor (CGS, p. 120). Texas has six independently elected executive officials. Governor (Chief Executive Officer of the State) Lt. Governor Attorney General Comptroller of Public Accounts Commissioner of the General Land Office Agricultural Commissioner The Secretary of State (the 7th executive official) is appointed by the governor. Texas is one of 8 states without a formal executive cabinet Independently elected officials: Disagree on public policy priorities Can be from different parties Have their own electoral mandates and policy agendas Have no job-related loyalty to the current sitting governor

The Plural Executive (v2)

The plural executive in Texas limits the power of the Governor by distributing power usually associated with a chief executive among many elected political leaders. The only executive official appointed by the Governor is the Secretary of State. Other officials are elected independently and do not campaign for office as a unified slate. They do not have to answer to the Governor, nor do they work together as a cabinet in the way that executive officials serve the U.S. President. Party leadership may encourage unity among candidates, but the campaign organizations operate independently of each other. Compare this to the national campaign organization of the presidential and vice-presidential candidates, which is one entity and one choice on the ballot. This arrangement produces an executive branch whose officials jealously guard their jurisdiction, their power, and their prerogatives. In short, everyone defends his or her turf, and the Governor lacks any formal power to dictate or referee. The Governor is often the nominal head of his or her party in the state, but this does not offset the institutional political base other executives possess. As a result, the executive branch lacks cohesion, with different executives and their agencies often pursuing different goals. Some of the attempts by the framers of the 1876 Constitution to hamstring the Governor, like the short two-year term, have been undone by constitutional amendment; other limitations have been undermined by historical change, like the development of mass media. These changes notwithstanding, the plural executive has proven a durable legacy of the 1876 authors, much to the frustration of many governors.

Chief Legislator:

The president attempts to get the legislature to pass his/her proposals as the president was elected to through the will of the nation as a whole. The President gives a yearly state of the union address where these policies are made clear. The president has the power to veto a bill that the legislature has sent up to him/her. The president may use a pocket veto when he/she does not take action on the bill and simply lets it sit. The bill is then killed at that point and if a legislator wants they can reintroduce it during the next legislative session. The president does not have a line item veto power. This means the president cannot cross off lines from a bill that has been sent to him/her and only pass part of it. This practice was found to be unconstitutional on the federal level according to the case Clinton v City of New York (1998).

Powers & Privileges

The president has certain powers that can be used to make changes to the executive branch, during times of emergency or in order to protect national security.

Leadership

The presiding officers in the Texas Legislature are the Lieutenant Governor (currently Dan Patrick) in the Texas Senate and the Speaker of the House (currently Joe Straus) in the Texas House. The Lieutenant Governor serves as president of the Senate and is elected to a 4-year term on a state-wide basis. The Lieutenant Governor is one of the most powerful officials in Texas government. The Speaker of the House is elected by a majority of the House and rewards political supporters by appointment to committees. Some ways in which the presiding officers influence the implementation of state policy are through the Legislative Budget Board, Legislative Council, Legislative Audit Committee and the Sunset Advisory Commission. The presiding officers appoint members and serve as chair and vice-chair of the Legislative Budget Board and Legislative Council and serve on and appoint members of the Legislative Audit Committee and Sunset Advisory Commission. Procedural tools of the presiding officers include the following:

Lawmaking:

The principal function of the legislature is to establish the laws and statutes that govern society. The process of lawmaking involves debate and compromise and is discussed in more detail later in this lesson.

Governor in General

The qualifications to be governor are that you must be 30 years old, an American citizen and a citizen of Texas for 5 years prior to the election. The governor makes a higher salary than the legislature but campaigns for the governor are more expensive. The governor serves a four-year term and can serve an unlimited number of times. If the governor is removed by impeachment or vacates the position as George W Bush did when he took the office of the Presidency in 2000, the Lieutenant Governor takes the position. The longest serving governor of Texas was Rick Perry. Governor Perry was in the primary race to become the Republican candidate for President in 2012, and is currently serving as the Secretary of Energy in the Trump administration. Then Texas Attorney General Greg Abbott ran to succeed Perry as the 48th Governor of Texas in 2015. Governor Abbott has pursued a conservative agenda since taking office.

