Grammar: Final boss fight
What is the main pattern for ordering adjectives in a sentence (e.g. opinion + size + colour...)?
OSQASCPOMTP (Opinion + Size + Quality/Character + Age + Shape + Colour + Participles + Origin + Material + Type + Purpose
Describe the category of case in English.
Only the genitive case and its ending 's remains.
What are package nouns?
Package nouns have a function of 'packaging' together a range of entities (often followed by of-phrases).
Use of articles with countable nouns modified by different attributes; Infinitives
tend to be descriptive attributes, e.g. Andrew had still AN HOUR TO SPARE/Jack is trying to find A PLACE TO LIVE for a few days. SOMETIMES the infinitive can become a limiting attribute, e.g. He said that Ramsay was THE MAN TO DO IT.
Use of articles with countable nouns modified by different attributes; ing-forms
tend to be limiting attributes, e.g. He could not bear THE THOUGHT OF LEAVING HER in such a state Occasionally a/an is used, e.g. It is A QUESTION OF INSTRUCTING AND TRAINING the new members of the staff.
What is a limiting attribute?
it indicates such a quality or characteristic which makes it distinct from all other objects of the class, e.g. She sat listening but THE SOUND OF HER POUNDING HEART covered any other sound
What are the spelling rules of regular plurals?
-es if words end with s, z, x, sh or ch (otherwise -s) Consonant letter + y -> ies, e.g. copy -> copies BUT vowel + y -> -s, e.g Boy = boys, day = days -o -> sometimes -os, sometimes -oes, e.g. pianos, radios, potatoes, volcanoes.
In addition to the comparative and the superlative degree, what are some other patterns of comparison (e.g. as...as)?
1. As... as We can say that two things are equal by as + adj. + as (The hamburger is AS EXPENSIVE AS the fishburger); 2. Not as... as We make a negative comparison with not as/so + adj. + as (The hotdog ISN'T AS EXPENSIVE AS the hamburger); 3. So, too & enough So + adj. + (that) clause (It was so dark (that) I couldn't see her face); Too + adj. + (for/to phrase) (It was too dark (for me) (to see her face); (Not) adj. + enough (+ for/to phrase) (It wasn't light enough (for me) (to see her face); More formal: so + adj. + as to phrase (It was so dark as to make it impossible to see her face); 4. Progressive comparison We can describe an increase or a decrease by repeating the same comparative two or three times (with and) (Her visits to the country became RARER AND RARER); 5. Combined comparison To describe how a change in one thing causes a change in another, we use two comparative forms with the (THE LONGER you leave it, THE WORSE it will get); We sometimes omit the verb in the clauses (The more sophisticated the product, the more substantial the potential gift);
More specifically, what are the main syntactic roles adjectives can play in a sentence (e.g. subject predicative, postposed modifiers)?
1. Attributive adjectives Common nouns (A BAD attitude, his FAVORITE toy); Proper place name (ANCIENT Mesopotamia); Names of persons (LITTLE Laura Davies); Personal pronouns (POOR me, LUCKY you); 2. Predicative adjectives Subject predicative (She seems quite NICE really/That's RIGHT); Object predicative -> appear with complex transitive verbs and characterise the object rather than the subject (I had it RIGHT the first time); 3. Other syntactic roles a.) Postponed modifiers Part of a noun phrase, follows the head word (It's a shame if you haven't got anyone MUSICAL here); Fixed expressions (Asia MINOR, attorney GENERAL); Long adjective phrase (It's a lounge, NOT MUCH BIGGER THAN THE ONE WE'VE GOT NOW); b.) Noun phrase heads Adjectives can function as the head of a noun phrase (modification by adverbs) (Everyone picks on the WELSH, don't they?); c.) Linking expressions Adjectives can sometimes be used to link clauses or sentences to one another (WORSE he had nothing to say); d.) Free modifiers Modify a noun phrase, but are not syntactically part of the noun phrase (Victor chucked, HIGHLY AMUSED); e.) Exclamations (GOOD! I like that/ GREAT! I need some of those);
What are descriptors and classifiers?
