Greek Warfare

Battle of Marathon

(490 B.C.E.) Battle where the Persians who invaded Greece were defeated on the Plain of Marathon by an Athenian army. Marathon did not end the wars against Persia, but was the first turning point in establishing the success of the Greek, and specifically Athenian way, which would eventually give rise to all western culture as we know it. Thus, according to some, Marathon is the most important battle in history.

Hoplite

A citizen-soldier of the Ancient Greek City-states. They were primarily armed as spear-men. Greece's military strategy that deployed men in a phalanx with shields and spears. It was proven successful against the Persians at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC.

Odysseus/Ulysses

A legendary Greek king of Ithaca and the hero of Homer's epic poem the Odyssey. He is most famous for the ten eventful years he took to return home after the ten-year Trojan War and his famous Trojan Horse trick.

Phalenx

A military formation of foot soldiers armed with spears and shields. Was a ritual in its own right with rules. It is very controversial how they actually worked, however, they proved effective against the Persians at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC.

Miltiades

Athenian general who defeated the Persians at Marathon (540-489)

Eretria

City in Euboea that was punished by the Persians for their involvement in the Ionian Rebellion. The city was plundered and the population enslaved.

Herodotus

Greek Historian, considered the father of History. He came from a Greek community in Anatolia and traveled extensively, collecting information in western Asia and the Mediterranean lands. Born: c. 484 BCE

Hopolon

The revolutionary part of the shield was the grip. Known as an Argive grip, it placed the handle at the edge of the shield, and was supported by a leather fastening (for the forearm) at the centre. These two points of contact eliminated the possibility of the shield swaying to the side after being struck, and as a result soldiers rarely lost their shields. This allowed the hoplite soldier more mobility with the shield, as well as the ability to capitalize on its offensive capabilities and better support the phalanx. The large shields, designed for pushing ahead, were the most essential equipment for the hoplites

Othismos

Who/What: "Mass push" of the phalanx. Could be taken literally (i.e. Hanson) or figuratively (i.e. Goldsworthy) (and Lendon is somewhere in between). The literal view would describe it as a pushing match between the sides once they met, with the superior strength/numbers of the winning side allowing them to plow over the enemy and collapse their ranks, allowing them to win a landslide victory. Could provide justification for why some phalanxes (e.g. Thebans at Leuctra) were stacked so deeply. When: Leuctra 371 BC, Thebans stack 50 deep (may not have necessarily used a literal othismos, but could provide justification for why they went so deep). Where (if applicable): Significance: Sticking point of major contention amongst academics. The literal or figurative nature of othismos has major ramifications for our view of hoplite combat, and how the various elements of it fit together. For example: how could hoplite battles be so brief (necessitated by the heavy armor)? Why were the shields bowl-shaped? What did the guys at the back of the formation do, whose spears were far too short to contribute to the fighting?

Promakhoi

Who/What: "Men who fight in front" alongside the champions in battle. Could be anyone, just happens to be the people on the front lines at any one given time facing the enemy When: Mycenaean period, 1600-1150 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Display the looser and more fluid style of fighting in this period as opposed to the later regimented hoplite style of battle. Also plays in to Van Wees's argument of how hoplites fought

Pezhetairoi

Who/What: Battalions of the Macedonian Phalanx. The backbone of the Macedonian army. Literally, "foot companions". Utilized the 2-handed sarissa, fought with a telamon shield, sawtooth pattern of spearheads. When: Decisive in the victory at Chaeronea, 338 BC Where (if applicable) Significance: The bread and butter of the Macedonian army. The "anvil" that would hold the enemy in place (or simply fend them off) so the "hammer" (heavy cavalry) could come in and crush the enemy. Represents the innovative departure which Philip exercised in his military reforms.

Techne

Who/What: "Skill". Could be a derogatory word, implying the lowly craft of a manual laborer, but increasingly came to define the technical skills of warfare which were the pride and source of competition in the Greek army. Shown off by drilling, competitions, etc. The Spartans saw the art of war as a techne. When: Where (if applicable): Significance: Took great inspiration from Homer (i.e. the competitive aspect of it). Shows how the direction of Greek warfare was shifting more towards the competitiveness/individual honor and pride that defined the Homeric period and would come to define Alexander's. Also implies the shift away from viewing martial prowess as an inborn trait, but rather something that could be learned.

Lochos

Who/What: "War band". Could describe half of a mora or really any subdivision of the army down to each line of soldiers. When: Where (if applicable): Significance: Displays the emphasis on order and unity of the Spartan army. Related to, for example, how the Spartans advanced on their enemies in a march rather than a trot/run; unity of the phalanx was of utmost importance to them.

Battle of Issus

Who/What: Alexander vs Persians battle, Second of the 4 When: 333 BCE Where (if applicable): Issus, Cilicia (modern day Hatay, Turkey - right at the corner on the underside of Turkey formed by the Mediterranean) Significance: Alexander leads the Hellenic league against Darius III. Even though Darius has twice the troops and a better strategic position and probably would have won had he stayed, he loses because he flees when Alexander charges him with his companion cavalry. Darius even surprises Alexander and forces combat. The famous Macedonian phalanx fares poorly against Persian-hired mercenaries and Persian heavy cavalry. Then Alexander manages to break the Persian line on foot with his hypaspists, then mounts and leads his companion cavalry against the Persian commanders and routs them. They chase Darius until sunset and capture his family. Second YOLO charge; Alexander now controls Southern Asia Minor and is emboldened to pursue Darius further. Notable for the cavalry, not the Macedonian phalanx, being the decisive factor in a battle despite the endurance of other heroic standards (such as flight of the hostile commander = victory); the cavalry charge is now an acceptable demonstration of andreia; Alexander engages in heroic behavior to the fullest extent (leading both a hoplite and cavalry charge, chasing the enemy commander, etc.). Darius III had cut off Alexander's supply lines so he was forced to fight. Used Macedonian phalanx he learned from his father Philip as well as cavalry. Alexander won, further weakening the Persians. Gave Alexander control of Southern Asia Minor.

Siege of Tyre

Who/What: Alexander yet again When: 332 BC Where (if applicable): Tyre, Phoenicia (in modern-day Lebanon) Significance: First actual successful siege on the part of the Hellenic League. Alexander takes Tyre not through traditional naval techniques (he hasn't enough of a navy) but by his strength, land army; he does this through the construction of a causeway from the mainland to Tyre (for the uninitiated, Tyre used to be on a little island which is now become a peninsula due to heavy sedimentation over the intervening two millennia). Tyrian forces harass construction with missiles, so Alexander constructs two massive armored towers for siege ballistae. He widens and strengthens the causeway, builds more siege engines, and musters more navy; Tyre builds siege towers of their own. Mixed siege and naval warfare ensues, with Alexander eventually gaining the Tyrian walls and making a heroic charge with his hypaspists within the city. Rise of sieges and siege engines signify shift towards battle engineering and techne.

