Grammar Chapter 1

What are the words that may at first glance seem to fall into the same category as interrogative pronouns?

"When", "where", "why", and "how" - function as adverbs, not pronouns.

What is an interrogative pronoun?

"Who", "whom", "whose", "which", and "what" when used to begin a question ("What" is the name of this object?; "Which" is the painting that you bought?) -"Whose", "which", and "what" function as adjectives (determiners) when they immediately precede a noun ("What" object is on the table?; "Which" painting did you just buy?)

Adverbs also take the form of larger groups of words, known as phrases and clauses. These extended adverbs, besides answering the questions above, can also answer the question?

"Why?" or "for what purpose?" -She walked "to improve her health". -She walked "because she enjoyed the exercise".

List of common prepositions:

-About, above, according to, across, after, against, along, among, around, as, at (11) -Because of, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, but (when it means "except"), by (10) -Despite, down, during (3) -Except, except for (2) -For (when it does not mean "because"), from (2) -In, inside, instead of, into (4) -Like, near, of, off, on, out, out of, outside, over, past, since, through, throughout, to, toward, under, until, up, upon, with, within, without

What are the coordinating conjunctions?

-Acronym: FANBOYS for (meaning because), and, nor, but, or, yet, so

What are some common linking verbs?

-All of the verbs of sense: tasted, smelled, looked, sounded, felt -Other common linking verbs: become, seem, appear, remain, turn, grow

What two categories do verbs fall under?

1. Action verbs: either transitive or intransitive 2. State of being verbs: "be" and linking verbs

What are the four categories of conjunctions?

1. Coordinating conjunctions 2. Subordinating conjunctions 3. Correlative conjunctions 4. Conjunctive adverbs

What questions do single-word adverbs answer?

1. How? (in what manner? under what condition?) -She walked "quickly". (Many adverbs in this category end with -ly. Not all words that end in -ly, though, are adverbs; "friendly" "neighborly" "curly" "burly" and "surly" ,for example, are adjectives.) -The word "not" also fits under this category as an adverb because it creates a negative condition: She is "not" walking. She is "not" happy. 2. When? -She walked "yesterday". 3.Where? -She walked "here".

What are the two classes of pronouns?

1. Personal pronouns 2. Impersonal pronouns

What questions does an adjective usually answer?

1. Which one? - This category includes determiners. The three articles "a", "an", and "the". "The" is occasionally used as an adverb, rather than an article. 2. How many? 3. What kind?

What are the four types of verbs that can be used as auxiliaries?

1. modals (shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, might, must, have to, had to, ought to) 2. forms of have (has, have, had) 3. forms of be (am, is, are, was, were, being, been) 4. forms of do (does, do, did) -These auxiliaries always appear in the same order: modal + have + "be" + main verb (The toddler "should have been eating" at the table.)

What is a conjunction?

A conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases (groups of words that do not contain both a subject and a verb), or clauses (groups of words that contain subjects and verbs).

What is a noun?

A noun is a person, place, thing, or idea.

What is a preposition?

A preposition is a word that relates a noun or pronoun to the rest of the sentence. The noun or pronoun is known as the object of the preposition. They can also express concepts of time and condition. Sometimes, rather than a single-word preposition, a prepositional idea is expressed in an idiomatic phrase of two or three words, followed by the object. ("According to" Paulette's mother; "On account of" his temper, Pierre has been "out of" work)

What is a pronoun?

A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun.

What is a transitive verb? What is an intransitive verb?

A transitive verb is followed by an object indicating who or what receives the action. A intransitive verb is not followed by an object.

What is a verb?

A verb shows either action or state of being (existence).

What are some of the most common conjunctive adverbs?

Accordingly, additionally, also, consequently, finally, furthermore, hence, however, in addition, in conclusion, in contrast, indeed, in fact, instead, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, still, then, therefore, thus.

What is an adjective?

An adjective is a word that modifies a noun or a pronoun.

What is an adverb?

An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb: -She smiled [verb] "discreetly". -She is "quite" discreet [adjective]. -She smiled "very" discreetly [adverb].

What is an interjection?

An interjection is a word used to express emotion.

What are some indefinite pronouns?

Begin with "any", "some", "every", or "no": -anyone, anybody, anything -someone, somebody, something -everyone, everybody, everything -no one, nobody, nothing Words that specify a number or amount also qualify as indefinite pronouns: -enough, many, each, both, none, anybody, and cardinal numbers (one, two, so on)

What is a demonstrative pronoun?

Demonstrative pronouns are used to point out a specific noun. There are only four of them: "this", "that", "these", and "those". - Note that demonstrative pronouns function as adjectives (determiners) when they precede a noun: ("These" clothes are dirty - demonstrative pronoun; "These" are dirty - demonstrative pronoun)

What are determiners?

Determiners are possessive nouns or pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, indefinite pronouns, interrogative pronouns, articles, or numbers.

What does every prepositional phrase, once identifies, act as?

Every prepositional phrase, once identified, acts as either an adjective or an adverb. (On rare occasions, a prepositional phrase may also function as a noun.)

What will help you determine the pattern of a sentence?

Identifying the category of the verb in the sentence will help you determine the pattern of the sentence.

How can you test for a noun?

If the noun is not preceded by a determiner, you can insert one as a test; make the word either plural or possessive; substitute a pronoun for a noun.

What is an indefinite pronoun?