1. Descriptors - adjectives that describe color, size and weight, chronology and age, emotion, and other characteristics (usually gradable); a.) Colour: BLACK, WHITE, etc.; b.) Size/quantity/extent: DEEP, HEAVY, HUGE, WIDE, etc.; c.) Time (chronology, age, frequency): RECENT, YOUNG, etc.; d.) Evaluation/emotion (judgement, emotions, emphasis): BAD, FINE, GREAT, NICE, etc.; e.) Miscellaneous: COMPLEX, COLD, DEAD, EMPTY, OPEN, etc.; 2. Classifiers - limit/restrict a noun's referent (rather than describing characteristics) (most non-gradable) a.) Rational/classificational/restrictive (limit the referent of a noun in relation to other referents): ENTIRE, EXTERNAL, FINAL, FOLLOWING, LEFT, MAIN, NECESSARY, etc.; b.) Affiliation (nation, social group): AMERICAN, IRISH, etc. c.) Topical (subject area/specific type of noun): CHEMICAL, ENVIRONMENTAL, SOCIAL, LEGAL, etc.;
What are the main rules for forming the comparative and the superlative degrees (for adjectives)?
1. Form & use Adj. with one syllable -er/-est (CHEAP - CHEAPER - THE CHEAPEST); Silent -e (SAFE - SAFER - THE SAFEST); Consonant + y (DRY - DRIER - THE DRIEST); Single vowel + a single consonant (BIG - BIGGER - THE BIGGEST); Adj. with two & more syllables (EXPENSIVE - MORE EXPENSIVE - THE MOST EXPENSIVE); Irregular adj. (GOOD - BETTER - THE BEST); 2. Exceptions One-syllable adj. ending in -ed and adj. REAL, RIGHT, WRONG + more/most (MORE BORED than...); Many two-syllable adj. ending in -ly, -y, -ow, -r, -l & common, handsome, mature, pleasant, polite, simple, stupid + -er/-est or more/most; In informal spoken English - superlative adj. when comparing only two things (I've got two cars but the Mercedes is THE BEST); 3. Irregular adjectives We can use elder/eldest to talk about people's ages, but we can't use elder immediately after a verb (Their ELDEST/OLDEST son; my sister is OLDER than me); We don't use elder/eldest to talk about the age of things (The OLDEST house); We can use further/farther to talk about a 'great distance' (John's house is the FARTHER one); We use further (NOT FARTHER) with the meaning of 'extra' or 'more' (Let me know if you have any FURTHER questions);
What are the main rules for placing adverbs in front, mid, and end positions?
1. Front Connecting adverbs -> relation to previous sentence (The value of the yen has fallen. AS A RESULT,...); Time & place adverbs -> more info about a previous reference to a time or place (The last few days have been hot. TOMORROW the weather will be much cooler); Comment & viewpoints adverbs -> highlights the speaker's attitude (She has just heard that her sister is ill. PRESUMABLY, she will want...); Some words can be used as comment adverbs (front position) or adverbs of manner (in end position) (NATURALLY, I'll do all i can to help / The gas occurs NATURALLY in this area); 2. Mid Adverbs of infinite frequency (ALWAYS, FREQUENTLY, GENERALLY, RARELY, OFTEN); Adverbs of degree (ABSOLUTELY, ALMOST, COMPLETELY, ENTIRELY, JUST); Adverbs of certainty (CERTAINLY, DEFINITELY, PROBABLY); One-word adverbs of time (ALREADY, FINALLY, IMMEDIATELY, JUST, NOW, NO LONGER, SOON); 3. End More than one adverbial (in end position) -> manner, place, time (We arrived HERE ON SATURDAY); For special emphasis -> an adverbial to the end (In the accident she was thrown forwards, VIOLENTLY); If one adverbial is much longer, it is placed last (They left at 3.00 WITH A GREAT DEAL OF NOISE); An adverb usually comes before a PP (when these have the same function, i.e. both describe place) (She went DOWNSTAIRS TO THE CELLAR); End position is usual for many adverbials of place, definite frequency, and definite time (They live UPSTAIRS/She goes WEEKLY); In journalism, other adverbs of time are often used in mid position, where we would normally place them in end position (The government YESTERDAY announced an increase in...);
What are the main syntactic roles of adverbs?