Pentekonter

Who/What: Ancient Greek ship, rowed by fifty oarsmen (25 on each side). Single deck unlike the triremes of later periods. Described by Homer in the Iliad. Versatile, used for many purposes. Had rams and a swept up stern When: Likely from Homer's own time, not the siege of Troy ~800 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Ancestors of all the later Greek ships and the earliest of Greek warships that we know of. It is the precursor to the trireme, it is much like a viking longship, but with 50 oars (that's what the name means). It is the earliest Greek fighting ship we know of, it has a ram, and oars and sails.

Battle of Gaugamela

Who/What: Another one of Alexander's 4 great battles against the Persians When: 331 BCE Where (if applicable): Gaugamela (somewhere near Erbil, modern-day Iraq) Significance: Used the same Macedonian phalanx formation as at Issus. Final battle between the 2 forces, marking the final downfall of the Persian empire to Hellenistic forces. Notable for the second defeat of Darius III in exactly the same manner as at Issus - Persians have the defensive and numerical upper hand, yet Darius flees in the face of Alexander's cavalry charge. Notable also for Darius's scythe chariots. This victory ensured Alexander's possession of the Persian empire. The painstaking preparations and intelligence Alexander made for the battle indicate that advance knowledge of enemy troop movements and formations are becoming paramount to a military commander's success.

Siege of Plataea

Who/What: Athenian ally which was besieged by Sparta and allies. Proceeded with several orders of measures and counter-measures- e.g. Spartans build a ramp, the ramp is sapped with a hole, the hole is filled. Rams' heads are broken off with beams, use of fire was thwarted by a thunderstorm. Eventually the Spartans were successful and massacred all of the defenders. When: 429-427 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Displays the complexity and sophistication of siege warfare, and the various ingenious tactics which had developed, during this period (contrast with the siege of Troy).

Iphicrates

Who/What: Athenian commander who routed a Spartan mora at the Battle of Lechaeum during the Corinthian War. Achieved his victory using light-armed troops to harry a Spartan contingent which had been dismissed back to Sparta for religious observances. Also made significant military reforms, making hoplites lighter, with smaller shields and longer spears. When: Lechaeum 390 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Good example of the gradual "lightening" of the hoplites over time, which indicates the need for greater flexibility and mobility in combat over the rigid battles of classical hoplite ritual. Also was a trailblazer in deploying light-armed troops as a military tactic, seeing the potential of peltasts which would come to be a fixture of later armies (e.g. Alexander, Hellenistic generals).

Thucydides

Who/What: Athenian historian on whom we rely on for much of our knowledge for the war between Athens and Sparta. Wrote history down to the surrender of Athens When: Peloponnesian War 431-404 BC, surrender of Athens 403 BC. He lived 460-400 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Our most significant source of knowledge of the Peloponnesian War. Also reflects the continued literary tradition from Homer, as he sought both to continue that tradition (e.g. the formulaic battle descriptions) while also making some changes (i.e. using the speeches of military leaders for philosophical discourse).

Battle of Delium

Who/What: Battle between the Athenians (under Demosthenes) and the Boeotians (under Pagondas) in which the Boeotians utilized a phalanx 25 men deep to punch through the Athenian forces. Involved the use of tactics by Pagondas: cavalry, hiding forces behind a hill, deep phalanx. When: 424 BC Where (if applicable): Central Greece Significance: Very significant shift towards the use of tactics in Greek warfare. Precursor to Leuctra with the deep phalanx. Illustrates the shift towards metis during battle to change tactics rather than letting battles simply play out and be won through the individual andreia of the troops. Involvement of Socrates, who led shattered Athenian army to safety after battle

Battle of Chaeronea

Who/What: Battle between the Macedonians under the leadership of Philip II and an alliance of various Greek forces under the leadership of the Athenians and Thebians; won by the Macedonians and brought an end to a period of warring states in Greece When: 338 BC Where (if applicable): outside Chaeronea, Boeotia, Greece (near Thebes, slightly northwest of Attica) Significance: widens the Macedonian sphere of influence and signifies the rise of Macedon, essentially resulted in Philip II's hegemony over Greece and most of the Aegean; decisive success of the Macedonian phalanx and cavalry over the Greek phalanx; entire Sacred Band is destroyed down to the last person; especially important, however, is the triumph of metis military tactics on land over traditional andreia of the Greeks when the Macedonians feign pulling back to lure the Greeks into breaking their phalanx and pursue them, putting the Greeks in a disorganized state where the Macedonian cavalry could break through the Greek defenses and execute a clean attack from the side - shows the traditional andreia style starting to be overcome by the practicality and effectiveness of metis tactics, a foreshadowing of the greater overall shift in classical warfare that is on the horizon

Battle of Mantinea (418 BC)

Who/What: Battle fought between the Athenians, led by Alcibiades, and the Spartans. The Spartans made a military blunder by leaving their center open (due to commands to two Spartan captains not being carried through), however the Spartans still managed to recover and win When: 418 BC Where (if applicable): Central Peloponnese, north of Sparta Significance: Demonstrates the superiority of the Spartan hoplite, even with questionable military leadership. Also shows the pitfalls of ancient battle strategy, as making adjustments mid-battle using commands from a single leader could be impractical (hence why the Spartan center was left open)

Battle of Lechaeum

Who/What: Battle in which peltasts under Iphicrates harried Spartans who were escorting a convoy back to observe a religious ritual. Basically the same thing which happened at Sphacteria, but more intentionally deployed by Iphicrates. Athenian victory. When: 390 BC Where (if applicable): Near the Isthmus of Corinth (just West of it). Significance: Teaches the Greeks the value of light-armed troops, and how they could be deployed effectively to defeat a traditional hoplite force (even the Spartans).

Second Battle of Mantinea

Who/What: Battle of Thebans (under Epaminondas) and Spartans (led by Agesilaus) for the supremacy of either alliance (Spartan or Theban) which resulted in the death of Epaminondas and a Spartan defeat. When: 362 BC Where (if applicable): Central Peloponnese Significance: Brought about the rapid decline of Thebes as Epaminondas fell, as well as the weakening of the Spartan alliance as they suffered another defeat. Paved the way for Philip II of Macedon to defeat all of Greece at Chaeronea

Battle of Plataea

Who/What: Battle that ended the Persian Wars. Mardonius, the Persian general, and his forces are crushed by the Greeks, led by Pausanias. Won more by luck and the discipline (andreia) of the army rather than judgment (metis); e.g., the episode with Amompharetus. When: 479 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Ended the Persian Wars. Also is a very good example of ritualized hoplite combat (waiting for the right auspices to fight, fighting in strict formation without any trickery, etc.), even though there were Persians on one side. Also illustrates the importance of metis in battle planning (Mardonius decides to fight the Greeks straight on rather than use metis tactics, resulting in his defeat).

