GRY 135 Weather & Climate-Exam 1 Study Guide

Climate Change

A change in global or regional climate patterns; long-term continuous change (increase or decrease) to average weather conditions or the range of weather

Qualitative Climatology

A way by which visual & sensed observations about nature are made without instruments

Quantitative Climatology

A way by which weather elements can be measured & quantified by instruments from one day to another

Energy

Ability to do work on some form of matter

What is the enviornmental lapse rate?

Actual lapse rate; can deviate considerably depending on weather conditions

What is air convection?

Ascending air currents

Where is the altitude of maximum concentration of ozone?

-23-25 km above the ground -Stratosphere

Climatic Normal

-30 year yardstick used to characterize the climate of a region (the use of the time period 1981-2010 as the new climatic year was adopted...to evaluate if the years 2011-2020 will be "above" or "below" normal)

Mesosphere

-50-80km altitude -Temp decreases w/height -Air is thin & pressure is low -High UV radiation -Noctilucent clouds(composed of ice crystals) can form -At 85km, reaches lowest temp -Most meteors burn up in this layer -Upper boundary is the mesopause

What is the normal lapse rate?

-6.4 C/1000m -3.5 F/1000ft -It is an average

Where is the ionosphere located?

-60-500km -Lower part of the Mesosphere & throughout the entire Thermosphere

Heterosphere

-80-480 km in altitude -Concentration of permanent gases is not uniform

Thermosphere

-80-480km altitude -Temp increases w/height -Temp depends on the level of sun activity -High energy particles break apart into ions

What is an inversion layer?

-A layer of the atmosphere where temperature increases w/height -Takes place in the lower stratosphere

What is a climate system?

-An interactive system consisting of 5 major components:The atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the land surface, & the biosphere -Influenced by the sun

Kinetic Energy

-Any moving substance possesses energy of motion -The faster air molecules move, the greater are their kinetic energy -KE=mv^2

Ozone

-At the surface, it is the main ingredient of photochemical smog (pollution that irritates the eyes & throat & damages vegetation) -In the stratosphere, protects life from harmful UV radiation -Variable gas

What is ionization?

-Atoms & air molecules lose electrons because of the incoming sun energy(gamma rays, x-rays, shorter wavelengths of UV radiation) -Result:Positively charged ions & free electrons are created

What is the role of climate models?

-Attempt to qualify the mechanism & interactions related to the climate system, & to simulate the many processes that produce climate -To understand how these processes work & to predict the effects of changes, & interactions within the climate system

What is meant by mass exchanges?

-Availability of water vapor in the atmosphere & the return of this water vapor in the form of precipitation to the ground -Ex:Sea Surface Temperatures. Warmer SST=Higher evaporation rate, warm/moist air rises(convection), condensation, cloud development, precipitations

Polar Orbiting Satellite

-Closely follows the Earth's meridian(longitude) lines -Provides detailed photos of individual storms -Sharper images for polar regions -Passes over north/south polar regions on each revolution -As the Earth rotates to the east beneath the satellite, each pass monitors an area to the west of the previous pass. Eventually, the satellite covers the entire Earth

What is the impact of this selective absorption on incoming solar radiation & outgoing long wave radiation?

-None of the gases in the atmosphere are good absorbers of radiation in the visible band -The atmosphere has little absorption in the visible part of the EMS -There is a region between 8 & 11µm (micrometers) where gases in the atmosphere are poor absorbers of outgoing IR radiation (long wave)

Geostationary Satellite

-Orbit the equator at the same rate the Earth spins -Real time data -Tracks Earth's global systems to observe tropical storms & hurricanes

Oxygen

-Permanent gas (20.9% composition in the atmosphere) -Produced by photodissociation:Energy from the Sun(Insolation) splits water vapor(H2O) into hydrogen & oxygen. -Produced by photosynthesis

Nitrogen

-Permanent gas (78.1% composition in the atmosphere) -Gradually became richer during the outgassing phase

Halocarbons

Carbon compounds containing fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine

Where is air density the greatest in the atmosphere?

Ground level

Latent Heat

Heat energy required to change a substance from 1 state to another

Chemical Composition of the Atmosphere

Heterosphere v. Homosphere

What is advection?