Indefinite pronouns are used to take the place of a noun which cannot be named specifically.

What can linking verbs often function as?

Linking verbs can often function as action verbs. -If you can replace the verb in the sentence with a form of the "be" verb than it is a linking verb. If you cannot replace the verb in the sentence with a form of "be" verb and an object follows the verb then it is an action verb.

What are nouns often preceded by?

Nouns are often preceded by noun-markers called determiners.

What is a personal pronoun?

Personal pronouns are those that indicate 1st, 2nd, or 3rd person, singular or plural, with masculine, feminine, or neuter gender. (Nominative or subjective pronouns, objective pronouns, reflexive or intensive pronouns, and possessive pronouns)

Personal pronouns never use...

Personal pronouns never use an apostrophe to signal possession.

What two forms do possessive pronouns act as?

Possessive pronouns have two forms, depending on whether they are acting as free-standing pronouns or as determiners before a noun. As determines they act as adjectives because they provide more information about the noun that follows. ("Her" book is on the table - determiner; The book is "hers" - possessive pronoun; The cat licked "its" paw - determiner)

What can reciprocal pronouns also be used as?

Reciprocal pronouns can also be used as determiners (adjectives) when in the possessive: -Nate and Sheena get on "each other's" nerves. -In our family, we have learned to put up with "one another's" foibles.

What is a reciprocal pronoun?

Reciprocal pronouns indicate reciprocity, either singular ("each other" - meaning only two) or plural ("one another" - meaning more than two).

What is a relative pronoun?

Relative pronouns begin a relative, or adjective, clause (a relative clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb and used to modify the noun that precedes the clause). -The relative pronouns are: who (and its variants "whoever", "whom", "whomever" and "whose"), which, and that.

Where are adjectives usually placed in a sentence?

Single-word adjectives almost always occur in two slots in the sentence, either before the noun (or pronoun) being modified or after a "be" or linking verb. The adjective that follows a verb is called a predicate adjective or a subjective complement; adjective preceding nouns are labeled attributive. (The "red" scarf is in the closet; The scarf is "red")

What is the test for pronouns?

The basic test for a pronoun is to substitute a noun.

What is a objective pronoun?

The form used for the direct object, indirect object, or object of the preposition. (Direct object: Joe understands "me"; Indirect object: Sally bought "him" a present; Object of the preposition: The company will do anything for "them")

What is a nominative or subjective pronoun?

The form used for the subject or a sentence or for the subjective complement. (Subject: "She" is here; Subjective complement: Who is "she")

What is a reflexive or intensive pronoun?

The form used to refer back to the antecedent (a noun or pronoun used earlier in the sentence). -Reflexive pronouns: are necessary for clarity of meaning (The children locked "themselves" in the bathroom) -Intensive pronouns: are optional forms used for emphasis (The children "themselves" painted this mural)

What is a possessive pronoun?

The form used to show possession of a noun.

In a verb phrase, what determines whether you have an action or a state of being verb?

The last word in the phrase, which is termed the main verb; the other verbs, those leading up to the main verb, or called auxiliaries or helping verbs.

What determines the category of the verb as a whole?

The main verb, not the auxiliaries, determine the category of the verb as a whole.

What is a conjunctive adverb?

These are adverbs that do the work of conjunctions by following a semicolon that joins two complete sentences. The conjunctive adverb expresses the logical relationship between the ideas of the two sentences.

What is a subordinating conjunction?

These conjunctions join an adverb clause to the main clause of a sentence. -after, although, as, because, before, even though, if, once, since, so that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, whereas, whether or not, while -When followed by a noun as object, the word is a preposition; when followed by a subject and verb, the word is a subordinating conjunction. Occasionally the same word can function as an adverb as well.

What are the correlative conjunctions?

These conjunctions occur in pairs: both/and, either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also, and whether/or.

What can linking verbs be replaced by?

They can be replaced by a form of "be" without substantially changing the meaning of the sentence.

What is an impersonal pronoun?

Unlike the personal pronouns, the impersonal pronouns cannot be changed to reflect 1st, 2nd, or 3rd person; singular or plural; or masculine feminine, or neuter. Indefinite and reciprocal pronouns can, however, be inflected to become possessive in form.(indefinite pronouns, reciprocal pronouns, interrogative pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, and relative pronouns)

How can you identify an adverb?

Use the test of movability: if you can move the word (or phrase or clause) in question without changing the meaning of the sentence.

Whenever we use a "be" or linking verb as the main verb of the sentence, we must...

We must follow it with an adjective that modifies the subject or with a noun or pronoun that renames the subject - hence the term "linking verb", since the verb links an adjective, noun, or pronoun to the subject. With the "be" verb, the element that follows may also be an adverb of time or place.

How can you identify a prepositional phrase?

When you see a word expressing time, location, or condition that is followed by a noun or a pronoun, you have a prepositional phrase.

How can you identify is a prepositional phrase is an adjective?

When you see the pattern of subject, prepositional phrase, and verb, the prepositional phrase is almost always an adjective modifying the subject.

When adjectives occur in phrases, what order do they follow?

Which one, how many, and what kind: She paid for "the three china" figurines.

What should you do when looking for the subject and verb of a sentence?

You should first identify and then eliminate the prepositional phrases. In almost all cases, they merely distract you from finding the essential information contained within a sentence.

What are the most common forms of "be" verbs?

am, is, are, was, were, being, been