Battle of Mycale

Who/What: Battle where the surviving ships of Xerxes's fleet were beached and destroyed, along with their camp, by the Greeks When: 479 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Destroyed the remainder of the Persian fleet, severely hampering Persia's naval abilities and helping ensure that it would not come to threaten Greece again. Herodotus also describes this battle as having taken place on the same day as Plataea (dubious), also describing how the troops at Mycale learned (somehow, telepathically?) that their allies had been successful at Plataea, causing them to fight with increased fervor and secure the win. Illustrates some of the pitfalls in believing the historical texts at face value.

Battle of Cunaxa

Who/What: Battle which resulted in the death of Prince Cyrus, who had a claim to the Persian throne. Resulted in the legend of the Ten Thousand under Xenophon, who had to navigate the safe return of his Greek troops back to Greece out of the heart of the Persian empire. When: 401 BC Where (if applicable): 70 km north of Babylon (according to wikipedia). Essentially, very far east. Significance: Created the legend of the Ten Thousand, which is both an incredible story and was an inspiration to later Greek leaders (i.e. Alexander) on how a large contingent of Greek troops could survive and make their way through the heart of Persia (which is exactly what he would do).

Pagondas

Who/What: Boeotian commander who battled the Athenians at Delium. Utilized a phalanx 25 men deep to gain victory. From wikipedia: "His modification of the standard hoplite phalanx and his use of reserve cavalry in that battle constitute what most historians agree is the first recorded use of formal military tactics in human history." When: Delium 424 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Prelude to the 50 man phalanx deployed by the Thebans at Leuctra. His adaptation of the phalanx to be 25 men deep rather than the standard 8/16 shows a significant, innovative tactical shift. Potentially also supports the othismos theory of hoplite warfare (what contribution would soldier 25 be making to the battle a hundred feet in front of him if not to push?). Also his use of reserve cavalry was a totally unprecedented tactical decision.

Prodromoi

Who/What: Light cavalry equipped with javelins, short swords, and cuirasses. Very quick. When: 4th century BC onward Where (if applicable): Macedonia (Alexander) Significance: Skirmishers. Signifies specialization of cavalry for specific purposes - the light cavalry encircles and harasses hostile heavy arms (as used by Antigonus at Paraetacene); shows that that cavalry is now actually useful and displays a shift in military tactical thinking; mirrors specialization of infantry troops.

Mycenae

Who/What: City in Greece which is the traditional home city of Agamemnon. Heart of the Mycenaean empire, which dominated Greece until the bronze age collapse around 1150 BC. Before their collapse, they start to build immense walls/buildings, "cyclopean masonry" When: Around 1600-1150 BC Where (if applicable): Northeastern Peloponnese Significance: First great Mycenaen city that was excavated. Also first major military power in Greece, and the cultural and literal ancestors of the later Greeks. Scale of the cyclopean walls indicates that they had immense organizational skills indicative of a despotic, central form of government, much more similar to the Hittites or other Eastern cultures than the rest of the Greeks.

Troy

Who/What: City in Turkey which was sieged in the famous Trojan War (one of many sieges), and subsequently destroyed, as detailed in the Iliad. When: Destroyed sometime around the 12th century BC Where (if applicable): Western Turkey, very close the the Hellespont Significance: The siege of Troy, being a unified act undertaken by all of the Greeks at the time, is unique compared to classical Greek times, where it would have been impossible to unify all of the Greeks for any cause (even against the Persians). Illustrates the differences between Mycenaean Greek culture, which was likely centrally organized and would have the organizational power to undertake this siege, and the later classical Greeks

Messene

Who/What: City which was raised by Epaminondas in the Peloponnese after Leuctra. The ruins there are well preserved, even into the present day. When: Raised in 369 BC, 2 years after Leuctra in 371 Where (if applicable): Western Peloponnese Significance: Shows the significant fall from grace of Sparta (as well as the ascendancy of Thebes) as Epaminondas was allowed to raise a city in the Peloponnese close to Sparta. Also is a significant archaeological site in the present day.

Pilos

Who/What: Conical helmet worn by Spartans, and later the rest of the Greeks, increasingly as time went on. Originally worn because it was revealing, showing that the Spartans had "nothing to hide" (according to Lendon) When: Increasingly popular by around 430 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Shows the lightening of equipment over time, or specifically in this case, how the equipment would be adapted for convenience (being able to see and hear) over protection.

Battle of Leuctra

Who/What: Crushing defeat of Sparta under Cleombrotus to Thebes and allies under Epaminondas and Pelopidas. Thebans (led by the sacred band) form a phalanx 50 men deep to punch through the Spartan contingent directly opposite them, who refuses to move (taxis) from their position of honor. When: 371 BC Where (if applicable): Central Greece Significance: Death blow to Spartan supremacy over Thebes and the rest of Greece. Proved that they were not invincible in "fair" battle (previous losses at Sphacteria and Lechaeum could be ignored as "unfair") and therefore ended their military dominance. Caused Sparta to falter and for Thebes to experience a meteoric rise, for a time. Also referred to as "last of the Greek classical battles" Instance of emergence/realization of notion that traditional hoplite warfare and ritual was not feasible or rationale anymore in many cases

Xerxes

Who/What: Darius's son who instigated the Persian Wars of 480-478 BC. Known for sitting out battles in his throne and generally acting like a benevolent god. Whipped and punished the Hellespont when a storm prevented his crossing over into Greece. When: Crossed the Hellespont, Thermopylae in 480 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Instigated the Persian invasion of Greece, which had a profound impact on the development of Greek culture. Also illustrates the striking cultural differences between Persians and Greeks (he did not fight with his troops, his whipping of the Hellespont, etc.). Provided justification for Alexander's conquests in Persia a century and a half later.

Battle of Aegospotami

Who/What: Decisive action (hardly a battle) in which the Spartan commander Lysander attacks the Athenians in their harbor after feinting attack repeatedly (i.e. using guile and cunning), destroys the entire Athenian fleet. When: 405 BC Where (if applicable): On the Hellespont (Lysander attacked from directly across it). Significance: Could be said to be a triumph of metis over andreia. Spartan commander utilizing naval forces with cunning tactics (metis) to win victory, not through a "fair" land-based hoplite battle. In either case, effectively ended the Peloponnesian War, as the Athenians could no longer communicate across their empire or import supplies without control over the sea.

Battle of Salamis

Who/What: Decisive naval battle where the Greek fleet routed the Persian fleet. Largest naval battle in the ancient world. Caused Xerxes to retreat back to Persia and leave Mardonius to attempt to subjugate the Greeks. When: 480 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Turning point of the Persian Wars. Significant that this turning point was a naval battle, which shows how naval combat had come to play a much more significant role during this period (related to metis as well)

Battle of Coronea

Who/What: Defeat of allied Greek forces against the Spartan king Agesilaus. Veterans from the Ten Thousand were deployed on the side of the Spartans. Thebans attempted to seize the Spartan baggage train, resulting in them being cut off and massacred. When: 394 BC Where (if applicable): Central Greece Significance: Established Spartan supremacy once more on mainland Greece. It could be said, though, that Agesilaus and his leadership (metis) was what held the Spartans together and allowed them to keep winning. When he was not in command (e.g. at Leuctra) the Spartans were less successful.

