GOVT2305 CH1, 3, 4, 13

slavery

Slavery was first thrust on the convention's agenda with the question of how to count slaves when allocating seats in the House of Representatives. As shows, nearly four in ten of Virginia's residents were slaves. If slaves were counted as part of the population, southern states would have as many members in the House of Representatives as the northern states. Came up with the 3/5ths compromise

national supremacy

States retain important powers but are subordinate to the national government except where the Constitution strictly forbids it

pork barreling

metaphor for the appropriation of government spending for localized projects secured solely or primarily to bring money to a representative's district. The usage originated in American English. In election campaigns, the term is used in derogatory fashion to attack opponents

The minority generally has the same leadership structure, with one big difference

no Speaker SENATE Vice President: In practice, vice presidents rarely show up in the Senate, appearing mainly for very important votes (because the VP can break a tie) and on ceremonial occasions

popular vote

not used to elect the President of the United States; while it indeed consists of the total number or percentage of votes received by a party, candidate or group of candidates

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

outlawed slavery in the territory and established a process by which individuals could buy western lands. When an area attracted a minimum number of settlers, it could apply to be a state with all the same powers and privileges as the existing states. With this act, the United States established its mechanism for western expansion.

Know critical laws that led the American Colonists to issue grievances and ultimately revolt against the British Crown, such as- Proclamation line of 1763

prohibited settlers from moving westward past the crests of the lengthy Appalachian Mountain chain

Know the demographic make-up of the House and Senate and how this compares to the general population.

435 in the house 100 in senate. 78.1% White 9.7%Black, 8.2%Hispanic, 3.3%Asian/Pacific Islander, .7%Native American. Compared to 56.2% White 12.6%Black, 17.1%Hispanic, 5.4%Asian/Pacific Islander, 2%Native American.

Democracy

A form of government in which the people hold power, either by acting directly or through elected representatives.

Republic

A government in which citizens rule indirectly and make government decisions through their elected representatives.

congressional caucus

A group of House or Senate members who convene regularly to discuss common interests; they may share political outlook, race, gender, or geography

confederation

A group of independent states or nations that yield some of their powers to a national government, although each state retains a degree of sovereign authority.

military-industrial complex

A juggernaut of big government, big business, and big contracts

medagogue

A member who sounds loud, insistent alarms about any proposed legislative changes to the Medicare program, which provides health insurance for people over age 65. Traditionally applied to Democrats, although the Republicans have recently learned to Medagogue as well as their rivals

unitary government

A national polity governed as a single unit, with the central government exercising all or most political authority

Conference

A special House-Senate committee that must reconcile differences between House and Senate versions of the same bill

New Federalism

A version of cooperative federalism, but with stronger emphasis on state and local government activity versus national government

1. Who governs?

Do the people rule? Some answer, "Yes, and today more than ever." Others are not so sure. What if the people are not in charge—then who is?

concurrent powers

Governmental authority shared by national and state governments, such as the power to tax residents

bicameral

Having two legislative houses or chambers—such as the House and the Senate

Be able to differentiate the different types of roles and duties between the House and Senate. For instance, which chamber ratifies treaties*SENATE*? Which must introduce budget bills *HOUSE*(or revenue bills)?

House- All budget measures must originate in the House. holds the power to impeach public officials— including the president—for "high crimes and misdemeanors." Senate-After the House impeaches (or indicts) an officeholder, the Senate holds a trial and decides whether to remove him or her. has exclusive authority over two important matters. The president negotiates treaties with other countries, but the Senate must approve them by two- thirds majority. Also has sole power to review presidential appointments. I.e Judges. has sole power of approval on foreign treaties

federalism

Power divided between national and state government. Each has its own sovereignty (independent authority) and its own duties

inherent powers

Powers that, although neither specified or implied by the Constitution are necessary for the president or Congress to fulfil their duties

implied powers

National government powers inferred, but not specifically named, in the Constitution

Know which government offices, citizens were NOT allowed to directly choose (elect) and why framers felt this way

"The evils we are experiencing flow from an excess of democracy," argued Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts. "The people . . . are the dupes of pretended patriots." Roger Sherman, a shrewd Yankee from Connecticut, summed up this perspective: "The people . . . should have . . . little to do . . . [with] government. They want [or lack] information and are constantly liable to be misled." Presidents can make treaties if two-thirds of the Senate approve; they appoint ambassadors, Supreme Court justices, and other officials—again with the advice and consent of the Senate.