1. Modifiers Modifying adjectives (I'm RATHER partial to parsnips); Modifying other adverbs (They'll figure it out REALLY fast); Modifying other elements (It came as QUITE a surprise); Modifying pronouns (ALMOST nobody came to the party); Modifying predeterminers (I've done ABOUT half a side); Modifying prepositional phrase (But there's a hell a lot - WELL into their seventies); Modifying particles of phrasal verbs (It's really filled the room RIGHT up); Modifying numerals (APPROXIMATELY 250 people...); Modifying measurements (ROUGHLY one-quarter to one-third); Modifying complement of preposition (But I'm seeing all this from ABOVE); 2. Adverbials Circumstance adverbials -> details about time, manner, place (He took it in SLOWLY but UNCOMPREHENDINGLY); Stance adverbials -> speaker's assessment of the preposition (His book UNDOUBTEDLY fills a need); Linking adverbials -> connects stretches of text (Most of our rural people do not have... THEREFORE, we had to use...); In conversation adverbials can stand alone, unconnected to other elements in a clause (A: What you could afford you had. B: EXACTLY. EXACTLY)
What are the defining characteristics of adjectives in terms of morphology, syntax and semantics?
1. Morphological characteristics Inflections to show comparative and superlative degree (BIG, BIGGER, BIGGEST); 2. Syntactic characteristics Attributive syntactic role (FULL impact, FORESEEABLE future) also part of a noun phrase; Predicative syntactic role (That'll be QUITE IMPRESSIVE) not part of NP but characterizes it; 3. Semantic characteristics Central adjectives are descriptive (typically characterizing the referent of nominal expression) (BLUE car, UNHAPPY childhood); Gradable (comparative, superlative, very); Color adjectives, adjectives of size and dimension, adjectives of time;
What are the main types of pronouns?
1. Personal pronouns -> the speaker, addressee, other entities (I won't tell YOU how IT ended); 2. Demonstrative pronouns -> 'near to', 'away from the speaker' (THIS is Bay City); 3. Reflexive pronouns -> refer back to a previous NP (I thought MYSELF); 4. Reciprocal pronouns -> refer to a previous NP (a mutual relationship) (Yeah they know EACH OTHER well); 5. Possessive pronouns -> mine, yours, his, etc. (Is it YOURS, or MINE?); 6. Indefinite pronouns -> broad, indefinite meaning (SOMEONE, NOBODY); 7. Relative pronouns -> introduce relative clauses (I had more friends THAT were boys); 8. Interrogative pronouns -> ask questions (I just wonder WHO it was);
How are adverbs formed (e.g. simple adverbs)?
1. Simple adverbs Simple adverbs are not derived from another word (WELL, TOO, RATHER, QUITE, SOON, HERE); Sometimes a simple adverb can be used as an adjective as well as an adverb (FAST); Some simple adverbs originated as compounds, but the independent meaning of the two parts has been lost (ALREADY = ALL + READY); 2. Compound adverbs Compound adverbs are formed by combining two or more elements into a single word (ANYWAY, NOWHERE, HERETOFORE); 3. Adverbs derived by suffixation Many adverbs are formed by suffixing -ly to an adjective (-WISE, -WARD, ONWARD, PIECEWISE); 4. Fixed phrases (OF COURSE, KIND OF, AT LAST);
How are adjectives formed (participial forms, derivational suffixation, compounding)?
1. Using participial forms Participial forms (-ing & -ed) can be used as adjectives; Most participial adjectives derive from verbs (PROMISING, SURPRISED); A negative prefix may be added to make new participial adjectives (UNINTERESTING); Many participial adjectives can serve attributive and predicative functions (BORING, CONFUSED); BUT more common with attributive uses; 2. Adding word endings or derivational suffixes Many adjectives are formed by adding a suffix to a noun or verb; Adjectives can also be formed from other adjectives, especially by using the negative prefixes un-, in-, non- (UNHAPPY); 3. Compounding Adjectival compounds are made from a combination of more than one word and they take many forms (GREYISH-BLUE, FULL-TIME, BUTTERLY-BLUE, ILL-SUITED, FREE-SPENDING, HIGHLY SENSITIVE, CHURCH-OWNED, EYE-CATCHING);
What is inflection?