Horizontal winds

Natural Climatic Variability

The way climate fluctuates yearly above or below a long-term average value

What is the purpose of using radar in weather & climate?

To obtain a reflected signature of water droplets within a cloud, track severe storms; determine the areas of heavy precipitations & their distance from the transmitter

Internal Energy

Total amount of energy stored in any object

Conduction

Transfer of heat from molecule to molecule within a substance

Water vapor images

Used in regions where there are no clouds to see the distribution of atmospheric moisture in the middle & upper troposphere

Convection

Vertical transfer of heat by the mass movement of air

Why are low clouds generating a different heat signature than high clouds on infra-red imagery?

Warm clouds are low clouds & warmer clouds emit more radiation which makes them show up more

Which gases are transparent to SW radiation?

Water vapor (H2O) & Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Radiosonde

Weather ballon; used to make upper-air observations

Regional Climatology

Weather stations w/similar 30 year climatic normals cover a homogeneous region

What is an isothermal layer?

When temperature change is inexistant

Infra-red radiation refers to long wave radiation; can it also refer to short wave radiation?

Yes because of the sun's very high temperature, most of the radiation is emitted in the high frequency band of EMS(ultraviolet/visible band/near infra-red)

What is meant by energy exchanges?

-Net radiative budget between the Earth's surface & the atmosphere -Ex:Deforestation creates a situation where the SW/LW energy balance is disturbed at ground level

Chemical composition of the current atmosphere

-Nitrogen(78.1%) -Oxygen(20.9%) -Argon(.93%)

Ways methane is added to the atmosphere

-Coal, oil, & natural gas deposits release methane into the atmosphere when these deposits are excavated or drilled (man-made effect) -Breakdown of plant material by certain bacteria in rice paddies (rice cultivation) -Natural wetlands are responsible for the majority of global methane emissions from natural sources. Wetlands provide a habitat conducive to methane-producing bacteria that generates methane during the decomposition of organic material -Termites; methane is produced as part of their digestive processes(2nd largest natural source of methane emissions) -Livestock enteric fermentation(aka cow belching) among domesticated livestock, ruminant animals (cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, & camels) produce significant amounts of methane as a part of their normal digestive processes -In arctic regions, permafrost melting release methane-a direct impact of global warming

Infra-red images

-Cold clouds are high clouds, so the white color typically highlights the colder clouds -Warm clouds are low clouds. Warmer clouds emit more IR radiation, so grayish color highlights the warmer clouds

Stratosphere

-Contains most of the atmospheric zone -Ozone main contribution(absorb most of the ultra-violet rays received from the Sun, aka protection) -Temp increases w/height -In the lower stratosphere, the temperature change is inexistent (Isothermal) & then a temperature inversion takes place -Dominance of advective processes(strong horizontal winds) -Clear sky & high insolation -SINK for man made pollutants & volcanic eruptions -Upper body is the stratopause

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

-Could cause serious problems on the long run as a global warming agent because it has the greatest potential for global warming -Long residence time in the atmosphere (100-200 years) & has cumulative effect -Recognized for their ability to weaken the stratospheric ozone layer & contribute to the Antarctic ozone hole problem Used as: -Coolant in refrigeration plants (Heat pumps), used in refrigerators & air conditioner -Propellant in aerosol cans (banned in the 1980s) -Cleaning electronic equipment -Bubbling agent in some plastic foams, the CFCs being released in the atmosphere during the manufacturing process

First Order Weather Stations

-Designed for specialized climatic measurements -Ex:Airports, forestry research stations, water resources research stations

Air Density

-Determined by the mass of atoms molecules & amount of space between them -Tells us how much matter is present in the given volume

Why is the height of the tropopause different in the polar regions compared to the equatorial region?

-Earths rotational movement on its axis -Great surplus of energy at the equator

Homosphere

-Earths surface to 80km altitude -Concentration of permanent gases is uniform

What is long wave (terrestrial) radiation?

-Energy emitted by the Earth -Ex:Am radio wavs, tv waves, microwaves, infared waves

Radiant Energy

-Energy generated by the sun -Travels in the form of "waves". Energy is released when these waves are absorbed by an object

What is short wave radiation?

-Energy generated from the Sun -Ex:Visible light, x-rays, UV rays

What is a greenhouse gas?