Stamp Act

(1765) common way to raise money in England, but the effort to impose one on the colonies set off a firestorm

Quartering Act

(1765), which required colonial assemblies to billet British troops in empty barns and warehouses. Suddenly, the Redcoats seemed like an occupying army

Townsend Act

(1767) These acts instituted another round of new taxes; revenues were earmarked to pay a new colonial authority, the American Board of Customs, which would collect taxes independently of the colonial assemblies. Now an imperial bureaucracy was explicitly denying the colonists self-governance. The Townshend Acts also suspended the New York State Assembly for refusing to house and supply British troops

Know how the U.S. Constitution begins and whether or not the USA lived up to them.

1787 We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. Establish justice, ensure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty. Each colony governed itself in its own way. However, the six features described here—distance from English authority, representation, social mobility, covenants, individual rights, and violent borders—all propelled Americans toward the Constitution of the united states

Know the size of the U.S. budget in 2012

2018- 4.4 trillion, 14% medicade, 14% medicare, 8% unemployment and labor, 26% Socal security, 10% others, 21% national defence, 7% net interest.

Committee action

A way for committees to gather information and gauge members' support as legislative policymaking gets underway. Hearings usually feature witnesses who submit testimony, make an oral presentation, and answer questions from members of Congress 1. Committees Hold Hearings on Policy Topics. 2. Committees Prepare Legislation for Floor Consideration. Committee markup session: A gathering of a full committee to draft the final version of a bill before the committee votes on it. 3. Committees Also Kill Legislation. 4. Committees Exercise Oversight.

Know what the Declaration of Independence is, how it is organized, its main complaints against the Crown, and the key themes and American ideals expressed therein.

All people are equal, Their creator endowed them with rights that cannot be taken away. These rights include life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. People form governments to protect those rights. Governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed.

cooperative federalism

Also called marble cake federalism, a system of mingled governing authority, with functions overlapping across national and state governments

rational-choice theory

An approach to political behavior that views individuals as rational, decisive actors who know their political interests and seek to act on them

Mercantilism

An economic theory according to which government controls foreign trade to maintain prosperity and security

legislative hold

An informal way for a senator to object to a bill or other measure reaching the Senate floor. The action effectively halts Senate proceedings on that issue, sometimes for weeks or longer

unfunded mandates

An obligation imposed on state or local government officials by federal legislation without sufficient federal funding support to cover the costs

progressive federalism

Approach that gives state officials considerable leeway in achieving national programs and goals

Know the process for treaty ratification

Article 7 announced that the Constitution would go into effect after nine states had ratified it—a controversial move, because the United States was still operating under the Articles of Confederation, which could be amended only by all thirteen states

Know how Thomas Jefferson felt about religion and government.

As a deist, he thought that God did not interfere in human affairs. Jefferson argued that there must be "a wall of separation between church and state."

Know how to define the different generations, such as Baby Boomers, Gen X, Gen Y (millennials) and what their different proclivities or tendencies are

Baby boomers (1946-1964)- 44% volunteered by college age, 28% expect no SS by the time they retire, 78%. larger proportion of Americans receive Social Security and Medicare than ever before Gen X (1965-1980)- 70% Christian. 51% expect no SS by the time they retire Gen Y (Millennials) (1981-1996)- 56% Christian. 70% believe marijuana should be legalized , on average, more responsible, harder working, and more law-abiding than the generations that came before (including those of your authors). They tend to volunteer more, donate a higher share of their incomes to charity, and start more entrepreneurial organizations with social impact. They are also a generation at home in a rapidly changing and diverse world

Drafting a Bill

Bills' sponsors rarely write the legislation themselves. Writing legislation necessitates major political choices. How much money should we ask for in spending bills? How far can we change current laws? Do we dare test existing constitutional limits? Many bills include bargaining chips

Shays's Rebellion

Captain Daniel Shays, a veteran of the Revolutionary War, led a rebellion that broke out in western Massachusetts in August 1786 and spread across the state. Thousands of farmers, facing rising interest rates, took up their muskets and shut down courthouses to stop foreclosures on their farms. (Page 69)

civic voluntarism

Citizen participation in public life without government incentives or coercion (speaking at a town meeting vs. paying taxes, for example)

Select committee

Created to investigate a particular issue; these exist for a defined period of time. Also called special committees. A select committee to investigate the terrorist attack on the U.S. Embassy in Benghazi, Libya, was convened from 2014-2016, for example.