A change in the form of a word (typically the ending) to express a grammatical function or attribute such as tense, number, case etc. (Boy -> boys (plural), boy -> boy's (genitive))
What is a closed word class?
A class which has a limited number of members; new members cannot be easily added (e.g. a new coordinator or a new pronoun), closed classes are not completely 'closed', however. Pronouns, determiners etc.
What is the independent genitive?
A genitive phrase that stands alone as a noun phrase, e.g. This isn't my handwriting. It's SELINA'S Conventional usage -> people's home, places such as businesses and clubs, commercial products and firms, e.g. She's going to a FRIEND'S/ theres an open bottle of JACK DANIEL'S on the table
What are the rules for using articles with parts of the day?
A particular day, night, evening et.c the is used, e.g. THE NIGHT was warm and beautiful The + parts of the day used generically, e.g. He used to spend THE MORNING lying about the beach (routine) Descriptive attribute, a/an is used e.g. it had been a wet day Predicative usage no article, e.g. IT WAS EVENING when he decided.... it was nearly MIDNIGHT when... BUT if a descriptive attribute appears, the indefinite article is used, e.g. it was A FINE, WARM NIGHT TRADITIONAL USE: in THE NIGHT, in THE MORNING no article, when AT, BY, ABOUT, PAST, BEFORE, AFTER, TOWARDS, TILL, UNTIL, e.g. at night, at dawn etc. MORNING, DAY, DAWN with no article when they are followed by to fall, gather, to be at hand, e.g. DAY WAS BREAKING when we... Parts of the day + days of the week -> zero article, e.g. she was here yesterday afternoon PHRASES: all day, in the dead of night etc.
What is a noun phrase?
A phrase with a noun as its head. e.g. a house, this house, these houses etc.
What are lexemes?
A set of grammatical words (e.g. leave: leaves, left, leaving, i.e. same word class and basic meaning, similar form)
What is the double genitive?
A special construction in which either the independent genitive or a possessive pronoun occurs in an of-phrase, e.g. This was a good IDEA OF JOHNNY'S The woman who owns Harte's is A FRIEND OF OURS
What are grammatical words?
A word class or part of speech. (e.g. 'leaves' a verb or a noun)
What are adverbs?
Adverbs are words that modify or give extra information about verbs, adjectives, other words or whole clauses (QUICKLY, AMAZINGLY, ACCURATELY);
Use of articles with countable nouns modified by different attributes; Appositive clauses
Are generally limiting, e.g. THE IDEA THAT HE CAN BE OF USE contributed to his hopefulness OCCASIONALY used with the indefinite article e.g. I had A GROWING FEELING THAT TIME WAS RUNNING OUT
Use of articles with countable nouns modified by different attributes; adjectives
Attributes expressed by adjectives are usually descriptive, i.e. it does not affect the choice of the article e.g. she drove an old car THERE ARE EXCEPTIONS: adjectives, adjective pronouns and adjectivized particles are ALWAYS limiting.; right and wrong, very, only, latter, former etc. Adjectives usually serve as limiting attributes; proper, previous, opposite etc.
What are some of the ways to avoid the gender bias in nouns and pronouns?
Avoiding coordinated pronouns, e.g. he or she Use of plural instead of singular pronouns, e.g. Not EVERYBODY uses THEIR indicator. Using plural throughout e.g. TEACHERS find that THEY need more time.
Use of articles with countable nouns modified by different attributes; numerals
Cardinal numerals; serve as descriptive attributes, e.g. he had refused THREE INVITATIONS to golf Ordinal numerals; are usually limiting, e.g. It was THE SECOND week of October
What are central and peripheral adjective?
Central adjectives are adjectives that have all of the typical characteristics of adjectives; Peripheral adjectives are those that have fewer of the characteristics;
What are the main classes of package nouns? Provide examples.
Collective nouns (groups of people, animals et.c) -> army, audience, family, staff etc. Unit nouns (allow us to cup up a generalized mass or substance into individual units or pieces) -> a bit of, a chunk of, a lump of, a piece of etc. Quantifying nouns (used to refer to quantities, specified in the following of-phrase) -> a kilogram of potatoes, a liter of juice etc. Species nouns (refer to the type rather than quantity of something) -> I did all KINDS OF things/ TWO TYPES OF ENERGY/ He was the SORT OF character Tom liked.
