Guided Notes 5b-6a

Describe the 'new imperialism' at the end of the Industrial Revolution. Who is involved? Where are they taking over and why?

The "New Imperialism": After the Industrial Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, Britain was the leading economic power throughout the first half of the 19th century and already had a sizable colonial empire. Its colonies provided raw materials such as cotton, wool, jute, vegetable oils, and rubber for its factories, as well as foodstuffs such as wheat, tea, coffee, cocoa, meat, and butter for its growing cities. Its colonies—especially settler colonies such as Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa—also provided markets for British manufactured goods. As the Second Industrial Revolution progressed, other nations began to challenge Britain's economic lead. They looked to Asia, Africa, and the Pacific to expand their markets, provide raw materials for their factories, and food for their growing urban populations.

Effect on Mass Culture: A rise in living standards for some led to a culture of ... and .... Why did producers begin to advertise in the 1800s? Describe why companies encouraged employees to play sports? Why did material goods and leisure entertainment become important at this time?

A culture of consumerism as well as of leisure developed among the working and middle classes of society in Great Britain, and for some people, living standards rose. Consumption needed to keep up with production, so producers began to advertise heavily, particularly to the middle class whose members had some disposable income, money that can be spent on nonessential goods. Leisure activities such as biking and boating became popular during the late 1800s. Companies encouraged their workers to participate in athletics, because they believed that sports rewarded virtues such as self-discipline and playing by the rules. The sales of athletic equipment also generated business for those who made everything from soccer` balls to sports stadiums. Perhaps because workers spent most of their waking hours in a bleak industrial environment, material goods and leisure entertainment became important escapes. In Europe, soccer (known there as football), became popular, while baseball dominated sports in the United States. Particular sports developed along class lines: tennis and golf in England, for example, were played by the upper classes, while certain types of rugby were played only by the lower classes. The commercialization of the demand for public culture was also seen in the construction of music halls and public parks, particularly during the second half of the 19th century. Both the halls and the parks were built to accommodate a wide range of social classes. One aim of this mingling of classes was for the lower classes to see more civilized, rational behavior so that they would be encouraged to emulate it.

As industrialization spread, each country experienced competing pressures between... of traditional values and...

As Western domination and technology spread, they met with varying degrees of acceptance in different nations. Each country experienced competing pressures between preservation of traditional values and modernization. Egypt and some other countries early adopted policies that encouraged the use of industrialized innovations, such as the steam engine, to boost textile productivity. Others, such as China, had weakened central governments under European ascendency that were unable to promote industrialization effectively.

The Intellectual Reaction: What was the goal of utopian socialists? Who was John-Stuart Mill and what did he champion? Define utilitarianism: (what did they want, how did they view themselves?)

As trade and production became increasingly global, the ideas of early economists such as Adam Smith were taken in new directions. While Smith wrote in an age of individual entrepreneurs and small businesses, people of the 19th century witnessed the rise of large-scale transnational businesses. This shift caused people to think about society in new ways. For example, utopian socialists tried to create new communities to demonstrate alternatives to capitalism. John Stuart Mill: Some economists, clergy, and intellectuals criticized laissez-faire capitalism as inhumane to workers. One of these was a British philosopher, John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). He championed legal reforms to allow labor unions, limit child labor, and ensure safe working conditions in factories. While his ideas were controversial in his time, many of them eventually became widely adopted in industrial societies. Mill's philosophy was called utilitarianism. Rather than state a set of timeless moral rules, as many religions or ethicists did, utilitarianism sought "the greatest good for the greatest number of people." Unlike utopian socialists, who wanted to replace capitalism, utilitarians wanted to address the growing problems they saw with it. They viewed themselves as moderate, rational advocates of gradual reform.

Nationalist Movements in the Balkans: How did enlightenment ideals help leaders push against colonization? Who were those in the Balkan Peninsula inspired by? Who won independence from Ottoman rule?

