Grammar Rules

Phrase

A phrase is a group of words without a subject-verb component, used as a single part of speech. Examples: Best friend (noun phrase) Needing help (adjective phrase; see the "Adjectives and Adverbs" section later in this chapter) With the blue shirt (prepositional adjective phrase; see the "Prepositions" section later in this chapter) For twenty days (prepositional adverb phrase)

Commas

Commas Commas and periods are the most frequently used punctuation marks. Commas customarily indicate a brief pause; they're not as final as periods.

Pronoun

Definition A pronoun (I, me, he, she, herself, you, it, that, they, each, few, many, who, whoever, whose, someone, everybody, etc.) is a word that takes the place of a noun. In the sentence Joe saw Jill, and he waved at her, the pronouns he and her take the place of Joe and Jill, respectively. There are three types of pronouns: subject (for example, he); object (him); or possessive (his).

Rule IV

If the subject does not appear in front of the second verb, a comma is generally unnecessary. Example: He thought quickly but still did not answer correctly.

Rule III

In sentences where two independent clauses are joined by connectors such as and, or, but, etc., put a comma at the end of the first clause. Incorrect: He walked all the way home and he shut the door. Correct: He walked all the way home, and he shut the door. Some writers omit the comma if the clauses are both quite short: Example: I paint and he writes.

Semicolons

Rule 1. A semicolon can replace a period if the writer wishes to narrow the gap between two closely linked sentences. Examples: Call me tomorrow; you can give me an answer then. We have paid our dues; we expect all the privileges listed in the contract.

Who, That, Which

Rule 2a. That introduces what is called an essential clause. Essential clauses add information that is vital to the point of the sentence. Example: I do not trust products that claim "all natural ingredients" because this phrase can mean almost anything. We would not know the type of products being discussed without the that clause.

Semicolons

Semicolons It's no accident that a semicolon is a period atop a comma. Like commas, semicolons indicate an audible pause—slightly longer than a comma's, but short of a period's full stop.

Rule VIII

Similarly, use commas to enclose degrees or titles used with names. Example: Al Mooney, M.D., is here.

Rule VII

Traditionally, if a person's name is followed by Sr. or Jr., a comma follows the last name: Martin Luther King, Jr. This comma is no longer considered mandatory. However, if a comma does precede Sr. or Jr., another comma must follow the entire name when it appears midsentence. Correct: Al Mooney Sr. is here. Correct: Al Mooney, Sr., is here. Incorrect: Al Mooney, Sr. is here.

Rule V

Use a comma after certain words that introduce a sentence, such as well, yes, why, hello, hey, etc. Examples: Why, I can't believe this! No, you can't have a dollar.

Rule XII

Use a comma to separate a statement from a question. Example: I can go, can't I?

Rule XIII

Use a comma to separate contrasting parts of a sentence. Example: That is my money, not yours.

Rule I

Use a comma to separate two adjectives when the adjectives are interchangeable. Example: He is a strong, healthy man. We could also say healthy, strong man. Example: We stayed at an expensive summer resort. We would not say summer expensive resort, so no comma.

Rule IX

When starting a sentence with a dependent clause, use a comma after it. Example: If you are not sure about this, let me know now. But often a comma is unnecessary when the sentence starts with an independent clause followed by a dependent clause. Example: Let me know now if you are not sure about this.

Whoever VS Whomever

Whoever vs. Whomever To determine whether to use whoever or whomever, the he/him rule in the previous section applies: he = whoever him = whomever

Rule 1

Rule 1. Subject pronouns are used when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence. You can remember subject pronouns easily by filling in the blank subject space for a simple sentence. Example: ___ did the job. I, he, she, we, they, who, whoever, etc., all qualify and are, therefore, subject pronouns.

Clause

A clause is a group of words containing a subject and verb. An independent clause is a simple sentence. It can stand on its own. Examples: She is hungry. I am feeling well today.