What are the main types of nouns?
Common nouns, proper nouns OR countable/uncountable OR abstract/concrete
How is the plural of compound nouns formed?
Compound nouns normally form the plural by adding -s to the last word of the compound, e.g. greenhouses BUT if the compound is made up of a noun and an adverb, the first word is plural, e.g. passer-by -> passers-by
What are the main semantic groups of nouns?
Concrete nouns (including people, animals, materials and objects) -> dog, human, gold etc. Abstract nouns (concepts, qualities, actions, processes) -> opinion, weather, question etc.
What are the main types of determiners?
DETERMINERS ARE USED TO CLARIFY THE MEANING OF THE NOUN The definite article, e.g. THE The indefinite articles, e.g. a/an Demonstrative articles: 'away from' 'near to' the speaker, e.g. THIS book, THAT book Possessive determiners (shows who the noun belongs to), e.g. MY book. Quantifiers (i.e. how much/many of the noun there is, e.g. every book, some books etc.) Wh-words (whose grandfather) Numerals (four people) ITS USED WITH A NOUN, IF ITS NOT - ITS A PRONOUN
What are the main uses of the articles with countable nouns modified by nouns modified by prepositional phrases?
Descriptive, e.g. A MAN UNDER THOSE CIRCUMSTANCES can be very helpless Limiting, e.g. But he was not by any means ill at easy among THE CALLERS AT HIS SISTER'S HOUSE
What are function words and their features?
Function words: determiners, prepositions, coordinators, subordinators, auxiliary verbs, pronouns, adverbial particles. Meaning relations (i.e. showing how lexical units are related). Closed classes. Frequent individual function words.
What is the use of articles with personal names?
Generally no article is used (including little, old, young, dear) -> I did not see Charles for weeks No articles with the names of members of a family (Mother, Father) -> Mother is still resting The + names of persons The name in plural to indicate the whole family -> The Elliots were an intelligent lot When a name is modified by a limiting attribute -> Is he the Kenyon who is the writer? A descriptive article, when the limitation is clear from the context (usually back reference) -> he caught THE PARALISED Madeline A permanent quality of a person is indicated A/an + names of persons: 1) to indicate that one member of a family or a certain person having the name in question is meant, e.g. I have wondered if Arthur was really a Burton 2) Names modified by a descriptive attribute -> an almost unrecognizable Stanley grabbed his sleeve
What is a descriptive attribute?
It is used to describe an object and give additional information about it. This kind of object does NOT single out the object but rather narrows down the class to which it belongs to. e.g. Gladys showed her AN OLD ALBUM THAT CONTAINED PICTURES OF SOME ANTIQUES.
Describe the category of gender in English.
Its not an important grammatical category in English - no masculine and feminine inflections still an interesting and controversial topic.
What are the differences between lexical and function words?
Lexical words belong to open classes, are the main carriers of information. Function words belong to closed classes, frequent individual function.
What are lexical words and their features?
Lexical words: nouns, lexical verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Main carriers of information. Members of open classes. Complex internal structure. Heads of phrases. Stressed in speech. They usually remain in newspaper headlines.
What are the main parts of speech within lexical and function word families?
Lexical words: nouns, lexical verbs, adjectives and adverbs. function words: determiners, prepositions, coordinators, subordinators, auxiliary verbs, pronouns, adverbial particles.
What are the rules for using articles with names of meals?
No article -> the majority of cases, e.g. LUNCH is ready/DINNER at an end Back reference/limiting attribute -> the, e.g. He was greedily eating THE LUNCH his mother made him/THE SUPPER was very different Descriptive attribute -> a/an I'll try to give you A DECENT LUNCH Meals as countable nouns Dinner-party, tea-party -> the/a/an A portion, e.g. I don't have enough money to buy A DINNER
The use of articles with the nouns school, bed, hospital, prison, etc.?
No article is used when they perform their function, e.g. I went to HOSPITAL because I broke my leg
What are irregular plurals?