Presidential Action/Separation of Powers Enforced

Even after all that, legislation still faces another hurdle. No bill becomes law until the president takes action, usually by signing it (bills also become law within 10 days of congressional passage, if Congress remains in session). On important issues, a signing ceremony often takes place in the White House Rose Garden. Presidents sign multiple copies of the bill, handing out pens to the original sponsors and other high-ranking congressional members in attendance. Presidents can also veto legislation. Here is yet another place a bill can falter. If the president says no, Congress has one more shot at passing the legislation. It is a high bar, though. To deny or override a veto, both chambers need a two-thirds majority: at least sixty-seven senators and 291 members of the House have to say no to the president. Only in this way can a bill become law without presidential approval. Veto- The constitutional procedure by which a president can prevent enactment of legislation passed by Congress.

On the Floor

Eventually a bill's moment for floor consideration arrives. Supporters hope their measure will be taken up in the House and Senate around the same time, knowing that legislation often makes it only to one or the other chamber during a session—another form of death sentence

Federalist #10

Federalist No. 10 (1787) Written by James Madison, this essay defended the form of republican government proposed by the Constitution. Critics of the Constitution argued that the proposed federal government was too large and would be unresponsive to the people

Floor Action

Floor procedures in the House and Senate are very different. After a Senate committee approves a bill, it is placed on the "business calendar," from which it will be called up for consideration on a timing schedule worked out by the majority and minority leaders. Only bills that receive unanimous consent—agreement by all senators—can be brought to the floor. One "nay" and the bill is put on hold. In the House, majority party leaders exert more control over which issues make it to the floor. They may start by rewriting the legislation—sometimes because multiple committees have passed different chair's marks and cannot come to agreement among themselves. Other times, the Speaker, majority leader, and fellow leaders rewrite a bill to get the measure through.

Know how to differentiate between checks and balances and separation of powers.

For instance, is the president's veto of a bill an example of (check) or a separation of power? Is Congress's authority to declare war and the President's authority to command forces in times of war a check or a (Separation/Powers)?

Know who Alexis de Tocqueville is and the main observations he made about the USA.

French visitor to America in 1831-1832, called the "habits of the heart"—the relationships they develop and the shared goals they pursue lay the foundation for robust democracy. Private groups foster the skills and attitudes that make people effective citizens

The Conference Committee

House-Senate conferences, if successful, yield a single version of a bill. Each chamber then has an "up-or-down" floor vote—no further amendments permitted. Opponents in the Senate may launch another filibuster, hoping to win over new members who object to the compromises made with the House. If the majority beats the filibuster in the Senate and a majority of both houses votes in favor, the bill has passed Congress

the four I's

Ideas: Powerful ideas shape American politics. Ideas alone do not drive government decisions, but it is impossible to make sense of American politics without understanding ideas, big and small. provoke controversies on the values that determine how America is to be governed

4. Who are we?

In a rapidly changing, diverse, immigrant nation, this may be the deepest question of all. American politics helps define who we are—as a community, a people, and a nation.

Know the different debates and compromises that arose during the Constitutional Convention, such as the debate over representation

In the end, the delegates compromised on a system that included both national and state power. The federal government took over many functions—but far fewer than Madison had originally proposed. The states kept many duties—but far fewer than the states' rights advocates wanted. This mixed system, with a stronger national government that leaves considerable power with the state governments, is called federalism

Know the powers granted (to which branch?) in Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution

Its seventeen short paragraphs tell Congress what it may do, including the "power to lay and collect taxes," declare war, regulate interstate commerce, coin money, and raise an army

Know the main author(s) of the US Constitution

James Madison from Virginia- got there first, with a plan for a new constitution. Madison was short, shy, and balding; today, we recognize him as one of America's greatest political thinkers and one of the chief architects of the Constitution and Bill of Rights. He had more influence over the shape of the final text than any other single individual. George Washington from Virginia- Thomas Jefferson - called the decision to close the convention "an abominable precedent." Benjamin Franklin - John Hancock - Alexander Hamilton- John Jay-

Joint committee

Made up of both House and Senate members to address topics of continuing importance. These committees can remain in place for decades; the Joint Committee on Taxation has existed since 1971, for example. Conference committees, introduced later in this chapter, are temporary joint committees, created to consider a specific piece of legislation.