-Gas that contributes to an increase in the Earth's atmospheric & surface temperatures -Ex:Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, ozone, water vapor, nitrous oxide

Chemical composition of the early atmosphere(4.6 billion years ago)

-Hydrogen(63.5%) -Helium(34.9%)

Hygrometer

-Invented 1400 -Leonardo Da Vinci -Measures relative humidity

Anemometer

-Invented 1450 -Leon Batista Alberti -Measures wind speed (velocity)

Barometer

-Invented 1643 -Evangelista Toricelli -Measures atmospheric pressure (changes in surface air pressure)

Psychrometer

-Invented 1825 -Ferdinand August -Measures the relative humidity in the atmosphere using 2 thermometers

Why are atmospheric gasses known as selective absorbers of radiation?

-It absorbs radiation at certain wavelengths & is transparent at other wavelengths -The atmosphere is composed of permanent & variable gasses & each gas behaves differently

What is the Ionosphere?

-It is not a thermal layer -It is an electrified region where ionization takes place

Wien's Law

-Law of Maximum Emission -The wavelength of peak emission varies inversely w/the absolute temperature of the radiating body -Determines at which wavelength the radiation intensity is maximized -Equation:λ max = 2897μmK/T

Planck's Law

-Law of Radiant Emission -The wavelength of propagation depends on the temperature of the emitting body

Stephan-Boltzmann's Law

-Law of Total Energy -Total energy emitted by a body is a function of the temperature of the body raised at the 4th power -Determines the total energy that is emitted by a radiating body -Equation: E=σT4 -Where σ=Stephan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 *10-8 Wm-2 K-4) -T=Temperature of the emitting body

Methane

-Minor greenhouse gas -Variable gas -Chemical lifetime in the atmosphere=12 years(shortest chemical lifetime) -Estimated that man-made activities are responsible for more than 60% of the current global emissions of methane

Nitrous Oxide

-Minor greenhouse gas -Variable gas -Atmospheric lifetime=120 years -1 molecule is about 295 times more efficient as a greenhouse gas than 1 mole of carbon dioxide -The sink is the upper atmosphere(stratosphere) where sunlight decomposes it into nitrogen & oxygen (photochemical reactions). This decomposition process plays an important role in the destruction of the ozone layer

Second Order Weather Stations

-Most common weather station -Basic measurements of temperatures, rainfall, & sometimes relative humidity are taken -Ex:Stevensen station

Water Vapor

-Potent greenhouse gas; has a blanket effect -Most significant variable gas -Spatial variability -Vertical latent heat transfer(vertical energy transfer):From evaporation to condensation; 1)Fundamental component of the hydrologic cycle 2)Leads to cloud formation, development, & precipitations 3)Energy transferred between the ground & the atmosphere is known as Non-radiative vertical energy transfer & is associated w/the total Earth/atmosphere energy budget -Can represent up to 4% of all atmospheric gases in the tropics, but get down to 0.1% in the polar regions -Visible as water droplets (dew, fog, clouds-cumulus) during condensation & ice crystals (frost, ice fog, clouds-cirrus) during deposition -Has a tendency to trap energy within the atmosphere -Contributes to an increase of the Earth's atmospheric & surface temperatures

Which improvements to weather maps are connected to the Polar Front theory?

-Proposed that the main flow into a cyclone was concentrated along 2 lines of air convergence, one ahead of the low & another trailing behind the low -The convergence line ahead of the low became known as the warm front -The trailing convergence zone was referred to as the cold front Areas of clouds & rainfall appeared to be focused along these convergence zones

Synoptic weather

-Provided a better understanding of surface air dynamics; extratropical cyclones & their associated fronts -Improved weather maps(Norwegian Cyclone Model)

Electromagnetic Waves

-Radiant energy travels in the form of waves that releases energy when they are absorbed by an object -Have their name because these waves have electric & magnetic properties

Heat Energy

-Refers to atoms & molecules that comprise all matter -The atoms & molecules are colliding w/one another -The faster the motion (& the frequency of collision), the more heat is generated

Radiation

-Refers to the energy emitted by the Sun, Earth, etc -Type of energy radiated depends on the temperature of the emitting body. The Sun emits (radiates) SW radiation, the Earth emits (radiates) LW radiation