Characteristics

The term bureaucracy refers to "a complex system of organization that employs standardized rules, procedures, communication, and organizational controls for achieving public good" (Zaino, 2012, p. 101). There are both public and private bureaucracies where public bureaucracies are large government structures that must respond to multiple groups but private bureaucracies tend to have a single set of shareholders to respond to. Public bureaucracies exist to perform a public service of some type whereas private bureaucracies exist to make profits. These are some of the main differences between the public and private sectors. Weber was a German sociologist who felt that bureaucracies share the characteristics of hierarchy (everyone reports to a superior), specialization (workers have certain expertise), rules and regulations, and neutrality (administration of rules without bias). While bureaucracies are the most common form of organization, bureaucracies have often been critized for focusing too much on efficiency and not enough on the people within the organization. A classic representation of this can be seen in the Charlie Chaplin film Modern Times (two clips follow)

Social/Welfare Policy Introduction

The topics discussed in this lesson are important to you as a student. You pay taxes that go into the social security and welfare systems. You may have grandparents who rely on these systems for prescription drugs and health care. You may know veterans returning to the US who are attempting to transition back into productive civilian life. These are all issues addressed in domestic policy, most notably under the area of social and welfare policy Social and welfare policies are essential to the functioning of this country. However, they are not perfect policies. For example, read the following article and it will become clear that the way in which federal social and welfare policies are handled on the local and state levels can have a profound impact on an individual's life when implemented in particular ways' Read: 'Caring for Marissa' from the Palm Beach Post [attached as a pdf] This part of the lesson will help you understand the complexity of the social and welfare system in this country and the important role that social and welfare policies play in your lives.

Changing Face of TX Legislature

The traditional face of the Texas Legislature has been white, male, and from a privileged background. However, this tradition is no longer in vogue and has changed drastically, beginning in the 1960s, and rapidly since the 1990s. There were a number of African-American men elected to the Texas Legislature during the Reconstruction era following the Civil War. For example Meshack Roberts was an African-American Republican in the Texas House of Representatives for several terms. However, the number of Africa--Americans in the Texas Legislature began to decline in the late 1870s and did not begin to rise again for almost a century. In 1967, Curtis Graves and Joseph Lockridge became the first African-Americans elected to the Texas House of Representatives since 1897. It was not until the 1920s that women first began to serve in the Texas Legislature. The first woman elected to the Texas Senate was Margie Neal in 1926. The first woman elected to the Texas House of Representatives was Edith Wilmans in 1922. Barbara Jordan (who later became an important player in Democratic national politics) became the first African-American woman to win a seat in the Texas Senate in 1966, and the first African-American since 1883. Click here to read/listen to her 1976 Democratic National Convention Keynote Address (the CC is available) or you can read the Transcript of Address. In the first half of the twentieth century, only a handful of Mexican Americans served in the Texas Legislature. Henry B. Gonzales in 1957 became the first Mexican American Texas Senator in the twentieth century. In 1976 Irma Rangel was elected to the Texas House of Representatives and became the first Mexican American woman to win a seat in the Texas Legislature.

Senate

The two chambers of the legislature are co-equal chambers, however each one is structured differently. There are 100 US Senators, 2 for each state. Prior to the adoption of the 17th amendment to the US Constitution, Senators were chosen by the state legislature (for example the Texas legislature would get to elect the two US Senators for Texas who would represent Texas on the federal level). Today, Senators are chosen by popular vote from the state as a whole. According to the US Constitution, Senators must be at least 30 years old, a citizen of the US for 9 years and inhabitants of the state they are hoping to represent. Senators serve 6-year terms and 1/3 of the seats are contested every 2 years meaning the terms are staggered. Historically, the Senate was seen as an elite club as they served longer terms and were fewer in number as compared to the House of Representatives. The elite nature of the Senate has declined a bit today and Senators are much more individualistic now than they have been in the past. The leadership in the Senate consists of the Vice-President who, while rarely actually presiding over the Senate, may be called on to vote in order to break a tie. The majority leader is elected at the start of each session, schedules the daily legislative agenda, and has come to be seen as the person who represents the Senate as an institution. The minority leader represents the party that is not in the majority in the Senate and works with the majority leader on various issues of procedure in the Senate.