and the proposals, such as the Virginia Plan

Madison's plan, embraced by the Constitutional Convention delegates from larger states; this plan strengthened the national government relative to state governments.

president pro tempore

Majority party senator with the longest Senate service

President pro tempore

Majority party senator with the longest Senate service, has presiding authority at certain formal occasions Otherwise, every senator presides in turn over the body, serving rotating half-hour stints. A staff member stands by the presiding member's side, helping him or her to negotiate the complex rules

3. What does government do?

Many people view politics as dirty and see government as a problem, or irrelevant to their lives. We will show you how politics can be honorable, and why government is often important, even essential. By the time you finish this book, you will have the tools to judge whether government is a problem, a solution . . . or perhaps a mixture of both.

descriptive representation

Members of Congress may resemble the people they represent in terms of race, ethnicity, gender, age, national origin, and so on

substantive representation

Members of Congress may share views about political issues

enumerated powers

National government authority listed explicitly in the Constitution OR Delegated powers. The national government may only wield powers specifically listed in the Constitution

block grants

National government funding provided to state and local governments with relatively few restrictions or requirements on spending. Block grant programs introduced a trade-off for state officials: more authority, fewer funds

grants-in-aid

National government funding provided to state and local governments, along with specific instructions about how the funds may be used

Know what (and when) the Articles of Confederation were and why they failed

November 1777 - The document, which reflected Americans' recent experience with England, kept the national government weak and dependent on the states. First, Congress could not raise taxes and had no money of its own. The new republic needed a vigorous national government if it was to survive Second, the requirement of unanimity made it impossible to amend the Articles. A vigorous national government needed a stable source of revenue. Third, state governments were dominated by their legislatures, which operated without any checks or balances. Different sources of government power should balance one another, governors should balance legislatures, and the central government should balance the states. Fourth, the weak national government had a difficult time standing up to foreign powers. a weak central government left the nation vulnerable.

Know what the Tea Party is and what it stands for

Old-1773, Parliament tried to rescue the company by granting it a monopoly over the tea trade in the New World. In Boston, however, Governor Thomas Hutchinson would not permit such nonsense. He insisted that the three ships in Boston Harbor not leave until their tea was safely delivered. On a dark December night, about fifty men, some "dressed in the Indian manner," blackened their faces and boarded one of the ships. They hefted 342 chests of tea onto the deck, bashed them open with hatchets, and dumped the contents—worth about £9,600 (between $1.5 and $2.5 million today)—into Boston Harbor. New- The Tea Party holds rallies around the nation. Civilians anxious about immigration call themselves "minutemen" and patrol the border with Mexico. "Militias" organize and train to defend their personal rights. And Americans from across the political spectrum aspire to live up to the Revolution's dreams of equality. The Revolution left the new United States with symbols, slogans, and an enduring political concern: arbitrary government that threatens the people's liberties. But it also raises a provocative question: Are Americans too quick to exaggerate routine disagreements by making analogies to the revolutionaries

The Vote

Once amendments are voted down or adopted, the time for speeches has expired, and the leadership reckons it has a winning majority, it's time for a final floor vote. On uncontroversial matters, a voice vote of all members is sufficient. But several dozen votes each session are judged important enough to require a roll-call vote. In the Senate, a clerk still calls the roll, alphabetically scrolling through senators by last name, with each responding "yea" or "nay" (or "present," if they wish to abstain). Because the much larger House would take hours to vote if it proceeded in this way, roll calls are now done electronically. Representatives use a voting device about the size of a credit card that they plug into kiosks located around the House chamber. Voice vote- A congressional vote in which the presiding officer asks those for and against to say "yea" or "nay," respectively, and announces the result. No record is kept of House or Senate members voting on each side. Roll-call vote:-A congressional vote in which each member's vote is recorded, either by roll call (Senate) or electronically (House).

divided government

Periods during which at least one house of Congress is controlled by a party different from the one occupying the White House

Know the different types of congressional committees, such as Standing committee

Permanent bodies, with fixed jurisdiction (Table 13.5 lists them all). House and Senate standing committees vary widely in prestige: The oldest are traditionally the most influential, though some newer ones (such as Intelligence, created after 9/11 in both chambers) deal with significant topics. Standing committees are further divided into multiple subcommittees, organized around areas of expertise.