At its most powerful, the Ottoman Empire stretched deep into Europe. However, by the early 19th century, it was losing its hold on its remaining European territories in the Balkan Peninsula. Inspired by the French Revolution, ethnic nationalism emerged as the peoples of the Balkans sought independence. The growing ethnic tensions in the region set the stage for World War I. Serbia (1815) and Greece (1832) won independence only after long wars. Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Bulgaria all rebelled against Ottoman rule. In 1877, Serbia and Russia came to their aid in what was to be the last and most important Russo-Turkish War. After the war ended in 1878, the Treaty of Berlin freed Bulgaria, Romania, and Montenegro but placed Bosnia and Herzegovina under the control of Austria-Hungary.

Australia and New Zealand: Why did the British decide to colonize Australia? How did British rule impact Australia and New Zealand?

Australia and New Zealand: After the loss of its American colonies, Britain began to consider the possibility of establishing various kinds of settlements in Australia, finally deciding to locate a penal colony there. In 1788 the first convicts, along with some free settlers, arrived in Australia, and the east coast became known as New South Wales. In the 1820s, Britain took possession of the entire continent. For decades, the chief economic activity of the colony was to house convicts. The discovery that Australia was well-suited to producing fine wool provided a new industry, and in the 1830s larger numbers of free settlers began to arrive. The discovery of copper in 1842 and gold in 1851 helped spur growth. When Britain annexed the settler colony of New Zealand in 1839, it was made a part of New South Wales. Two years later, after the Treaty of Waitangi guaranteeing that the rights of the original Maori inhabitants would be protected by the British crown, it became a separate colony. Nevertheless, open war broke out as European settlers encroached on Maori lands. The Australian gold rushes provided a market for foodstuffs raised by New Zealand farmers, both European and Maori. For many years, sheep grazing and dairy farming provided the base for the colony's economy.

Farm Work VS Factory Work: How was life in a factory different from life on a farm or working from home? What kinds of jobs did children work? Where did working class women work? Why was being a housewife a status symbol?

Before industrialization, family members worked in close proximity to one another. Whether women spun fabric in their own homes or landless workers farmed the fields of a landlord, parents and children usually spent their working hours close to each other. In a factory, work schedules were nothing like they were on a farm or in a cottage industry. The shrill sounds of the factory whistle told workers when they could take a break, which was obviously a culture shock to former- farmers who had previously completed tasks according to their own needs and schedules. Considering that workers commonly spent 14 hours a day, six days a week in a factory, exhaustion was common. Some of these exhausted workers operated dangerous heavy machinery. Injuries and death were common. Effects on Children: The low wages of factory workers forced them to send their children to work also. In the early decades of industrialization, children as young as five worked in textile mills. Because of their small size and nimble fingers, children could climb into equipment to make repairs or into tight spots in mines. • Mine collapses and floods loomed as constant threats to life. Effect on Women's Lives: The Industrial Revolution affected women in different ways, depending on their class position. Because their families needed the money, working-class women worked in coal mines (until the practice of hiring women for coal mining was declared illegal in Britain in the 1840s) and were the primary laborers in textile factories. Factory owners preferred to hire women because they could pay them half of what they paid men.

Describe the following colonies of West Africa in your own words: Sierra Leone, Gambia, Lagos, Ghana and the Gold Coast, What three things is Britain bringing to these colonies? How does Britain expand its empire in West Africa? Explain. Summarize the presence of the French in Africa.