Eutaxia

Who/What: Discipline and orderliness, specifically in this context within the army. Not necessarily towards one's superiors, but towards their fellow soldiers (e.g. The Ten Thousand). When: Cunaxa (related to The Ten Thousand) in 401 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Speaks to the egalitarian nature of the phalanx, and how it was (ideally, in theory) self-regulating. Specifically, the soldiers themselves kept each other in line, both outside and on the battlefield.

Companion Cavalry

Who/What: Elite heavy horse guard composed of the personal companions of Alexander (more generally, the leader of an army) When: 4th century BC onward Where (if applicable): Macedonia/Greece Significance: Cavalry is now sufficiently developed and effective for this to be worthwhile. Signifies a shift of heroic hierarchy from the phalanx to the cavalry charge, prompted by Alexander's love and development of the cavalry - the cavalry now shares in andreia. The general's companions still fight with him, but they fight with him on horseback instead of in the phalanx. Cavalry now gains a heroic reputation (as opposed to their utterly rotten reputation before Alexander).

Hypaspists

Who/What: Elite infantry, personal bodyguard of Phillip II and later Alexander (although Alexander preferred companion cavalry) When: 340s-330s BC onward Where (if applicable): Macedonia Significance: Like the special forces (navy seals) of Alexander's army, though their exact function remains unknown, except for that they were distinct from the main body of the infantry. More versatile and flexible than your average Macedonian soldier, perhaps because they weren't equipped with a sarissa. Shows the specialization instigated by Philip which took the largely homogenous Greek army and turned it into a complex organism with many interlocking parts, of which the Hypaspists were just a part.

Iliad

Who/What: Epic war poem composed by Homer describing the feud between Greek leaders in the siege of Troy, in particular the quarrel between Achilles and Agamemnon When: Trojan War took place sometime in the 12th century BC; the Iliad concerns events in the 9th year of the 10 year war. Homer lived during 8th or 9th century BC, but the Iliad may not have reached its final form until 700 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Had an impact on the manner and style of later war poems and stories, concerns Greek concepts of bravery, also indicates the emerging formalism for telling battle stories that would emerge time and time again with later authors (array, speech, combat, weighing of sides, results)

Battle of Thermopylae

Who/What: Famous battle led by Spartan King Leonidas and his 300 Spartans against the Persians led by Xerxes. Failure for the Spartans but served as a key rallying cry for the allied Greek forces. Halted the Persian advance and prevented the overrunning of Greece by the Persians When: 480 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Illustrates the ways in which tradition could get in the way of military practicality (the rest of Greece and Sparta were at peace during the Olympic games, even though they were about to be overrun by Persians). Legendary battle which would inspire generations of later hoplites.

Homer

Who/What: First and the greatest of the Greek epic poets, who composed the epic poems The Iliad and The Odyssey, describing the course and aftermath of the Trojan War When: Lived sometime during the 8th or 9th century (ca. 750 BC) Where (if applicable): Native of Ionia? Significance: His work had an incredibly significant impact on the course and nature of Greek warfare for several centuries after his time, influencing Greek ideas of honor, the andreia/metis dichotomy, and siege warfare, among many others. Also impacted the form of later war historians (Thucydides, Herodotus). Additionally, he is considered the 'teacher of the Greeks'

Battle of Granicus

Who/What: First of Alexander's 4 great battles against the Persians When: 334 BCE Where (if applicable): Granicus River Significance: Between Memnon, Greek general of the Persians, and Alexander. Alexander and Memnon marshal on opposite banks of the Granicus. Alexander follows the first charge of his troops with a cavalry charge straight for the Persian commanders, turning this into a cavalry battle. The Macedonian phalanx charges and holds the rest of the Persian host while Alexander and his cavalry engage the heavy Persian arms; the Persian phalanx breaks and then the two cavalry wings. First great victory of the pan-Hellenic alliance formed by Phillip and later Alexander; first YOLO companion-cavalry charge victory of Alexander (not counting Halicarnassus, which was arguably an infantry and cavalry charge). Could be counted as a display of Alexander's hammer-and-anvil tactics; could also be that Alexander is a) rash, b) the possessor of the finest infantry force in the world, and consequently c) an absurdly lucky bastard. Adds to Alexander's heroic image. Maybe a victory of sheer luck, some say it was Alexander's hand combat. He used cavalry. He came across like an Iliadic hero.

Phalanges (In Homer)

Who/What: Formations that the armies were arrayed into, though this essentially falls apart as soon as the battle starts based on Homer's descriptions; especially if the leader dies When: Depicted in Homer's rendition of the Trojan War, ~1200 BC, but likely also dates from close to Homer's time, ~800 BC, as well Where (if applicable): Significance: Speaks both to the emergence of army formations in Homer's time (even though they did not persist in battle) that might hint at the later development of the phalanx. Also shows the distinct division between the array and the battle phases of ancient battle descriptions.

Epaminondas

Who/What: General of Thebes who was victorious at the Battle of Leuctra. Established a number of forts to bar Sparta's northwestward communications. Oversaw the ascendancy of Thebes over Sparta. When: died in 362 BCE at Mantinea, Battle of Leuctra in 371 BCE Where (if applicable): Significance: Led Thebes to victory in the Battle of Leuctra, and oversaw its ascendancy as a major power in Greece. After his death, however, Thebes fell into rapid decline. Shows the emerging significance of individual generals in the success and status of their city-states (parallel to Agesilaus). Tactics, strategies, and generalship were vital to the influence and development of Philip II of Macedon's new type of army

Areté-ai

Who/What: Greek competitive excellence. Arete means "the best". Display of Homeric virtues: strength, skill, physical courage, fleetness of foot, cunning, wisdom, persuasiveness in council, and metis. Like your "leaderboard rank". Could also refer to epithets which describe a hero, e.g. "fleetest of foot", etc. Those who have a lot of areté are considered virtuous and aristocratic When: Homeric period, ~800 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Encompasses the nature of Homeric virtue. Individuals were basically ranked (similar to how Greek city-states and their armies, i.e. collective entities, would be ranked in later periods) based on their individual virtues. Resurfaces in, for example, Alexander's army.

Memnon

Who/What: Greek mercenary captain in Persian service When: 380-333 BCE, Granicus in 334 BCE Where (if applicable): Significance: Fought and lost against Alexander during Battle of Granicus; his thoroughly sound infantry strategy and avoidance of pitched battle was not enough to withstand the first of Alexander's YOLO cavalry charges. Implemented a strategy to lay waste to the land in front of Alexander's path to prevent him from feeding his troops (would have been very effective we can imagine) and to raise the Greek city-states (Athens and Sparta and allies) against him. Arguable that he could have put a stop to Alexander's entire enterprise if he was not killed prematurely.