Dependent Clause

A dependent clause cannot stand on its own. It needs an independent clause to complete a sentence. Dependent clauses often begin with such words as although, since, if, when, and because. Examples: Although she is hungry ... Whoever is hungry ... Because I am feeling well ...

Prepositions

A preposition is a word that indicates location (in, near, beside) or some other relationship (about, after, besides) between a noun or pronoun and other parts of the sentence. A preposition isn't a preposition unless it goes with a related noun or pronoun, called the object of the preposition. Examples: Let's meet before noon. Before is a preposition; noon is its object. We've never met before. There is no object; before is an adverb modifying met.

Adjective

An adjective is a word or set of words that modifies (i.e., describes) a noun or pronoun. Adjectives may come before the word they modify. Examples: That is a cute puppy. She likes a high school senior. Adjectives may also follow the word they modify: Examples: That puppy looks cute. The technology is state-of-the-art.

Adverb

An adverb is a word or set of words that modifies verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Examples: He speaks slowly (modifies the verb speaks) He is especially clever (modifies the adjective clever) He speaks all too slowly (modifies the adverb slowly) An adverb answers how, when, where, or to what extent—how often or how much (e.g., daily, completely). Examples: He speaks slowly (answers the question how) He speaks very slowly (answers the question how slowly)

Subject-verb Agreement

Basic Rule. A singular subject (she, Bill, car) takes a singular verb (is, goes, shines), whereas a plural subject takes a plural verb. Example: The list of items is/are on the desk. If you know that list is the subject, then you will choose is for the verb.

Rule XI

If something or someone is sufficiently identified, the description that follows is considered nonessential and should be surrounded by commas. Examples: Freddy, who has a limp, was in an auto accident. If we already know which Freddy is meant, the description is not essential. The boy who has a limp was in an auto accident. We do not know which boy is meant without further description; therefore, no commas are used.

Rule II

Many inexperienced writers run two independent clauses together by using a comma instead of a period. This results in the dreaded run-on sentence or, more technically, a comma splice. Incorrect: He walked all the way home, he shut the door. There are several simple remedies: Correct: He walked all the way home. He shut the door. Correct: After he walked all the way home, he shut the door. Correct: He walked all the way home, and he shut the door.

Who, That, Which

Rule 1. Who and sometimes that refer to people. That and which refer to groups or things. Examples: Anya is the one who rescued the bird. "The Man That Got Away" is a great song with a grammatical title. Lokua is on the team that won first place. She belongs to a great organization, which specializes in saving endangered species

Rule 2

Rule 2. Subject pronouns are also used if they rename the subject. They will follow to be verbs, such as is, are, was, were, am, will be, had been, etc. Examples: It is he. This is she speaking. It is we who are responsible for the decision to downsize.

Semicolons

Rule 2. Use a semicolon before such words and terms as namely, however, therefore, that is, i.e., for example, e.g., for instance, etc., when they introduce a complete sentence. It is also preferable to use a comma after these words and terms. Example: Bring any two items; however, sleeping bags and tents are in short supply.

Who, That, Which

Rule 2b. Which introduces a nonessential clause, which adds supplementary information. Example: The product claiming "all natural ingredients," which appeared in the Sunday newspaper, is on sale. The product is already identified. Therefore, which begins a nonessential clause containing additional, but not essential, information.

Who, That, Which

Rule 3. If that has already appeared in a sentence, writers sometimes use which to introduce the next clause, whether it is essential or nonessential. This is done to avoid awkward formations. Example: That which doesn't kill you makes you stronger. This sentence is far preferable to the ungainly but technically correct That that doesn't kill you makes you stronger.

Rule 3

Rule 3. This rule surprises even language watchers: when who refers to a personal pronoun (I, you, he, she, we, they), it takes the verb that agrees with that pronoun. Correct: It is I who am sorry. (I am) Incorrect: It is I who is sorry. Correct: It is you who are mistaken. (you are) Incorrect: It is you who's mistaken.