Vietnam War:

The war in Vietnam involved the US attempting to stop communist North Vietnam from taking over noncommunist South Vietnam from the mid 1960s until 1973. The Vietnam War was highly controversial. At the time, the US had a draft that meant men 18+ could be drafted into the military and sent to war. A combination of false information provided by the government to the public as well as questions concerning our involvement in the war led to mass demonstrations in the US. One demonstration that has gone down in the history books in the US as a prime example of government gone awry was the situation that took place at Kent State (remember you can get closed captioning on youtube videos by clicking the CC button). In the 1970s the US began to withdraw troops in order to exit the Vietnam War. In 1975, South Vietnam fell to communist North Vietnam. During the Vietnam War, two major resolutions were passed that had a large affect on executive power. They are the:

Taxation:

The way that a tax system is structured is highly political and can be quite controversial. A progressive tax "rises in percentage as incomes rise" and a regressive tax "falls in percentage terms as incomes rise". The federal income tax is an example of a progressive tax. Some states also have their own state income tax (Texas does not). To understand how the percentages rise with income see the Federal Income Tax Rates. The sales tax is an example of a regressive tax. For example, your income is $40,000 per year and another person's is $400,000 per year. You both buy similar items and the sales tax totals out to be $1,000 for all your goods for the year. The sales tax is .025% of your yearly income but only .0025% of the other person's income. The percentage gets smaller as the person's income becomes larger. While we will go over taxation in more detail when we discuss state policy (states collect sales taxes, not the federal government), it is important to remember that the issue of taxation is very political and is closely connected with how governments raise revenue.

Spending

The way the budget is handled, i.e., the way the government handles taxpayer dollars, is an important component of what the legislature does. The US Constitution says that all taxing and spending bills must originate in the House. The budget cycle begins with the executive who has agencies request funds and the Office of Management and Budget examine these requests. The executive sends a proposed budget to the legislature. The legislature then drafts their budget. The budget requires a great deal of compromise as to what programs get funded and by how much. This is also the time when legislators bring home the bacon to their districts (a.k.a. allocative representation and/or pork barrel politics). This means that certain programs are funded that specifically help a certain legislator's districts. Legislators will often work with other legislators and vote on each others bills in order to ensure that the projects go through. Legislative committees will make formal declarations that certain amounts of funding might be available to agencies (authorizations) and after passage of the spending bill will specify the amount of funds that are given to the agency for the agency's use (appropriations).

Texas Courts of Appeals

There are 14 courts of appeals in Texas. Each court has between 3-13 judges. All civil and criminal appeals are first heard by the courts of appeals from district and county courts (exception: death penalty cases go directly to Court of Criminal Appeals). Judges make de jure (of the law) decisions based on written record, oral arguments, and written briefs by attorneys for the parties. Cases are typically heard by 3 judge panels, though a case can be heard en banc - by the entire court.

Current Major Issues

There are a number of major issues facing US foreign policy today. Three will be discussed here: nuclear weapon proliferation, terrorism and globalization.

Incomplete markets:

There are times when there is not a private market available for a particular good so the government may step in for example, health insurance and the need for Medicare and Medicaid.

Conference:

These are special committees that contain members from both parties and are brought together when a bill goes through both chambers but is not the same version. The committee's task is to create one unified bill that is then sent back to both chambers, if agreed on by both, the bill is then sent to the president.