Arrian

Who/What: Greek military historian, student of Epictetus. When: 86-160 A.D. Where (if applicable): Anatolia, Nicopolis, Athens Significance: Author of the Anabasis Alexandrou, the fullest account of Alexander's conquest of the Persian Empire that we have. Reasonably realistic, but adheres to a set structure of battle depiction and portrayal of Alexander typical of the time but not entirely accurate. Arrian represents Alexander as a brilliant Achillean general.

Alcibiades

Who/What: Greek statesman and general who led the Athenians at the first Battle of Mantinea, and then defected to the Spartans because of fear of political enemies in Athens. Switched sides multiple times throughout the course of the Peloponnesian War, usually after making powerful enemies with whichever side he chose. Known for practicing deceitful and cunning tactics. (Also involved/implicated in the "mutilation of the Herms", a quite amusing conspiracy theory of sorts which preceded the disastrous Athenian campaign in Sicily) When: First Mantinea in 418 BC, Decelea in 413 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Shows just how significant metis could be in the weighing of a leader, as even though he defected several times from side to side, he was still accepted due to his skill as a military general.

Themistocles

Who/What: Greek statesman who deceived the Greeks into fighting at Salamis (to align with Athenian interests) by inducing Xerxes to attack early and close them off. Also helped coerce the Greeks into fighting at Plataea the next year When: Salamis 480 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: The embodiment of metis. Illustrates, more than any other during this period, how metis tactics could be utilized (as well as how extreme they could be) to achieve victory, showing in stark contrast with the Homeric era that they had become very significant to success as a military leader.

The Ten Thousand

Who/What: Group of troops inherited by Xenophon who were trapped in the Persian empire after their leaders were killed (Cyrus). Under his leadership, they managed to make the march back to Greece by living off of the land (had no baggage train). When: Cunaxa in 401 BC Where (if applicable): Modern day Turkey Significance: Their ability to make their way back to Greece without having any supplies/baggage train indicates the feasibility of such a thing, allowing us to better understand the nature of how Alexander was able to accomplish his great conquests (also throws some doubt on Engels's conclusions in his work).

Pericles

Who/What: Influential Greek statesman and military leader who convinced the rest of Athens to stay within their walls when Sparta invaded in 431 BC, and who led the cause to pursue other means of retribution (i.e. naval raids on coastal towns). When: Sparta invaded in 431 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Shows how relatively easily the "game" of hoplite virtue and ranking could be manipulated (or arguably refused to be played entirely). Since Pericles knew it would be suicidal to face Sparta head-on, he decided to conduct naval raids instead, refusing to play the standard "game" of hoplite glory.

Sarissa

Who/What: Invention/innovation by Philip II when he redesigned and modified the Macedonian phalanx; it was an extremely long spear that gave the Macedonians about double the reach; downsides were that it had to be made out of special wood that could hold the additional weight, impeded the use of handheld shields, and required almost perfect coordination/spacing in the phalanx to keep from tangling the spears and allowing for holes to form in the front ranks When: invented during King Philip's reign, 359-336 BC, and used throughout Alexander's conquests Where (if applicable): Macedonian army Significance: allowed more ranks further back into the phalanx to contribute to fighting on the front line, thereby maximizing more of the power of their whole infantry compared to the traditional Greek phalanx which only allowed for the first two or three rows to be actually involved in the face-to-face fighting

Sphacteria

Who/What: Island which was occupied by the Spartans before being besieged by the Athenians. Athenians were very successful in their use of light troops like peltasts (also armed their rowers with stones to throw), causing the Spartans to become so demoralized and beaten as to surrender rather than die heroically. When: 425 BC Where (if applicable): Western Peloponnese (next to Pylos) Significance: Shows the incredible effectiveness of light troops and peltasts against hoplite forces. Also sheds some light on the quirks of the hoplite honor system; even though the Spartans (uncharacteristically) surrendered, they were able to dismiss this incredibly dishonorable act through the excuse that the enemy had not faced them in a "fair" battle, therefore it did not count.

Philip II

Who/What: King of Macedon from 359-336 BC, father of Alexander the Great, accomplished military tactician and commander who led many campaigns that laid the foundation of Macedonian territory and its political position in the Aegean, particularly among the Greek city-states, by the time he died and Alexander succeeded him When: 382-336 BC, died by assassination Where (if applicable): Macedon Significance: the mastermind behind the innovative and powerful Macedonian phalanx that would eventually lead his son Alexander to victory after victory, responsible for its extensive training, their reinvented staggered/sawtooth formation, its use of peltasts (light infantry), the wedge formation of the cavalry spearheaded by fierce leaders (such as Alexander), and the sarissas and telamon shields (strap-on shields like Ajax's from the Iliad) they used; conquered and attempted to align much of Greece under his leadership after winning the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 before he was assassinated

Darius III

Who/What: King of Persia, last king of the Achaemenid empire When: 380-330 BC Where (if applicable): Persia Significance: Longtime opponent of and eventually defeated by Alexander the Great. Despite catching Alexander off-guard and outnumbering him two-to-one at Issus (333 BC), he turned and fled at Alexander's heroic cavalry charge, thus handing him the victory by heroic standards of war. Darius fled so fast Alexander captured his entire family. He repeats the same mistake at Gaugamela (331 BC) - despite having double the troops and enjoying a defensive position, he is again spooked so much by Alexander's cavalry charge that he yields the palm once more. Alexander then sacks Persepolis; Darius offers him everything west of the Euphrates; Alexander holds out for the entire empire and gets it.

Battle of Thyrea

Who/What: Legendary battle between the Spartans and Argives, of which only 2 Argives and one Spartan, Othryades, survived, with the Spartan erecting a monument to his fallen comrades and taking up a place in his taxis from the previous morning overnight. When: 546 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Illustrates very well the importance and nature of hoplite virtue and maintaining one's taxis. Arguably, what Othryades did was likely all he could have done to avoid scorn from all of Sparta for not dying with his comrades. Also shows how the ability to erect a monument (trophy) to the fallen dead and to have control over the battlefield was the true measure of victory in battle.

Kakos

Who/What: Like every form of bad packed into one; cowardice, weakness, evil, etc. When: 1200-800 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Displays the dichotomy in Homeric times between "good" and "bad" men. Those who were skilled at fighting (and were therefore heroes) were deemed as being endowed with those skills from birth (i.e., not necessarily learned), unlike in later periods where the idea that martial skill could be learned (i.e., the hoplomachos). Additionally, shows the importance of fighting because those who were not good soldiers were inherently evil and ugly.

Agathos

Who/What: Literally being "good". All-encompassing package of athleticism, kindness, intelligence, bravery, morality, strong, highborn, rich, noble, etc. The exact opposite of Kakos. When: Homeric period, ~800 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Again, indicates the Homeric idea that there was a stark contrast between "good" and "bad" people, and that this contrast was not necessarily learned but in some sense was endowed onto a person when they were born; morality is inherently tied with skill in battle

Xenophon

Who/What: Military commander of outstanding ability who wrote the Hellenica. Our most valuable authority for the greater part of the period of the 4th century BC. Perhaps best known for leading the Ten Thousand out of the heart of the Persian Empire after the death of Cyrus at Cunaxa. When: Wrote his histories down to 362 BC. Cunaxa in 401 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: His utilization of military tactics (e.g. splitting his force up into smaller groups to accomplish specific tasks, flexibility) reflects another piece of the puzzle which was emerging during this period (also including peltats, cavalry). All of this would come together with Alexander.