Semicolons

Rule 3. Use a semicolon to separate units of a series when one or more of the units contain commas. Incorrect: The conference has people who have come from Moscow, Idaho, Springfield, California, Alamo, Tennessee, and other places as well. Note that with only commas, that sentence is hopeless. Correct: The conference has people who have come from Moscow, Idaho; Springfield, California; Alamo, Tennessee; and other places as well.

Semicolons

Rule 4. A semicolon may be used between independent clauses joined by a connector, such as and, but, or, nor, etc., when one or more commas appear in the first clause. Example: When I finish here, and I will soon, I'll be glad to help you; and that is a promise I will keep.

Rule 4

Rule 4. Object pronouns are used everywhere else beyond Rules 1 and 2 (direct object, indirect object, object of a preposition). Object pronouns include me, him, herself, us, them, themselves, etc. Examples: Jean saw him. Him is the direct object. Give her the book. Her is the indirect object. The direct object is book. Are you talking to me? Me is the object of the preposition to.

Rule 5

Rule 5. The pronouns who, that, and which become singular or plural depending on the subject. If the subject is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb. Example: He is the only one of those men who is always on time. The word who refers to one. Therefore, use the singular verb is. Sometimes we must look more closely to find a verb's true subject: Example: He is one of those men who are always on time. The word who refers to men. Therefore, use the plural verb are. In sentences like this last example, many would mistakenly insist that one is the subject, requiring is always on time. But look at it this way: Of those men who are always on time, he is one.

Rule 6

Rule 6. Pronouns that are singular (I, he, she, everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody, someone, somebody, each, either, neither, etc.) require singular verbs. This rule is frequently overlooked when using the pronouns each, either, and neither, followed by of. Those three pronouns always take singular verbs. Do not be misled by what follows of. Examples: Each of the girls sings well. Either of us is capable of doing the job. Neither of them is available to speak right now. Exception: When each follows a noun or pronoun in certain sentences, even experienced writers sometimes get tripped up: Incorrect: The women each gave her approval. Correct: The women each gave their approval. Incorrect: The words are and there each ends with a silent vowel. Correct: The words are and there each end with a silent vowel. These examples do not contradict Rule 6, because each is not the subject, but rather an adjunct describing the true subject.

Rule 7

Rule 7. To decide whether to use the subject or object pronoun after the words than or as, mentally complete the sentence. Examples: Tranh is as smart as she/her. If we mentally complete the sentence, we would say Tranh is as smart as she is. Therefore, she is the correct answer. Zoe is taller than I/me. Mentally completing the sentence, we have Zoe is taller than I am. Daniel would rather talk to her than I/me. We can interpret this sentence in two ways: Daniel would rather talk to her than to me. OR Daniel would rather talk to her than I would. A sentence's meaning can change considerably, depending on the pronoun you choose.

Rule 8

Rule 8. The possessive pronouns yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs, and whose never need apostrophes. Avoid mistakes like her's and your's.

Rule 9

Rule 9. The only time it's has an apostrophe is when it is a contraction for it is or it has. The only time who's has an apostrophe is when it means who is or who has. There is no apostrophe in oneself. Avoid "one's self," a common error. Examples: It's been a cold morning. The thermometer reached its highest reading. He's the one who's always on time. He's the one whose wife is always on time. Keeping oneself ready is important.

Who VS Whom

Rule. Use this he/him method to decide whether who or whom is correct: he = who him = whom

Rule VI

Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt the sentence flow (nevertheless, after all, by the way, on the other hand, however, etc.). Example: I am, by the way, very nervous about this.

Rule X

Use commas to set off nonessential words, clauses, and phrases Incorrect: Jill who is my sister shut the door. Correct: Jill, who is my sister, shut the door. Incorrect: The man knowing it was late hurried home. Correct: The man, knowing it was late, hurried home.