Troposphere

-Region where vertical atmospheric turbulence is prevailing -Dominance of ascending air currents(convection) & descending air currents(subsidence) -Layer where all water vapor & active weather phenomena take place -Wind velocity increases w/height -Decrease in temp w/increasing altitude -Most air pollutants are here -90% of the atmosphere is here -Height of tropopause is not constant -Tropopause:Boundary between the troposphere & stratosphere

Characteristics of the atmosphere

-Semitransparent -Odorless -Mobile -Has a temperature:Refers to the rate of collision between air molecules(friction) -Atmosphere expands when it is hot, contracts when it is cold -Air is compressible -Air has weight

Visible images

-Show the sunlight reflected from a cloud's upper surface -Difficult to distinguish between high/low clouds due to albedo -Must be done during the daytime

How different is the electromagnetic spectrum of the sun compared w/the Earth?

-Sun:Gamma rays, x-rays, UV rays, & visible light -Earth:Infra-red waves, microwaves, tv(FM radio) waves, short wave radio, AM radio waves, & long radio waves

What is the climatic database?

-Surface-based observations(specific point observations) -Ex:Weather stations -Upper-air data(approximately specific point) -Ex:Vertical sounding, radiosonde -Satellite data(orbital observations) -Ex:Wide areal coverage of the globe

Vertical Thermal Structure of the Atmosphere

-Troposphere(cool layer) -Stratosphere(warm layer) -Mesosphere(cool layer) -Thermosphere(warm layer)

Carbon Dioxide

-Variable gas -Temporal variability -Natural component of the atmosphere that represents 0.38% of all the gases -Forest is a sink for this gas -Greenhouse gas efficient at trapping long wave radiation -Traps a portion of the Earth's outgoing energy & returns some of this energy towards the surface(Impact=Global warming) -As the concentration of CO2 increases in the atmosphere, so should the average global temperature on Earth

What is the tropopause?

Boundary between the Troposphere & the Stratosphere

What is subsidence?

Descending air currents

When is ionization more active?

During solar flares

What are the 2 main components associated w/vertical latent heat transfer?

Evaporation & condensation

What is convergence?

Inward circling winds-low pressures

What does a radiosonde measure?

Measure vertical profiles of pressure, temperature, & relative humidity; estimations for dew point & wind flow informations

Air Pressure

Measures the weight of air

Natural & Anthropogenic(man-made) sources of Carbon Dioxide

Natural sources: -Decaying vegetation -Forrest/bush fires -Oceans(decaying processes) -Volcanic eruptions -Exhalation Anthropogenic(man-made) sources: -Burning of fossil fuels -Deforestation

Ways Nitrous Oxide is produced

Natural sources: -Produced naturally in soils during the microbial processes of nitrification & denitrification, & by microbial activities in oceans. Anthropogenic(man-made)sources: -Burning of fossil fuels(transportation sector) -Biomass burning(forest clearance & bushfires) -Chemical industry(nylon production) -Application of nitrogenous fertilizers(agriculture)

What is divergence?

Outward circling winds-high pressure

Composition of the Atmosphere

Permanent gases:Gases that have remained relatively unchanged in concentration for the last 250 million years -Nitrogen-78.1% -Oxygen-20.9% -Argon-.93% -Neon -Helium -Hydrogen -Xenon Variable gases:Gases that are affected by temporal or spatial variations -Water vapor -Carbon dioxide -Methane -Nitrous Oxide -Ozone -Particles -Chlorofluorocarbons {CFCs})

Specific Heat

Quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1 degree Celsius

What is outgassing? What was the contribution of outgassing processes to the second atmosphere of the Earth?

Refrs to the intense volcanism taking place on Earth during the Pre-Cambrian times *led to an increase in the concentration of new gases in the atmosphere:H20, C02, & N2

What is the Koppen's classification based on?

Represented a further development in climatology during 1920-1930's

Potential Energy

Represents the ability to do work

Climatology

Scientific study of climate, specifically trend & cyclical weather conditions taking place over a defined period of time, past, present, or future(long term climatic developments)

Meteorology

Scientific study of the atmosphere that focuses on weather processes & forecasting(short term weather system studies)

Third Order Weather Stations

Seasonal weather station; record rainfall & maximum/minimum temperatures