British West Africa: Great Britain established several colonies in West Africa before the mid-19th century. In these colonies, Britain spread Western education, the English language, and Christianity: • Sierra Leone was established in 1787. It was a home for freed people from throughout the British Empire who had been enslaved. • Gambia was established in 1816. It, and Sierra Leone, were used as bases to try to stop the export of enslaved people from the region. • Lagos became a crown colony in 1861 and served as a base for the annexation of much of the rest of what is now Nigeria. • Britain acquired parts of what is now Ghana in stages. For example, the Gold Coast became a crown colony in 1874, but the Asante Empire to the north did not come under British control until 1901. Britain used both diplomacy and warfare to expand its empire. For example, in 1873, Britain signed a treaty with King Jaja of Opobo in present- day Nigeria—an area rich in palm oil—recognizing him as ruler and agreeing to trade terms favorable to both sides. Other African rulers agreed to similar diplomatic treaties with foreign powers, believing they were protecting their sovereignty and trade rights. However, as European competition increased for control of African lands, the treaties came to be meaningless and warfare was the inevitable result as Africans resisted takeover but met with overpowering military strength. The French in Africa: France drove the Ottomans out of Algeria in 1830. By 1870 Algeria had become a settler colony, attracting Spanish, Italian, and Maltese as well as French immigrants. In the 1870s the French also established trading posts in Guinea, the Ivory Coast, and Niger to compete with British West African colonies.

Southeast Asian Resistance: Which country was left independent in South Asia? How did Vietnam try to resist French rule? What began the Philippine Revolution? Why were they upset and why did they expect freedom? How did the Treaty of Paris lead to the Philippine-American War? What was the result?

By the 1880s, the only independent country remaining in Southeast Asia was Siam (Thailand). The rest of the region was under the control of the Spanish, Dutch, British, and French. Vietnam: From the beginning of French colonialism in the region, many Vietnamese resisted. By 1884, when 12-year-old Ham Nghi became emperor, his top advisers were vocal critics of the French. The French soon tried to assert their control by raiding the royal palace, but the young emperor had been removed for safety. Ham Nghi's supporters continued to resist French rule until he was captured in 1888 and exiled to Algeria. The resistance continued until 1895 under Phan Dinh Phung, who became a hero to future revolutionaries in the Vietnamese resistance movement. Philippine Resistance: The Philippines came under Spanish control in the 16th century, but there was no public education there until 1863. However, wealthy Filipinos sent their sons to Europe to study. One of those young men, José Rizal, started a reform movement called Liga Filipina (Philippine League) in 1892. Though the Liga was loyal to Spain, the Spanish feared it. They promptly arrested and executed Rizal, an action that shocked many Filipinos. Based on U.S. sympathy for Philippine independence, the rebels expected freedom. However, the Treaty of Paris ending the war merely transferred control of the Philippines from Spain to the United States.

What was the "Cult of Domesticity"? How did industrialization lead to feminism? What were the environmental effects of the Industrial revolution?

By the late 1800s, advertising and consumer culture contributed to a "cult of domesticity" that idealized the female homemaker. Advertising encouraged women to buy household products that would supposedly make the home a husband's place of respite from a harsh modern world. Pamphlets instructed middle-class women on how to care for the home, raise children, and behave in polite society and urged them to be pious, submissive, pure, and domestic. For working-class women the cult of domesticity was even more taxing, as they had to manage the household, care for their children, and work full time. Industrialization also spurred feminism. When men left a community to take a job, their absence opened up new opportunities for the women who remained home. One political sign of this feminism came in 1848 at Seneca Falls, New York, when 300 people met to call for equality for women. Effects on the Environment: The Industrial Revolution was powered by fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Although burning coal produced more energy than burning wood, the effects were extremely harmful. Industrial towns during the late 19th century were choked by toxic air pollution produced by coal-burning factories. Smog (smoke and fog) from factories led to deadly respiratory problems. Water became polluted, also, as the new industries dumped their waste into streams, rivers, and lakes. Cholera, typhoid, and other diseases ravaged neighborhoods.

South Asian Movements: Who were the sepoys? How did they help Britain maintain their ownership of India? What changed and led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857, or Sepoy Mutiny? How did Britain change its role in governing India after the mutiny?