Nouns that do not become plural by adding -s or -es. There are two types: NATIVE IRREGULAR PLURALS and LATIN/GREEK PLURALS Native - changing the vowel (men, women, teeth etc.) adding -(r)en (children, oxen etc.) F -> es (calf - calves, shelf - shelves, knife - knives etc.) BUT most nouns ending in -f have a regular plural: belief - beliefs, chef - chefs etc.
What are the rules for using articles with seasons?
Particular season -> the, e.g. THE summer of 1456 Seasons used in general -> the/zero, e.g. the winter was coming/winter set in early Descriptive attribute + center of communication -> a/an, e.g. We had A SHORT SUMMER Predicative usage -> zero, e.g. It was winter BUT it was A COLD WINTER (except for early/later) e.g. it was LATE SPRING Attribute of-phrase -> zero, e.g. The warmth of SPRING
What are the main semantic categories of adverbs?
Place adverbs -> express distance, direction or position (He loves it THERE / He can't have gone FAR); Time adverbs -> position in time, frequency, duration and relationship (NOW they are... / She always eats the onion); Manner adverbs -> how action is done (But sentiment recovered QUICKLY); Degree adverbs -> describe extent of character (It insulated SLIGHTLY with...) a.) Amplifiers/Intensifiers -> make stronger (Our dentist is VERY good) b.) Deminishers/Downtoners -> make weaker (A SLIGHTLY cold start); Additive adverbs -> one item is being added to the other (Oh, my dad was a great guy, TOO/ The experiment ALSO illustrates); Restrictive -> emphasise the importance of one part of the proposition (ONLY those who can afford the monthly payment); Stance adverbs (He is OBVIOUSLY responsible for the crime) a.) Epistemic -> shows level of certainty or doubt (I'll PROBABLY manage with it) b.) Attitude -> shows emotions (SURPRISINGLY, UNFORTUNATELY) c.) Style -> manner, style of speaking (HONESTLY, FRANKLY, SIMPLY); Linking adverbs -> make connections between sections of discourse (THUS, HOWEVER);
Use of articles with countable nouns modified by different attributes; Participles
Pre-position; usually descriptive, e.g. he looked at me with A MOCKING SMILE I turned and saw A CRYING BOY Post-position; descriptive e.g. he sent A TELEGRAM SAYING HE NEEDED SOME WORK DONE URGENTLY it was A VERY SMALL ROOM, OVERCROWDED WITH FURNITURE Post-position; limiting e.g. He took THE PATH LEADING TO THE LONELY COTTAGE The car stopped at THE FENCE SURROUNDING THE FARM
What are the main tendencies in the use of articles with countable nouns in predication and apposition
Predicative: A/an is used (i.e. nominating and classifying functions) I'm A SOCIALIST, of course Apposition: I'm sure you know Alfred, A PROFESSOR at London University. Nouns used predicatively or in apposition may have descriptive attributes, e.g. He was AN EXTREMELY BORING FELLOW Hart, AN UNEASY NERVOUS MAN, was... Predicative and opposition -> the The serves to show that the speaker is referring to to a definite person or object (defining function), e.g. PREDICATIVE: Philip had been THE HERO OF HIS CHILDHOOD APPOSITION: Then Jack, THE MOST IMPUDENT STUDENT THERE, interrupted.
What are the main types of auxiliary verbs?
Primary auxiliaries (e.g. be, have, do) (can also act as main verbs) Be -> progressive aspect (e.g. she was thinking; passive voice e.g. it was sent) Have -> perfect aspect (e.g. I've done...) Do -> negative statements, questions (e.g. Did he tell her?/This doesn't make sense.) Modal auxiliaries (e.g. 'can', 'could', 'will', 'would', 'shall', 'should', 'may', 'might', 'must' and 'ought'.)
What are pronouns?
Pronouns are words that can function as noun phrases and can be seen as economy devices
What are the main types of pronouns?
Pronouns fill the position of a noun or a whole noun phrase. Personal pronouns -> I, you, she, he, it etc. Demonstrative pronouns -> 'near to' or 'away from' the the speaker, e.g. THIS is Bay city/ THAT is the book I read Reflexive pronouns -> refer back to a previous noun phrase e.g. I thought MYSELF Reciprocal pronouns -> refer to a previous noun phrase (a mutual relationship) -> yeah they know EACH OTHER well/ONE ANOTHER Possessive pronouns -> mind, yours, his etc. Indefinite pronouns -> indefinite meaning e.g. someone, nobody Relative pronouns -> introduce relative clauses e.g. I had more friends THAT were boys. Interrogative pronouns -> ask questions, e.g. I just wonder WHO it was
What are the main functions of articles with common nouns?