Hoplomachus

Who/What: Military tutor that taught rich young men hoplite techniques. Gained acceptance by the Greeks over time. When:5th century BCE Where (if applicable): Athens Significance: Idea that military prowess could be taught and learned (in stark opposition to the prior Athenian ideas that arete and andreia were inherent to the kaloi kagathoi, and thus mostly inaccessible to the low-born), more readily available to the wealthy (not public). Indicates the need as time went on for soldiers (at least in some parts of the army) to be professionally trained (e.g. Theban Sacred Band), at least for the non-Spartans.

Siege of Syracuse

Who/What: Most significant and grandiose siege during the period of the Peloponnesian War. Ended catastrophically for the Athenians (besiegers). Siege wall was constructed, land communication cut off, blockade by sea. Northern gap in the Athenian walls was abused by the defenders to get troops and supplies into the besieged. When: Ended in 413 BC Where (if applicable): Eastern coast of Sicily (island south of Italy) Significance: Thwarted Athens's dreams of westward expansion and shows the increasing complexity of siege warfare, utilizing increasingly complex technologies (rather than just attempting some treacherous plot as in the Iliad). The failure of the Sicilian campaign as a whole severely weakened Athens and put it in a downward spiral into its ultimate defeat. So, this was a turning point of sorts in the war.

Battle of Cyzicus

Who/What: Naval battle between the Athenians (led by Alcibiades) and Spartans (led by Mindarus), prompted by the Spartans attempting to encroach on Athenian colonies in Asia minor (with support from their Persian allies) after the Athenian disaster in Sicily caused many of them to defect. Alcibiades utilizes naval tactics to instigate a favorable battle, resulting in Athenian victory. When: 410 BC Where (if applicable): Near the Hellespont, north coast of Asia Minor Significance: Reflects on the new significance of naval combat, even for Sparta (which historically was entirely land-based). Sparta's alliance with Persia (their mortal enemy in the same century) also shows their adoption of military strategy.

Battle of Artemisium

Who/What: Naval battle fought between the Greeks and Persians in conjunction with Thermopylae. The Greeks form a defensive circle formation and repel the Persians, and the Persians lose a large number of their ships in a storm. When: 480 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Illustrates the need for sea combat to accompany land warfare (emergence of metis). Also reduced the number of Persian ships to more reasonable numbers such that a sea battle (Salamis) could realistically be fought and won later on.

Periplous (periplus)

Who/What: Naval maneuver which involved outflanking the enemy and ramming into the ships on the extreme side of their line. Usually utilized by the side with greater numbers (or a wider line). When: Utilized during Salamis, 480 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Shows the stark contrast between hoplite warfare (where flanking was not used during this period) and naval warfare (where flanking was a key maneuver to disrupt the enemy formation), Illustrates how/why metis could come to be associated with naval warfare and andreia with land warfare.

Hoplitodromos

Who/What: Olympic race in hoplite panoply (helmet and shield). May have served a military training purpose. When: Established as an olympic contest in 520 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Gives us some insight into the association between hoplites and emphasis on physical endurance, perhaps related to the charge which took place before most hoplite battles (except with the Spartans). Also relates hoplite combat to the idea of rule-bound "fairness" (agonism), and the relationship between hoplite combats and games/competitions to test physical skill and endurance (i.e. the Olympic Games).

Mora

Who/What: One of the six subdivisions of the Spartan army, according to Xenophon. Largest subdivision. Led by a polemarch When: Where (if applicable): Significance: Similar to lochos, displays the regimented structure of the Spartan army and the emphasis that they placed on the unity and cohesion of that army in battle, such that the line would not break.

Mardonius

Who/What: Persian general who was left by Xerxes to attempt to conquer the Greeks after Xerxes fled back to Persia. Was ultimately defeated at Plataea after attempting to face the Greeks in a "fair", phalanx battle, even though his troops were woefully unprepared for such an encounter. When: Plataea (and his death) in 479 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: His insistence on fighting the Greeks squarely (andreia) shows how their fighting virtues could permeate into other cultures and inform their military decisions as well. His failure to utilize metis to strive for victory, resulting in his defeat, also points to the importance of metis as a virtue for Greek generals.

Darius

Who/What: Persian king, father of Xerxes, who commanded Persian forces at the Battle of Marathon which was a loss. Oversaw a period during which the Persian empire was massive and expanding, looking for new land in places like Greece. When: Marathon in 490 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Instigated the threat of Persia against Greece, which Xerxes would later follow up on. His loss at Marathon would delay Persian advance into Greece for another decade.

Spartan hippeis

Who/What: Royal guard of honor for the king. Despite their name (literally meaning "cavalrymen"), they were infantry hoplites like the rest of the Spartan army, which only adopted cavalry late into the Peloponnesian War. The only force that the king directly commanded When: Leonidas's hippeis accompanied him to Thermopylae in 480 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Displays how averse to cavalry the Greeks (especially the Spartans) were. Reflects on how glory in the classical hoplite system was won through hoplite combat only, not through cavalry, and how this aspect largely prevented the development of cavalry in Greek armies for centuries.

Rhombus

Who/What: Shape of the formation of Thessalian horsemen, invented by Jason of Pherae. Offered the advantage of the wedge formation, to penetrate into enemy troops, and added security in the flank and rear, with leaders at all four corners. Extremely maneuverable and easily changed to fit the situation at hand, but required very exact drilling. When: Jason of Pherae died 370 BC Where (if applicable): Thessaly, northern Greece Significance: Precursor to the adoption of cavalry by Philip and Alexander, although Philip opted for the wedge rather than the rhombus to avoid "wasting" troops in the back. Also points to the increasing necessity of regular military training for armies to use the most effective tactics (parallel to the use of the sarissa), which requires that soldiers train professionally, in stark contrast to hoplite tradition.

Trireme

Who/What: Ship with three oar-banks to provide as much speed and power through the water as possible. Very long, normally around 200 crew members. Had no provisions or places to sleep, had to be beached every night. When: Used during the Great Persian War, 480-479 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: The fact that it had to be beached every night (and therefore could not go very far at all into open water) dictated largely the naval strategy during the Persian Wars and beyond; being forced to hug the coast allowed for choke-points like Artemisium and Salamis to be used as sites for battles. Also illustrates the advances in naval technology during this period, showing the importance of sea (metis) tactics.