United States District Courts:

These are trial courts where most cases begin. They usually have general jurisdiction which means they can hear a number of different types of cases. There are currently 94 US district courts.

Select:

These committees are created to accomplish particular tasks but they are not permanent.

Joint:

These committees contain members from both chambers and handle a diverse range of issues that are important to both sides, for example taxation.

Private Welfare Benefits:

These programs are private programs generally established between employers, employees, and private insurance companies. The government subsidizes many of these programs and the United States relies on private welfare benefits to a greater extent than most other countries. Private welfare benefits are accepted nationally, however they have come under much scrutiny due to scandals involving the embezzlement of private employee pensions (ex. Enron) and instances of insurance companies and hospitals turning away patients. Examples: Pensions, Health Insurance

Intelligence Community:

This consists of the multiple intelligence agencies (examples include the FBI, CIA, DEA) of the government that gather information about foreign governments.

The Civil Service Reform Act of 1978:

This created the Office of Personnel Management to oversee testing and hiring, and the Merit Systems Protection Board to hear employee grievances.

United States Supreme Court:

This is the main national court and is the final arbiter of the Constitution (meaning they determine whether something is or is not consitutional). When it came into existence in 1789 it had only 5 justices, in the following years more were added and since 1869 there have been 9 justices. Most of its work is appellate and the court generally hears appeals from federal appellate courts and the highest state courts if a federal question is involved. The Supreme Court annual regular session begins on the first Monday in October and usually adjourns in late June or early July

Redistributive policies:

benefits are redistributed to certain members among a group, for example welfare programs such as Temporary Assistance to Needy Families redistribute funds to needy families. Zaino (2012): "government actions that transfer resources, usually in the form of taxation, from one area or group to another area or group" (p. 245).

Executive Privilege:

This is the right of the president to refuse to reveal information to other branches of government. The main purpose of this power is to maintain the secrecy of information important to national security. This power cannot be invoked to hide information that is not related to the president's official duties such as when President Nixon attempted to conceal the Watergate tapes [Read the transcript for or listen to the audio of the Supreme Court's opinion announcement in US v Nixon] or when President Clinton tried to conceal evidence of an extramarital affair. Abuses of executive power could lead to the removal of the president by impeachment. Impeachment is discussed in Article I, Section 2 of the Constitution where the legislature has the power to impeach executive officials. In order to ensure that the legislature does not abuse this power, the Constitution created a system where first the House of Representatives must vote to impeach by a majority vote and then the Senate must vote by a 2/3rds vote to impeach. This process is meant to ensure that impeachment does not become simply a political game. This is also why President Bill Clinton, who was impeached by the House, was not officially impeached since the Senate did note have the correct vote.

Public Education:

This legislative function occurs in the form of public hearings and debates and helps the legislature to set the important topics to be addressed by future laws. For example in 2007 Congress held hearings on the language used in hip-hop music. Read the article Congress examines hip-hop music

War Powers Resolution Act (1973):

This meant to minimize power that the Gulf of Tonkin had given to the executive and return it to the legislature by requiring the President to get some type of resolution from Congress, be it legislation of some sort or a declaration of war, within 60 days of taking military action. Few Presidents have followed the War Powers Resolution Act closely, however President George W Bush did when entering into the War in Iraq.

Political Gerrymandering:

This occurs when one party redraws the lines in a district in order to "maximize electoral strength at the expense of the minority party". Political gerrymandering is allowed under the US Constitution as long as it is not based on a factor such as race.