SINGULAR COUNTABLE NOUNS A/an -> nominating function, e.g. They couldn't travel without A CAR there. The -> the defining function, e.g. while her suit-case was being taken out of THE CAR, she looked around PLURAL COUNTABLE NOUNS The zero article -> nominating function, e.g. they couldn't travel without CARS The -> defining function, e.g. while her suit-cases were being taken out of THE CARS, they looked round.
What is the difference between the specifying and classifying genitive?
SPECIFYING: the determiner slot in a noun phrase, specifying the reference of the head noun, e.g. the girl's face -> the question 'WHOSE X?' The genitive acts as the head of its own noun phrase; acts as a determiner for the whole noun phrase. e.g. HIS PARENTS' home CLASSIFYING: classifying the reference of the head noun -> 'WHAT KIND OF X?' in many cases, the classifying genitive is equivalent to an adjective or a noun modifier, e.g. the WOMEN'S movement -> the FEMINIST movement
What are the main syntactic functions of the noun?
Subject -> A STUDENT helped us Object -> they elected A STUDENT Predicative complement -> She is A STUDENT Complement (in PP structure) -> We were talking [to A STUDENT]
What are the main issues in the subject-verb agreement?
Subjects and verbs must agree in number. So if one is in singular (e.g. SHE WRITES everyday) the other must also be in singular. Same with plural (e.g. THEY WRITE everyday).
What are words?
The basic elements of language.
Describe the category of number in English.
The category refers to the contrast between singular and plural. This contrast affects nouns, pronouns, determiners and verbs. Singular nouns (unmarked form) -> inflectional changes i.e. suffixation -> plural nouns
What is the use of articles with the nouns denoting unique objects or notions?
The definite article is used before a noun which refers to a specific, unique object -> THE MOON lit up the night Even with descriptive attributes the definite article is used: THE BRIGHT AUTUMN MOON rose...
What are the rules of the genitive case formation?
The genitive is written with an apostrophe: -'s With regular plural nouns ending in -s, the genitive is marked by a final apostrophe: girls'. Thus the girl's success (one girl) and the girls' success (more than one girl) are distinguished only by the apostrophe. For irregular plurals not ending in -s, the genitive is -'s as for singular forms: women's rights, men's clothing For singular names ending in -s, the regular genitive is usual: Davis's, Charles's BUT sometimes they're treated like plural nouns: Davis', Charles'.
What are the main uses of the articles with countable nouns modified by nouns in the genitive case?
The noun in the genitive may denote a particular person or thing. In this case the article refers to to the noun in the genitive, e.g. MY MOTHER'S picture, THE MAN'S voice, THE RIVER'S bed In this case, the article is chosen in accordance with the general rules. The noun in the genitive may also refer to the class of objects to which the person/thing denoted by the head noun belongs, e.g. A doctor's DEGREE, A soldier's UNIFORM(i.e. the article refers to the head noun) The choice of the article depends on the context, e.g. We had not walked A MILE'S DISTANCE../ THE MILE'S DISTANCE in the... SET PHRASES: a giant's task, a fool's errand etc.
How are the plural forms of nouns formed?
The overwhelming majority of nouns form their plurals by adding the ending -(e)s
What is derivation?
The process of adding (usually) an affix (prefix or suffix) to a word, which changes the word's meaning or word class. (ex + president = ex-president, hope + ful -> hopeful etc.)
Use of articles with countable nouns modified by different attributes; attributive clauses
Those that can be removed from the sentence without destroying its meaning -> always descriptive e.g. She made A sarcastic joke, WHICH I DID NOT HEAR/ In THE OFFICE, WHERE I SPEND SO MANY DESERT HOURS, he became... BUT those that are so closely connected with the antecedent that they cannot be left out without destroying the meaning of the sentence can be limiting or descriptive e.g. He took THE CIGARETTE THAT ROBERT OFFERED HIM.