By the mid-19th century, sepoys, Indian soldiers under British employ, made up the majority of the British armed forces in colonial India. Most were Hindus or Muslims. In 1857, the British began using rifle cartridges that had been greased with a mixture of the fat of cows and pigs. Hindus, who view the cow as sacred, and Muslims, who refuse to slaughter pigs, were both furious. Both were convinced that the British were trying to convert them to Christianity. Their violent uprising, known as the Indian Rebellion of 1857 or the Sepoy Mutiny, spread throughout cities in northern India. The British crushed the rebellion, killing thousands, but the event marked the emergence of Indian nationalism. After the Indian Rebellion, Britain also exiled the Mughal emperor for his involvement in the rebellion and ended the Mughal Empire. In its place, the British government took a more active role in ruling India. From 1858 until India won independence in 1947, the British Raj, the colonial government, took its orders directly from the British government in London. Under the Raj, many Indians attended British universities. In 1885, several British-educated Indians established the Indian National Congress. Though begun as a forum for airing grievances to the colonial government, it quickly began to call for self-rule.

Imperialism in East Asia: China had a different experience than South Asia or Africa - describe how they were imperialized. Describe the problems impacting the Qing government: Taiping Rebellion, Yellow River, Plague, Boxer Rebellion.

China did not experience imperialism in the same way that South Asia or Africa did. It maintained its own government throughout a period of European economic domination. As a result of superior military strength, European nations carved out spheres of influence within China over which they had exclusive trading rights and access to natural resources. Internal problems within the Qing government, such as the Taiping Rebellion, made it easier for foreign countries to dominate the economic affairs of China. During the Taiping Rebellion, which began in 1850, failed civil servant applicant Hong Xiuquan and starving peasants, workers, and miners attempted to overthrow the Qing Dynasty. With the help of some warlords along with French and British intervention, the Qings prevailed in 1864. In the midst of the war, adding to China's internal problems, the Yellow River (Huang He) changed course, flooding farmland in some areas and leaving others open to drought. With agricultural lands devastated, famine followed during which many Chinese starved to death. Adding to the troubles, the bubonic plague broke out at this time. By the end of the fighting, the rebellion was probably responsible for the deaths of more than 20 million people, more than half of whom were civilians. Between 1899 and 1901, an anti-imperialist group called the Boxers—named because many of their members practiced martial arts, which were known as Chinese boxing—was attacking Chinese Christians and Western missionaries. The Empress Dowager Cixi encouraged the Boxers and in 1900 ordered that all foreigners be killed.

China: Why was China unable to promote industrialization? Japan: Why did Japan want to adopt Western innovations?

China suffered two great humiliations at the hands of Europeans in the 19th century: the Opium War and the split into "spheres of influence." In the 20th century, China shook off foreign domination and briefly became a republic. However, its traumatic 19th century left a central government too weak to promote industrialization effectively for decades. In Japan, in contrast, the central government grew stronger in its struggle to maintain independence and territorial integrity in the face of Western challenges. Japan actively sought Western innovations that it felt would help make it the equal of Western countries.

Why was King Leopold's rule of the Congo different or unique compared to other colonies? Describe Leopold's treatment of the Congolese. What was the impact of his leadership? By 1900 which countries were unclaimed by Europe? Why were they able to resist?

Congo: By 1875, Western European nations were poised to penetrate Africa's interior. King Leopold II of Belgium (ruled 1865-1909) oversaw the invasion and pacification of the Congo in central Africa in order to persuade the Belgian government to support colonial expansion. Unlike other European rulers, King Leopold owned the colony personally, using colonial officials against indigenous Congolese and a ruthless system of economic exploitation that allowed him to keep the profits made by the Congo Free State, which totaled some 220 million francs ($1.1 billion in today's dollars). Visitors to the colony reported on the brutal conditions for the laborers who were forced to harvest ivory and rubber. For example, Leopold's agents severed the hands of Congolese workers in order to terrorize others into submission. Workers who could not meet their quotas were beaten or killed, while others were worked to death. Although the term slavery was not commonly used when describing imperial activities, laborers in the Congo often received no payment for their backbreaking work, and their spouses were held captive so that the workers would not run away. As many as 8 million people perished under King Leopold's reign of terror in the Congo. In 1908, Belgium took over control of the Congo as a regular colony, and conditions improved. Independent Countries: By 1900, the only African countries unclaimed by Europeans were Abyssinia (modern-day Ethiopia) and Liberia, a country founded by formerly enslaved people from the United States. Because Liberia had a dependent relationship with the United States, it was not fully independent.Italy attempted to conquer Abyssinia in 1895, but the native forces were too strong for the Italians.