Siege of Halicarnassus

Who/What: Siege by Alexander's troops of Persian-controlled Halicarnassus When: 334 BC (right before Issus) Where (if applicable): Halicarnassus, Anatolia (modern-day Turkey, kind of a ways down the coast from Istanbul) Significance: First successful Greek siege, kinda-sorta! Siege engines and ballistae are now a thing! Memnon of Rhodes (Greek mercenary and infantry strategist in the employ of Darius III) entrenches in Halicarnassus; Alexander besieges the city, attempts to gain access through spies; when this fails, he attacks the city head-on. Memnon responds with catapults, causing Alexander to fall back slightly; Memnon then shifts to infantry, but in the intervening delay Alexander seizes the advantage, breaks through the city walls, and surprises Memnon's infantry. Memnon sets fire to the city and escapes. Alexander puts Ada of Caria (deposed by Pixodarus) back in charge; she formally adopts him as her son, ensuring his eventual possession of Caria. This is typical of Alexander's strategy of bringing disgruntled into his fold to ensure the stability of his empire - for minor leaders, it is better to befriend than to crush.

Pylos

Who/What: Site in Spartan territory where the Athenian fleet put a landing party to build a fort to draw away Spartan helots to join their side. Caused Spartans to withdraw from Attica to address the threat and lay siege to the fort. When: 425 BC Where (if applicable): Western Peloponnese Significance: Shows the effectiveness of the Athenian strategy of avoiding Spartan might by utilizing their navy (metis) to draw them out. The fact that it turned into a siege (which the Spartans were pretty bad at) shows how effectiveness at siege warfare became increasingly important as battles shifted away from the traditional "fair" classical model on an open field.

Decelea

Who/What: Small town north of Athens which was occupied by the Spartans as a permanent base at the suggestion of Alcibiades to allow for constant attacks to be made against the Athenians, severely disrupting the land supply lines of the Athenians. Direct counter to the fort at Pylos: attracted Athenian slaves from the mines to defect. When: Occupied in 413 BC Where (if applicable): ~15 miles north of Athens (basically on top of it) Significance: Shows how the Spartans over time also began to adopt metis tactics in a similar method to what the Athenians had been doing. Shows how the nature of warfare had shifted for good away from the old, classical hoplite warfare system.

Alexander the Great

Who/What: Son of Phillip II of Macedon, heir to his army and his empire, conqueror of everything from Macedonia to the Indus River. When: 356-323 BC Where (if applicable): Macedon Significance: Tutored by Aristotle and succeeded Phillip II at the age of 20; took his father's military machine and ran with it for the successful conquest of a vast empire (to the Indus River Valley where he conquered Porus); oversaw the introduction of elephants to Greek warfare and the development and use of the long-neglected cavalry; famed for his love of the heroic cavalry charge (introducing andreia to the hippeis), by which technique he won all his battles against Darius III of Persia. Well-known for his godlike imagecraft and live-action role-playing of Achilles (with his intimate companion Haephestion as Patroclus) - dressed up as Achilles at Troy, laid garlands on his grave, and ran a footrace with Haephestion. Spread Greek culture throughout the vast Macedonian Empire, introducing the Hellenistic period. Died heirless at the age of 32, leaving a power vacuum; eventually succeeded by Demetrius Poliorcetes. Unified the Greeks in the League of Corinth; this united confederation allowed him his success in his conquest of Persia.

Lysander

Who/What: Spartan commander who took the opportunity after the Athenian defeat at Syracuse to build up a Spartan navy, as well as allying with the Persians. Skilled and cunning tactician. Ultimately defeated the Athenians at Aegospotami, putting an end to the Peloponnesian War. When: Aegospotami 405 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Shows the significance of guile and cunning in a military commander (not just tactical skill), which was ultimately necessary to defeat the Athenians at Aegospotami and end the war. Could be said to be the triumph of metis over Andriea.

Leonidas

Who/What: Spartan king who famously made his last stand with his 300 bodyguards at Thermopylae. When: Thermopylae 490 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: His decision to send his meager forces to fight and die at Thermopylae had a significant impact on the whole of Greece, stalling for time and allowing for preparations to be made before the Persians could roll over the entirety of Greece. Also illustrates how the virtue of andreia (staying in one's place) could be applied to the macro-scale, as per his decision for him and his 300 to stay put and die in Thermopylae. Similar to Amompharetus (and he probably took inspiration from Leonidas) except Leonidas is generally seen much more positively.

Agesilaus

Who/What: Spartan king who superseded Lysander after the Peloponnesian War. Utilized cavalry and was willing to use metis tactics for his victory. Re-employed many of the veterans from the Ten Thousand. Lived to 84. When: Fought at Second Mantinea, 362 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: His death marked the end of Sparta's military dominance (which had already been seriously questioned and on the decline after Leuctra), which was mainly achieved increasingly through his own military expertise.

Amompharetus

Who/What: Spartan officers who refused to leave his post before the Battle of Plataea, even when Pausanias ordered a retreat. Resulted in the beginning of the battle, which was ultimately a Greek victory When: Plataea 479 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Illustrates the tension between metis (strategy) and andreia (courage), and how the virtue of andreia could be interpreted to the macro-scale (i.e., before the battle had even started). Shows the power of hoplite virtue and how it dramatically affected the course of Greek battles.

Pausanias

Who/What: Spartan regent, nephew of Leonidas. Leading commander who won against Mardonius at the Battle of Plataea, effectively ending the Persian Wars. When: Plataea 479 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Illustrates how significant leadership of the army could be (perhaps part of the reason Amompharetus refused to listen to him is because he was not an actual king). Also shows how metis tactics (i.e. his original decision to retreat at Plataea) were viewed as acceptable during this period if they were not during battle. Shows the contrast between cunning metis tactics (before battle) and andreia tactics (during battle).

Othryades

Who/What: Spartan soldier who famously was the only one left of the 300 who fought at Thyrea. Erected a monument to his fallen comrades with their armor after being left for dead, and then took up his taxis in the phalanx to await the dawn. When: Thyrea in 546 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Speaks to the nature of hoplite combat, where "winning" a battle came down to control over the bodies and "admitting guilt" by having to send an oracle to request the ability to bury the bodies. Also illustrates the importance of the taxis (and not leaving one's taxis).

Diekplous (diekplus)

Who/What: Strategy which called for a more skillful rowing crew in which a single-file line of ships approaches the enemy (vertical) line before singling one ship out to break the line by ramming into its side, shearing off its oars and allowing it to be destroyed. Countered by the enemy forming more than one (vertical) line such that it would be suicidal for a ship to plunge into the first line to break it up. This, of course, leaves the enemy line shorter and vulnerable to periplous When: Utilized at Salamis, 480 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Shows both the skillful rowing ability (could be considered a techne? Even though the rowers were slaves) required for advanced naval tactics (metis) as well as how naval strategies could develop and be used to counter each other (i.e. how forming multiple lines to counter a diekplous leaves a formation vulnerable to periplous).