Interests

Political action flows from individuals, groups, and nations pursuing their own self interest. The traditional view of interests focuses on groups Other analyses focus on individual interests as the essential particles of politics. Rational Choice Theory

community of saints

Puritans landed in Massachusetts in 1620

the New Jersey Plan

Put forward at the Constitutional Convention by the small states, this plan left most government authority with the state governments

Know the process of reapportionment.

Reorganization of the boundaries of House districts, a process that follows the results of the U.S. census, taken every ten years. District lines are redrawn to ensure rough equality in the number of constituents represented by each House member

trustee representation

Representatives do what they regard as being in the best interest of their constituents —even if constituents do not agree

trustee

Representatives do what they regard as being in the best interest of their constituents—even if constituents do not agree

delegate

Representatives follow the expressed wishes of the voters

delegate model

Representatives follow the expressed wishes of the voters

Be able to differentiate between how Republicans and Democrats feel about federalism, states' rights, etc.

Republicans-trying to go back to Reagan-era new federalism: Fewer federal dollars, fewer federal regulations. especially strong among conservatives: the desire to reduce the size and scope of government. In theory, Republicans prefer state and local control. Republican administrations tend to introduce new social policies designed to show compassion and energetic management Democrats- more likely to seek Washington-based solutions. face the opposite criticism: too much federal government spending. As a result, Democratic administrations also regularly go against type and rely on state innovation and initiatives

Majority whip

Responsible for party discipline—utilizing a loyal team to determine party members' position on issues, and ensuring that Republicans or Democrats vote the way the leadership wants them to

filibuster

Rule unique to the U.S. Senate that allows any senator to hold the floor indefinitely and thereby delay a vote on a bill to which he or she objects. Ended only when sixty senators vote for cloture

Liberty

The Declaration asserts that liberty is an "unalienable right" (meaning that no one can take it away), endowed to all people by their creator.

Intolerable Acts

The laws closed Boston Harbor until the tea was paid for, abolished town meetings, authorized the quartering of troops in any home in Massachusetts, and essentially put the state under military control. King George III himself put it bluntly: "The colonists must either triumph or submit."

The American dream

The Declaration of Independence promises the pursuit of happiness. What does this mean? The phrase is borrowed from John Locke, who wrote that governments are instituted to protect "life, liberty, and property." Jefferson, in his first draft of the Declaration, changed "property" to "happiness." But right from the start, "the pursuit of happiness"—what we now call the American dream—was entangled with the pursuit of wealth.

Individualism

The Declaration states that "governments are instituted among men . . . to secure [the] rights" with which the creator has endowed each individual. These include "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." Here is the cornerstone of American individualism. At the same time, the Declaration also talks about "one people" and "the people"—collective ideas that have to be balanced with individualism. Recall the great American debate: How do we balance individualism and communalism? The Declaration emphasizes both.

salutary neglect

The English policy of ignoring colonies

Know what impeachment is and how the entire process works.

The House can impeach (or formally accuse) the president or any other officer in the executive or judicial branch of "Treason, Bribery or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors"; the Senate looks into the accusation and decides whether to actually remove the person from office. What are "high crimes and misdemeanors"? Well, they have never been fully defined and Congress must use its judgment

express powers

The Power to tax and spend for the defense and general welfare of the U.S. Borrow money. Regulate commerce with other nations and between the states

cloture

The Senate's only approved method for halting a filibuster or lifting a legislative hold. If sixty senators—three-fifths of the body, changed in 1975 from the original two-thirds—vote for cloture, the measure can proceed to a vote

Know the different types/titles of leaders in both the House and Senate and what their main functions and powers are. HOUSE Speaker of the House

The chief administrative officer in the House of Representatives. As chief administrative officer of the House, the Speaker presides over the chamber on special occasions (e.g., when a president delivers the State of the Union address to Congress). The Speaker rules on procedural issues, chooses members for committees, assigns legislation to committees, and "maintains order and civility"—although civility is increasingly difficult to sustain. The Speaker sets the House's agenda and determines which bills are considered and when. Speakers negotiate with the Senate and executive branch. And they help manage the Rules Committee, which sets the terms of the debate for every piece of legislation that reaches the House floor. Speakers sometimes work with Rules to hold the majority together or derail opposition on important votes.

the necessary and proper clause

The constitutional declaration (in Article 1, Section 8) that defines Congress's constitutional authority to exercise the "necessary and proper" powers to carry out its designated functions

reserved powers

The constitutional guarantee (in the Tenth Amendment) that the states retain government authority not explicitly granted to the national government

separation of powers

The delegates vested "all legislative powers" in Congress, the executive power in the president, and the judicial power (to try cases) in the courts

Know the key Supreme Court case McCullouch v. Maryland.