Corporations replaced traditional systems of a single entrepreneur engaging in ...business endeavors with a system of larger companies, collectively engaging in ... efforts. This made investment much .... With their growth, corporations gained greater ... and ...power. What was another way to reduce risk at this time? Why did banking grow during industrialization?

Corporations: A sole proprietorship is a business owned by a single person, and a partnership is a small group of people who make all business decisions. A corporation differs from these two other major forms of business ownership in that a corporation is a more flexible structure for large-scale economic activity. It replaced the traditional system of a single entrepreneur engaging in high-risk business endeavors with a system of larger companies, collectively engaging in lower-risk efforts. By spreading risk, investments became much safer and more attractive.

How did colonizing countries force their culture on the places they took over? Give specific examples of this. Explain how religious motives were part of the rationale for imperialism.

Cultural Ideologies: Based on technological superiority over indigenous societies, colonial powers felt justified in superimposing aspects of their own cultures on their colonies. For administrative purposes, many colonies combined into a single colony peoples from several cultures who often spoke different languages and had different customs. Colonizers introduced their own language, which helped to unify these often diverse colonies. They also introduced their political, educational, and religious institutions and exerted other cultural influences on architecture and recreational activities. Religious Motives: Missionaries were among the most tireless "civilizing" influences. Like the Spanish and Portuguese Catholic missionaries who combined conquest and evangelism during the Age of Discovery. The image of a New Zealand village reflects how Europeans viewed native village people as simple. Protestant missionaries of the 18th and 19th centuries also participated in colonization. Critics charged that missionaries supported imperialism by persuading people to give up their traditional beliefs, such as ancestor veneration, and adopt the faith of most Europeans, Christianity. This change in religion could pave the way for others who were more focused on economic gain. In response, missionaries pointed out that they commonly combined religious and humanitarian efforts: • Missionaries often set up schools for instruction in religion that also taught secular subjects, which prepared students to become teachers, lawyers, and other professionals. • Many missionaries provided improved medicines and medical care. • Some missionaries, most famously David Livingstone from Scotland, worked in Sub-Saharan Africa to end the illegal slave trade.

How did Labor Unions improve workers' lives? How did Unions eventually lead to expanded voting rights? Describe the laws passed in the following years in regards to children and their effect on child labor: 1843 and 1881.

Dangerous and unsanitary working conditions, low wages, and long hours were common in factory work in the 19th century. A committee of Britain's Parliament released a study called the Sadler Report in 1833. The report described these conditions. It made many people in Britain, particularly in Parliament, aware of the need for reforms. Workers also responded to low pay and harsh conditions. They began to form labor unions For most of the 19th century, unions in Great Britain had to organize in secret because the government treated them as enemies of trade. However, by the 20th century, unions became more acceptable and membership increased. Unions improved workers' lives by winning minimum wage laws, limits on the number of hours worked, overtime pay, and the establishment of a five-day work week. Voting Rights: Unions sparked a larger movement for empowerment among the working class. In 1832, 1867, and 1884, the British parliament passed reform bills to expand the pool of men who could vote, thereby giving more representation to British cities. The acts reduced property ownership qualifications as a requirement for voting. These reforms laid the foundation for expansion of the franchise (right to vote) to all men in 1918. British women would not gain equal suffrage (voting rights) until 1928. Child Labor: Along with unions, social activists and reformers hoped to improve the living conditions of the least powerful in society. Reformers' achievements especially benefited children. A law in 1843 declared that children under the age of 10 were banned from working in the coal mines. In 1881, education became mandatory for British children between the ages of 5 and 10. This focus on education, as opposed to work for monetary gain, permanently redefined the role of children in urban society.