Dendra panoply

Who/What: Suit of metal armor excavated at Dendra. Consists of a helmet of leather with boar's tusks, and a very heavy and large body piece with inflexible shoulders. Only of its kind we've found When: Come from around 1400 BC Where (if applicable): Found at Dendra near Mycenae Significance: Pokes holes in our conception of early Mycenaean warfare, as it would imply that there was a need for heavy (inconvenient) armor during this period, where our general conception is that men during this period were lightly armored as to promote agility

Linear-B Tablets

Who/What: Tablets discovered by Sir Arthur Evans in the Palace of Knossos. Mostly catalogs referring to chariots among other things. - Linear-B refers to the script used on these tablets When: Fired when the palace was burned down around 1150 BC Where (if applicable): Discovered in the Palace of Knossos at Pylos Significance: Reveal to us the significance of chariots, and the sheer number of these that were present in the later Mycenaean times. Shows the evolution of warfare over the Mycenaean period, and the emergence of organized and dynamic warfare in the later period that is marked in part by the large-scale use of chariots; additionally these written records and the diagrams that came with them brought Mycenaen culture out from the prehistoric phase, even though they do not carry historical records

Tropé

Who/What: The place on the battlefield where the losing side began to turn and flee. Mass disorganization because when one part fled, the whole army would. This is where the trophy would later be placed. When: Where (if applicable): Significance: Another ritualistic part of hoplite battle that emphasizes their focus on tradition and heroism, the shame that comes with fleeing.

Sacred Band

Who/What: Theban professional elite corps which charged at the head of the Theban phalanx at the Battle of Leuctra. Composed of 300 men, traditionally homosexual lovers. Refused to retreat at Chaeronea and died to a man. When: Leuctra in 371 BC, Chaeronea 338 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Reflects the general trend during this period towards regularly trained, professional troops (for city-states other than Sparta), for at least a part of a city's army. Adherence to some traditional hoplite principles of honor/heroism (like refusing to retear) reveals important consistency amidst a rapidly changing world of warfare

Jason of Pherae

Who/What: Thessalian ruler who made massive military preparations, alarming the whole of Greece, before he was cut short by assassination. Predecessor to Philip II of Macedon. Organizes the rhombus formation to great success against hoplite armies, demonstrating the effectiveness of cavalry. When: Assassinated in 370 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Prelude to the massive innovations of Philip II. Eludes to one major element (cavalry) which was just beginning to emerge in the Greek consciousness as a major element of a successful army. Also displays how the despotic governments of northern Greece could muster troops on a much grander scale than could the independent city states of central and southern Greece (to be seen later in more concreteness with Philip/Alexander/Hellenistic period).

Peltast

Who/What: Type of soldier who threw javelins and was lightly armed. The best were from Thessaly. Named after their particular type of shield, pelta, which was crescent shaped. Caused a lot of trouble for hoplites, who usually could not reach them in hand-to-hand combat. When: Sphacteria in 425 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Troop type that acted effectively as a counter to hoplites. Shows the emergence/development of armies and how the age of homogenous hoplite forces had ended. Also shows the gradual adoption of military strategies from other regions (i.e. Thessaly).

Syntagma

Who/What: Unit of 256 hoplites in the Macedonian phalanx (16 ranks of 16 files of men, staggered for layers of sarissae) When: 340s BC Where (if applicable): Macedonia, later Greece Significance: One of many military reforms instituted by Phillip II of Macedon. Syntagma were well-drilled units of professional soldiers equipped with sarissae of increasing length in a saw-toothed arrangement (i.e. five ranks of spears instead of just one). Led by a syntagmatarch. Used to hold enemy in place (the anvil) while other forces (heavy cavalry, hypastists, light cavalry, peltasts, etc.) attacked (hammer). First time the phalanx model had been changed, with great success; signals also a change in the status of the phalanx from the main military organ to the exclusion of all else to one of many moving parts.

Battle of Arginusae

Who/What: Victory won by the Athenians against the Spartans and their allies. The Athenians deployed a double line to guard against diekplous maneuvers, as they were no longer confident about their naval superiority against the Spartans. Athenians still suffered substantial losses after a storm prevented them from rescuing their wrecked survivors. When: 406 BC Where (if applicable): West coast of Asia Minor, near the island of Lesbos Significance: The first time where the Spartan naval forces exceeded the Athenians in naval skill, requiring the Athenians to double up their line. Along with Cyzicus, illustrates how important naval strength had become between the Athenians and the Spartans, a race in which the Spartans were catching up.

Metis

Who/What: Virtue of cunning, deceit, and tactics, associated with Odyssseus. Stands in stark contrast to the virtue of andreia. Increasingly utilized by later military leaders and armies, e.g. Alcibiades, Agesilaus. When: Where (if applicable): Significance: One of the most significant ideas in understanding the nature of Greek warfare. Metis at first was admired but not upheld to nearly the same degree as andreia (i.e. in Homer's time), but over time became a trait prized in the strategies of military leaders (i.e. Themistocles) and eventually to battlefield tactics (i.e. Pagondas, Hellenistic generals). Tells us that over time, the ability of a general to employ strategy and outsmart their opponent became increasingly important as a metric of determining effectiveness.

Trojan War

Who/What: War between the Greeks and the Trojans. Took place over the course of around 10 years, ended after a feud with Greek leaders Achilles and Agamemnon, detailed in the Iliad When: Around 12th century BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Ended with an act of treachery (metis), not attrition or advanced siege machinery, setting the standard in Greek siege warfare for centuries to come (i.e. Aeneas Tacitus)

Chariot

Who/What: War vehicle drawn by horses (usually 2) and used in combat. Normal purpose was to transport a fully armed warrior into battle and drop him off, but they inevitable got involved in the fighting somewhat When: Used during the Trojan War, 12th century BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Their primary use as transport for fully armed, wealthy heroes shows the dramatic difference between Homeric combat and the later classical hoplite period, where leaders were expected to march and fight with their men. Illustrates the distinction between Homeric combat and its individualistic, honor-seeking approach and classical hoplite warfare with its collaborative, collective glory.

Taxis

Who/What: Word for "post", more specifically the post of a soldier in the phalanx. For example, used to describe Leonidas's stand at Thermopylae, refusing to leave his taxis When: Thermopylae in 480 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Very important to understanding hoplite virtue; leaving one's taxis (taking a step back) in battle was seen as a very poor reflection on one's courage. Helps to understand, for example, Leonidas's stand at Thermopylae and Amompharetus refusing to leave his post before Plataea.

Timé

Who/What: Worthiness, high rank, honor, worth. Provided by individual fighting with other heroes. Like the total "glory XP" - net sum of your kleos (individual 'XP'), arete (ranking), and kakos When: During Homer's time, ~800 BC Where (if applicable): Significance: Stark contrast with the later perception of worthiness and glory (cooperation in the phalanx rather than individual combat). Forms the crux of the Homeric ideal of honor and rank.

Agamemnon (=son of Atrus, Atreides)

Who/what: King of Macedonia who commanded the Greeks during the Trojan War When: 12th century bce Where: Troy Significance: He is presented as a great warrior but selfish ruler, famously upsetting his invincible champion Achilles and so prolonging the war and suffering of his men. As well as, starting it in the first place.