The first such case was McCulloch v. Maryland, decided in 1819.16 Maryland's legislature had sought to impose a tax on the Baltimore branch of the first U.S. national bank. The bank refused to pay and was sued by the state. The Maryland Supreme Court ruled that the Constitution is silent about the federal power to establish a bank—and that the bank was therefore unconstitutional; Maryland was perfectly free to tax it. Writing for the Supreme Court, Marshall overruled the Maryland court and struck down the state tax. Invoking the necessary and proper (or elastic) clause, he ruled that Congress could draw on "implied powers" required to operate a national government and that states impairing the bank—in this case, by levying a tax on it—violated the Constitution. In these and later decisions, Marshall and many other officials in the early republic were anxious to keep dual federalism in balance. At the time, doing so meant expanding national power

Know what the Bill of Rights is and why it was added to the Constitution

The first ten amendments to the Constitution, listing the rights guaranteed to every citizen. Although most Anti-Federalist leaders eventually rallied to the new Constitution, they insisted on a crucial addition to the Constitution: a bill of rights. James Madison went through 200 amendments

Limited government

The idea of limited government had more space than any other in both the Declaration and the Constitution. Most of the Declaration recites the ways King George III overstepped his "just powers." Eleven years later, the Constitution would carefully limit the powers given to the federal government.

preemption

The invalidation of a U.S. state law that conflicts with federal law

Submitting the Bill

The more traditional Senate typically introduces bills as the legislative day opens. A page (usually a high school student trained for this role) dashes down the aisle, takes the senator's document, and places it in a flat wooden tray beside the bill clerk. The clerk writes a number on the first page (bills are numbered serially, starting each session with S.1), notes the senator's suggestion for committee referral, and places it in a tray. That night it is printed. A bill has been born! The House is less ritualized, in keeping with its democratic spirit, but bill introduction continues to be an old-fashioned practice. - Representatives carry proposed bills themselves down to the rostrum. They hand their legislation to the clerk or drop it in a mahogany box, called the "hopper." From there, bills are delivered to the Speaker's office, where they are assigned a number—starting each session with H.R. 1—and referred to committee

Institutions

The organizations, norms, and rules that structure government and public action

Know what the 10th Amendment says and what it means to states.

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.

checks and balances

The principle that each branch of government has the authority to block the other branches, limiting the power of any one branch or individual. This system makes passing legislation far more difficult in the United States than in most other democracies

Self-rule

The right of representation is one of the Declaration's central themes: It contends that governments derive "their just powers from the consent of the governed." Ten of the twenty-seven grievances charged against the king directly address the issue of self-rule.

Majority leader

The senators elected. However, the Senate leader does not even formally preside over the chamber

Electoral College vote

The system established by the Constitution to elect the president; each state has a group of electors (equal in size to that of its congressional delegation in the House and the Senate); the public in each state votes for electors, who then vote for the president

devolution

The transfer of authority from the national to the state or local government level

Faith in God

The words "the Creator" appear right at the start of the Declaration. But religion soon became controversial. Thomas Jefferson, who drafted the Declaration, was not a religious man. (As a deist, he thought that God did not interfere in human affairs.) Jefferson later ignited a controversy during his presidency when he refused to call national days of prayer as George Washington had done. Instead, Jefferson argued that there must be "a wall of separation between church and state." But Jefferson's wall raises as many questions as it resolves, as debates and court cases have attested for generations.

Equality

This idea seems clear enough: Because "all men are created equal," they all have the same rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. But do we as a society need to feed the hungry and clothe the poor to ensure that everyone has an equal shot at the pursuit of happiness? This remains a controversial matter.

2. How does American politics work?

This may be the most confusing, messy, and fascinating government on earth. We will guide you through the political maze, and help you understand what makes American politics and government tick.

politics

Who gets what, when, and how, is how a society makes its collective decisions

city on a hill

a model for the whole world to follow

demagogue

a political leader who seeks support by appealing to the desires and prejudices of ordinary people rather than by using rational argument.

federalists

argued that only an energetic national government could protect the nation and secure liberty

bureaucratic theory

argues that real control lies with the millions of men and women who carry out the day-to-day operations of modern government. Bureaucratic experts establish policy and sideline the influence of most Americans.