What did Emperor Guangxu's adopted mother do to him? Why? What problems existed with the Civil Service Exam that caused Empress Cixi to reform them? Why did Europeans encourage change within China? Why did China accept territorial "protection" against Japan from the United States?

Demand for reform increased after China's defeat in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895). People formed clubs to call for change. One club, led by a civil servant named Kang Youwei, was able to meet with Emperor Guangxu. Kang convinced the ruler to support a set of sweeping reforms known as the Hundred Days of Reform. The reforms included the abolition of the outdated civil service exam, the elimination of corruption, and the establishment of Western-style industrial, commercial, and medical systems. Cixi's Initial Conservatism: In a coup d'état,Cixi imprisoned the emperor and immediately repealed his reform edicts. She feared the influence of foreigners, so she resisted any new technology that would extend their reach into her country. For example, she stopped the extension of railroad lines and telegraph networks into the Chinese interior. Moreover, non-qualified persons were purchasing civil service posts. China abandoned nearly 2,500 years of tradition, one that had yielded an educated bureaucracy of scholar-gentry. In spite of this concession, the empress's overall conservatism caused her to fail to cope with demands of modernity in China. China and Foreign Powers: Unlike Turkey, where Europeans had little to gain from either passage or opposition to progressive reforms, in China, Europeans encouraged change. When reforms were met with the conservatism of Empress Cixi and the 1900 Boxer Rebellion against foreign influence, the Chinese government, including its provincial governors, continued to modernize, with some help from American and European advisors. Weakened by internal rebellion and fearing encroachment from Japan, China had to accept territorial "protection" from Western powers, who in return demanded trade concessions.

US Imperialism in Latin America and the Pacific: How did the US imperialize American lands? How did the Monroe Doctrine give the US power in the Americas? How does Manifest Destiny connect to imperialism? List the locations of and impact on those imperialized overseas.

During the 19th century, the United States continued taking land from indigenous peoples, as Europeans had done since Columbus arrived. One notorious episode was the forced relocation of Eastern Woodlands peoples from the Southeast to a new Indian Territory in what is now Oklahoma. So many Native Americans died from exposure, malnutrition, disease, and exhaustion that this forced migration became known as the Trail of Tears. In 1823, President James Monroe issued the Monroe Doctrine, which stated that European nations should not intervene in the affairs of the countries in the Western Hemisphere. Implied in the doctrine was a desire to be an imperial power in the Americas. This desire played out in the U.S. war with Mexico (1845-1848), through which the United States gained vast territories in the Southwest from Mexico. Expansion on Land: White Americans believed that they had a Manifest Destiny—a natural and inevitable right to expand to the Pacific Ocean. The United States bought Alaska from Russia in 1867. Two years later, in 1869, the completion of a transcontinental railway spurred development of the American West. As white settlers moved westward to take advantage of offers of free land, Native Americans were forced onto reservations. By 1893, the U.S. Bureau of the Census declared that the western frontier was now closed. Expansion Overseas: The United States turned its focus to lands overseas. The United States was not a global power for most of the 19th century. The Second Industrial Revolution brought newfound prosperity to the young republic. Economic considerations, as well as feelings of nationalism and cultural superiority, drove Americans' desire for territorial conquest.

The growing middle class had access to: Why did people continue to move to cities despite their negative qualities? Who made up the working class? How are factory workers different from previous artisan craftsmen? What kept wages low? Who were the middle class? Who was the upper class?

Effects on Class Structure: As industrialization spread, new classes of society emerged in Britain. At the bottom rungs of the social hierarchy were those who labored in factories and coal mines. They were known as the working class. Though they helped construct goods rapidly, the technology of interchangeable parts and the factory system's division of labor had deprived workers of the experience of crafting a complete product. In comparison to the artisans of earlier generations, workers needed fewer skills, so managers viewed them as easily replaceable. Competition for jobs kept wages low. While industrialization created low-skilled jobs, it also required those who managed the production of goods to have education and sophisticated skills. A new middle class emerged, consisting of factory and office managers, small business owners, and professionals. They were white-collar workers, those held by office workers. Most were literate and considered middle class. At the top of the new class hierarchy were the industrialists and owners of large corporations. These so-called captains of industry soon overshadowed the landed aristocracy as the power brokers and leaders of modern society.