1935 Social Security Act:

This was the first major federal level welfare program and continues to be a major element/framework of United States social and welfare policy. The act serves as a safety net for persons such that when they retire or are no longer able to work, they will retain some source of income. They way the system works is that you pay into the social security system now. The money you are paying is being used for current persons on social security. When you reach a certain age, you can then qualify for social security. When you receive social security, the funds are being put into the system by those people currently working. The Social Security Act allows states to determine benefit amounts and qualifications to receive the aid, and benefits are kept low so that no one is better off on social security than if they were working. While the system has worked so far, a modern day problem has arisen wherein the larger population of baby boomers are retiring and there are fewer persons paying into the social security system as the generations following the baby boomers (generation x in particular) has a smaller population that is paying into the system. This means there are more people withdrawing money than there are people putting money in (so subtracting more than adding). Read/listen to the following 2008 story addressing this issue: Baby Boomers Begin to Claim Social Security There is a fear that as current generations reach the point of needing to use social security, that pot will run dry and there will be no funds to use. As a result, there are current debates on how to handle this potential crisis. One suggestion has been to invest part of the monies into private markets. This view is currently unpopular, however, and it will remain a current debate as to how to handle the social security system in the future.

1996 Personal Responsibility & Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act:

This was the welfare act passed under President Bill Clinton. The reforms replaced the Aid to Families with Dependent Children (created under the 1935 Social Security Act) programs with the Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) program. TANF changed the system of welfare so that time limits were placed on how long most individuals could receive welfare. After 2 years, an individual had to be looking for work, after 5 years most individuals would be no longer be able to receive welfare benefits. Because TANF and similar programs are largely handled by the state (though funded by the federal government), we will discuss TANF in more detail when we discuss Texas public policy later in the semester.

The Texas Judicial System

Two Supreme Courts 1.Supreme Court - court of last resort for civil & juvenile cases 2.Court of Criminal Appeals - court of last resort for criminal cases Both consist of 9 justices Court of Appeals 14 courts | 80 justices Appellate jurisdiction w/n CA districts District Courts 437 Courts | 437 Judges Original jurisdiction in civil cases | $200-$500 - divorce, land, contested elections. Original jurisdiction in felony criminal cases 12 courts designated as criminal district courts County-level Courts 1.Constitutional County Courts Original jurisdiction in civil cases $200-$5000 Probate Serious misdemeanors Juvenile matters 2.County Courts at Law Justice Courts - small civil actions Municipal Courts - small criminal cases 3.Statutory Probate Courts Probate

Environmental Policy

Two main competing theories in the examination of environmental policy are conservation and preservation. Conservation: Resources should be used but not abused Preservation: We should establish preserves that are free from human activity A new theory has emerged however that focuses on the intersection of environmental, economic and social concerns and is growing in popularity. The new theory, sustainability, is currently being touted by the federal government: EPA and Sustainability (website) Global warming is current issue in environmental policy and refers to the warming up of the earth due to the greenhouse effect. While there has been scientific debate on the issue, the science was strong enough to lead to a number of countries signing the Kyoto Protocol (1997) where they agree to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. The US has not signed the Kyoto agreement. Environmental Justice is another environmental policy concern. It means that all people regardless of race, color or income should be able to participate equally in environmental policymaking. The concern has been that over the years a disproportionate amount of environmental hazards have been placed in minority and poor neighborhoods. Watch the following clip with a leading scholar on enviromental justice: Robert Bullard-Environmental Justice (remember CC for captions) Energy policy is a constant environmental concern as the country attempts to find a way to reduce reliance on foreign oil, to use clean burning rather than dirty coal, and how to utilize solar and wind power in more ways. Another option for energy is nuclear power which has been an issue for several decades: Youtube Debate: Nuclear Power? (remember CC for captions). Nuclear power and its potential problems, however have recently been up for debate due to the crisis in Japan: Europe Split on Nuclear Power (article, Wall Street Journal)

Local Government: National Government

U.S. Constitution does not recognize/address local governments. In practice, the federal government treats local governments as an extension of state governments. Fiscal Federalism: U.S. Gov't sets goals and priorities for new programs to be implemented at the state & local level, and provides financial incentives for states to participate. Administrative Federalism: U.S. Gov't sets goals and objectives for programs at the state & local level, but does not provide matching funds (e.g. NCLB).