Use of articles with countable nouns modified by different attributes; common case
Usually descriptive, e.g. There was A GLASS DOOR leading to the passage/ A SILVER TRAY was brought to us/ He sat on A KITCHEN CHAIR SOMETIMES may serve as limiting attributes (a proper name), e.g. THE HITLER REGIME brought nothing but misery.
Describe the use of articles with uncountable concrete nouns (names of materials).
Usually the zero article is used, e.g. These pills have to be dissolved in WATER Descriptive attribute (zero article), e.g. I ticked off the names written in VIOLET INK 'The' is used if names of materials are restricted in their quantity or by reason of locality, e.g. Together they walked through THE SLUSH AND MUD NAMES OF MATERIALS CAN BECOME COUNTABLE SO THE GENERAL RULES APPLY, e.g. it was A GOOD COFFEE (food products) My boy wants AN ICE (portions of food or drink) A FULL GLASS of orange juice (an object made of certain material).
What are orthographic words?
Words separated by spaces. (e.g. 'they wrote us a letter' (5 words))
What is compounding?
Words that contain more than one stem (e.g. goldfish, greenhouse etc.)
What are adjectives?
Words which give extra information about nouns. No forms for number and gender.
What is an open word class?
indefinitely large; readily extended, new members can be added (gossipee, broadish etc.). Nouns, lexical verbs etc.
What is the use of articles with geographic names (names of continents, streets, parks, countries, squares and separate buildings, names of bodies of waters, islands, mountains and deserts)?
names of continents -> no article (but THE ARCTIC, TGE ANTARCTIC(regions)) Countries, provinces, cities, towns, villages -> no article BUT the USA, the Ukraine, the Argentine, the Congo, the Netherlands, the Crimea, the Caucasus, the Ruhr, the Tyrol Oceans, seas, straits, channels, canals, rivers -> the The Pacific, the Atlantic etc. LAKES WITH ZERO BAYS ZERO -> Hudson Bay, Baffin Bay etc. Peninsulas -> no article if proper name is used alone, e.g. Scandinavia Deserts -> the, e.g. the Sahara, the Gobi Mountain chains, groups of islands -> the, e.g. The Rocky Mountains, The Bahamas Mountain peaks, separate islands, waterfalls -> zero, e.g. Everest, Sicily, Niagra Falls etc. Names of mountain passes -> the, e.g. the Saint Gotthard Pass (lmao) Streets, parks, squares, -> no article Universities/colleges -> no article Airports -> no article (except for the Dublin Airport) Theatres, museums, picture galleries, concert halls, cinemas, clubs, hotels -> the ships, boats -> the Newspapers and magazines -> the Separate buildings -> varies Scotland Yard, the Tower, the Old Bailey etc. Territories -> the (The Later District, the Yorkshire Forest etc.) Month, days of the week -> no article Organizations, political parties -> the Languages -> no article Some grammatical categories -> the past indefinite
What are the different types of nouns according to their morphological composition?
simple (don't have affixes; chair, car, dog etc.) derivative (nouns which have affixes; reader, sailor, blackness) compound (built from two or more stems; greenhouse, goldfish etc.)
Describe the use of articles with uncountable abstract nouns.
usually used with zero article, e.g. INDIFFERENCE and PRIDE look very much alike He knew that GENEROSITY would be wasted on him 'the' is used when there is a limiting attribute, e.g. He was in a state of THE GREATEST EXCITEMENT He jumped at THE ABRUPTNESS OF THE QUESTION A/an is used when there is a descriptive attribute, e.g. A DULL anger rose in his chest He was crushed by AN OVERPOWERING SADNESS WHEN THERE IS AN ATTRIBUTE BUT NO ARTICLE IS USED: degree (great, perfect), time (ancient, modern), nationality (English), geography (London), authenticity (real, genuine), social characteristics (racial, religious), etc. I have PERFECT CONFIDENCE in him BUT The is used with the combinations FRENCH POETRY, MODERN ART, AMERICAN LITERATURE etc. An attribute but no article: nouns of verbal character denoting actions, activity, processes, e.g. advice, assistance, permission, progress, research, work. + weather, money, news, luck, fun, nature, literature, music, prose I am not sure whether it's GOOD NEWS or bad.