The Connecticut compromise plan

brokered by Roger Sherman of Connecticut and therefore known as the Connecticut Compromise. The House would be based on population; the Senate would have two representatives for each state, chosen by the state legislature. (Americans did not vote directly for their senators in all states until 1913.) Because legislation had to pass through both houses, the public and the states would each have a say. Because the delegates wanted power over taxes and spending to be in the people's hands, they required that all finance-related bills had to be introduced first in the House

anti-federalists

called instead for a modest government that left power in state and local hands

whales

could influence landmark legislation

elite theory

counters that power actually rests in the hands of a small number of wealthy and powerful individuals particularly the richest Americans, corporate executives, and the top government officials especially in the executive branch

full faith and credit clause

dual federalism: The constitutional requirement (in Article 4, Section 1) that each state recognizes and upholds laws passed by any other state

minnows

dutifully followed others

social movement theory

emphasizes the power citizens can wield when they organize and rise up in protest regardless of who is in control of day-to-day politics.

Senate whips

from both the majority and minority parties serve the same functions as in the House—though they command much less power to demand party discipline, again owing to the Senate's individualistic ways

Know who John Locke is and the role he played in American revolutionary thinking

had used very similar language. In his Two Treatises on Government, published more than a century earlier, Locke argued that in nature, there are no rules. Life is ruled by force and violence. To secure safety and freedom, people contract with one another, enter into civil society, and form governments that can protect one another's life, liberty, and property

Individuals

influence political outcomes ordinary people change the world

private life

involves individuals, families, and friends connecting with one another

House majority leader

is the second in command. He or she acts as the majority party's floor manager, negotiator, and spokesperson. The majority leader also serves as the Speaker's eyes and ears, tracking party members' actions and preferences. Steny Hoyer (D-MD) currently holds this position

Know the pros and cons as well as the impacts of federalism on politics and society, such as "race to the bottom."

proponents of state-level policy argue that states are more responsive to citizen needs and desires. states sometimes offer more protection for individual right. federalism fosters political innovation. Different states can experiment with new programs, trying them out on the local and state levels before they get debated on the national level. more controversial point: Some argue that federalism gives people more choices national policy is often fairer than state or local policies. America's racial experience suggests that, at least sometimes, national decisions are required to overcome local prejudices. This desire for fairness leads critics to worry that competition between states and localities leads to a race to the bottom. national policies can equalize resources across the nation. national policies can standardize best practices across the nation. leaving authority in state hands introduces problems of coordination among federal, state, and local agencies.

Medicaid

provides healthcare for children and lower income Americans; about half of Medicaid spending also goes to those over sixty five

Medicare

provides healthcare for people over sixty five

civil society

refers to people joining with others to do something

Know the American colonists' claim about how people should be governed

right of representation and the consent of the governed

Know the main decision and result of the famous Marbury v. Madison Supreme Court case

ruled that the Court could strike down an act of Congress. In other words, because the Court has authority over all cases "arising under this Constitution," Marshall claimed it also had a responsibility to review the constitutionality of legislation.

partisan

strongly supporting a person, principle, or political party, often without considering or judging the matter very carefully

pluralist theory

suggests that people can influence government through the many interest groups that spring up to champion everything from fighting global warming to banning abortions. Pluralists suggest that interest groups give most people a voice

nationalism

the American public's sense of identity as Americans. Nationalism helps maintain the federal balance by instilling loyalty to nation, state, and locality. But it can also turn inward and exclude others—as we will see when we turn to civil rights. In this section, we explore the development of American nationalism—in its positive and negative variants

franking

the ability to send mail by one's signature rather than by postage

logrolling

the practice of exchanging favors, especially in politics by reciprocal voting for each other's proposed legislation.

The second part of the Declaration lists twenty-seven grievances against King George III. These tell us what the American colonists cared about as they began the Revolution. Three complaints dominate the list

• Violations of the right of representation. This complaint comes up in ten of the twenty-seven charges against England. It is by far the most intensely felt grievance described in the Declaration. • Maintenance of a standing army not under civilian control. In particular, British soldiers acted in peacetime without the consent of American legislatures. Five complaints are about the British military. • Loss of an independent court. This violation of traditional justice comes up six times. Economics did matter, of course. Many of the British steps that preceded rebellion, from new taxes to tighter trade rules, were essentially economic challenges. However, those which reverberate most forcefully in the Declaration of Independence are the right of representation and the consent of the governed.