Foreign Policy through WWII

US foreign policy has gone through radical changes since World War II. Prior to World War II, the US was much less involved in European affairs. In the 19th century, the US was still a new country and was trying to survive. During that time, the US took an isolationist approach to foreign policy where we kept ourselves isolated from the affairs of Europe. However we were engaged in a great deal of westward expansion and conquest. In 1823, President James Monroe issued the Monroe Doctrine that established principles that European nations should not establish new colonies in the West nor should they interfere with independent nations in the West. If this were done, then the US would not interfere in the affairs of Europe. In 1898, the US began to become more involved with international affairs. During this year we engaged in the Spanish-American War where we became more interventionist. In defeating Spain we gained control over Guam, Puerto Rico and the Philippines (which gained independence in 1946). The war had also involved Cuba who soon gained independence but who we made an important agreement with: that we could lease Guantanamo Bay indefinitely. This was in 1902. We continue to have a base in Guantanamo Bay. We became more interventionist in the early 1900s in Latin America by engaging in gunboat diplomacy where we would send our naval ships to intervene on behalf of Latin American countries who were supportive of our business and who we had economic ties with. We did get involved in World War I to a slight extent, however out involvement was minimal and it was not until World War II that we shifted away from our isolationist policies towards Europe. Our involvement in World War II began when the Japanese conducted a surprise military attack and bombed Pearl Harbor on December 7th 1941. President Franklin Roosevelt asked Congress to declare war on Japan and we entered WWII. As the war waged on, the US had been developing nuclear weapons. In order to put an end to the war, the US dropped two atomic bombs (nuclear weapons) on two cities in Japan, Hiroshima (8-6-1945) and Nagasaki (8-9-1945). This was the first and thus far the only time nuclear weapons have been used in war. Many firsthand accounts are available such as that from Father John A. Siemes, Firsthand Account of Hiroshima. Following the dropping of both bombs, Japan surrendered. Germany had already surrendered and WWII came to an end. There continue to be debates in foreign policy over whether the dropping of the bombs was the best strategy. However it was clear that after the war was over, the US was the only country to come out with their economy still in tact. This, along with the nuclear capability the US had, pushed the US into superpower status.

Social/Welfare Policy in General

United States social and welfare policy refers to a number of categories. While many believe welfare is a term reserved for programs dealing with the poor, the term welfare encompasses a much broader spectrum of issues. The three main categories of welfare found in the United States are listed below.

Fiscal and Monetary Policy

What is fiscal policy? Fiscal policy is "the federal government's use of taxation and spending policies to affect overall business activity". Basically, the government will change the amount that the government spends and collects in order to manipulate the economy. This is the area of economic policy that involves COngress and the President to the largest extent. Since shortly after the Great Depression the United States government has used Keynesian economics as a main component behind its fiscal policy. Read the following definition of Keynesian economics found on the website wisegeek.com: What is Keynesian Economics?. Fiscal policy in the United States is also largely dependent on running a budget deficit. A budget deficit occurs when the government spends more than it takes in. The purpose of running a deficit is to pump money into the economy in order to encourage spending. When all of the budget deficits are added up, they constitute the net public debt. The current national debt is over 15 trillion dollars. Click here to see the national debt: National Debt Clock (when you go to the wesbite you can scroll over the terms and the top of the page will provide a definition for the term....it is a very useful website) What is monetary policy? Monetary policy is "the use of changes in the amount of money in circulation to alter credit markets, employment, and the rate of inflation". Monetary policy is not set by the President or Congress. It is set by the Federal Reserve System (the Fed). To better understand the Fed watch the video: The Fed Today. [you can create closed captioning on the video by clicking the CC icon on the bottom of the video and select 'transcribe audio'] I also attached the brochure for The Fed Today if you cannot view the video. The Fed's monetary policy may be tight or loose. Tight monetary policy "makes credit expensive in an effort to slow the economy" while loose monetary policy "makes credit inexpensive and abundant, possibly leading to inflation". The Fed can also alter the federal funds rate, which is "the interest rate on funds that banks borrow from each other". One of the Fed's main responsibilities is to control the size of the money supply in an effort to help maintain a stable economy.

Public Policy Process

When a policymaker recognizes that a particular problem exists whether on their own accord or if brought to their attention by a constituent or an interest group, then the policymaker will begin the policymaking process in order to flesh out the problem and attempt to find a solution to that problem. The main steps in the public policymaking process are: 1) Problem identification 2) Agenda building 3) Policy formulation 4) Policy implementation 5) Policy evaluation: The ideal policymaking process will follow the steps outlined above. However, making, implementing and evaluating public policy is rarely a perfect process. It is often messy and may need to be tweaked depending on the particular scenario. While it is important to know and understand this process, it is also important to remember that people are involved in the process at every step of the way.

Economic stabilization:

When problems occur in the overall state of the economy such as high unemployment and recessions, the government may step in to stabilize various forces in the market by altering interest rates and/or changing the amount of money in circulation

Distributive policies:

distribute the costs and benefits among a group, for example when government makes policies that provide for public safety. Zaino (2012):"public policies that direct taxpayer monies to very specific groups or causes" (p. 245)

Nuclear Weapons:

While nuclear weapons have been around since the 1940s, for a long time only certain countries had nuclear capabilities. In recent years a number of countries have started to expand their nuclear capabilities. The biggest fear today is that nuclear weapons will fall into the hands of terrorists. One organization that focuses on the nonproliferation of nuclear weapons is the Carnegie Endowment.

State and Local Revenues

While revenues at the state and local level have generally increased overtime, note the decline following the 2008 economic recession. Income and sales taxes have been stagnant or declined as a percentage of the total revenues collected by states and localities.

Local Government Issues

Zoning Policy: city restricts what property owners may do with their property. Planning Policy: long term goals for city in terms of policy, revenue generation, and economic growth. Annexation: expansion of a cities borders. Municipal Bonds: certificates of indebtedness - city pledges to pay back a loan over time with interest.

Affordable Care Act

act made into law in 2010 that reformed the US healthcare system. Click through the following to read the key features of the law: Key Features ACA [the entire law is available on the website but it is 974 pages so you are not required to read it]. The act will be implemented over a span of years. See Timeline. A current concern regarding the ACA is whether it is constitutional. Ruling Against Health Care Law Scorecard at 2-2. The US Supreme Court has heard the arguments on this case. To see the evolution of these cases, arguments on the issues and the connections with specific US Supreme Court Justices, see: http://www.oyeztoday.org/healthcare/

Unilateralism:

this was a policy used especially under President George W Bush wherein the US would engage in foreign relations where we would expand our power and break with international organizations such as the United Nations. Under this policy, we also engaged in preemptive war where we would attack before we had clear evidence that a side would attack us in order to pre-empt the attack. This is where we can differentiate between the First Gulf War where President George H.W. Bush in 1990/91 engaged in war against Iraq with the support of the Untied Nations after Saddam Hussein tried to take over Kuwait as compared to the War in Iraq that began in 2003 where President George W. Bush entered Iraq without the broad support of international organizations such as the United Nations. On May 2, 2011 it was announced that Osama Bin Laden, the leader of the terrorist movement had been killed: President's Remarks on Bin Laden. In October 2011, President Obama announced that troops in Iraq would be withdrawn completely by the end of the year: President's Remarks. The remarks, while generally supported sparked some controversy due to policies put in place at the end of the Bush administration regarding withdrawl that had the same timeline as the one announced in President Obama's remarks.

Full Employment:

what the country generally hopes to maintain. Full employment does not however mean that every single person is employed. There is always some expected percent of the population that is not employed. This percentage can fluctuate and currently full employment means the unemployment rate is about 5%. To view up-to-date information on labor statistics access the Bureau of Labor Statistics that is located within the US Department of Labor.