Russian Expansion: Summarize the expansion of Russia - where did they go, when? What was the Great Game - explain Russia's role in it.

Empress Catherine II ("the Great") set out to expand the Russian Empire in all directions during her reign (1762-1796), annexing about half of Poland as well as territory won from the Ottoman Empire. Her grandson, Alexander I, annexed Finland, Moldova, Georgia, Azerbaijan, and part of Armenia during his reign (1815-1825). Beginning in the 1740s, Russian merchants sponsored voyages to Alaska. In 1808 the Russian-American Company, which was similar to the British and Dutch East India companies, established permanent headquarters in Novo-Arkhangelsk (modern-day Sitka). From there they explored the west coast of North America. In 1811, they selected the site for a settlement at Fort Ross in California. They abandoned Fort Ross in 1839 and in 1867 sold Alaska to the United States, ending Russian plans to make the North Pacific a Russian sea. Russia continued to push into Central Asia during the 19th century, leading to an intense rivalry between the Russian and British empires as they competed unsuccessfully for dominance in Afghanistan—a rivalry that came to be known as the Great Game. Russia also succeeded in annexing lands from China, most notably a large portion of Manchuria.

Imperialism in Africa: Describe the point of view of King Leopold toward imperialism based on the quote at the start of 6.2. In general, summarize the relationship Europe had with Africa prior to this point. European presence was specifically limited in Africa at first. Why did this change? What was the significance of the Suez canal - how did they build it? How did it impact Egypt?

Europe had a long-standing relationship with Africa because of the slave trade. Although most European countries had declared the importation of Africans as slave labor illegal by the early 1800s, Europeans continued to export guns, alcohol, and other manufactured goods to Africa and import African natural resources, such as palm oil, gold, and ivory. England desired palm oil in particular because it kept the machinery in its textile factories from becoming rusty. In the last part of the 19th century, European tastes for African diamonds and ivory kept European empires thriving throughout the African continent. Expanding Beyond Trading Posts: For most of the 1800s, European presence in Africa was restricted to trading posts, with a few exceptions. The French seized Algeria in 1830, declaring they wanted to prevent pirate attacks. Dutch immigrants had lived in South Africa since the 1600s and British colonists became more numerous starting in the early 1800s. In the second half of the 1800s, European nations expanded their presence in Africa with the help of better military technology. Many of them were corvée laborers, unpaid workers who were forced to work on the project as a form of taxation. Thousands died in the course of ten years. When unrest in the regionthreatened British commercial interests and the operation of the canal in 1882, Britain seized control of Egypt away from the Ottoman Empire.

Public health acts were passed to do the following: Industrialization led to ... for many.

Eventually, industrialization led to increased living standards for many. While life could be very hard for poor and working class people, the growing middle class had increased access to goods, housing, culture, and education. The wealth and opportunities of the middle class were among the reasons people continued to stream into cities from rural areas. People living in poverty on farms or in villages hoped to find a better life in an urban center. Many did.

Name two Monopolies and describe what a monopoly is. What is a transnational company? What was the effect of transnational companies?

For example, Alfred Krupp of Essen, Germany, ran a gigantic company that used the Bessemer process, a more efficient way to produce steel, gaining a monopoly in the German steel industry. In the United States, John D. Rockefeller created a monopoly in the oil industry. Companies Working Across Boundaries: British-born Cecil Rhodes, founder of De Beers Diamonds, was an especially enthusiastic investor in a railroad project that was to stretch from Cape Town, in modern-day South Africa, to Cairo, Egypt. Connecting all of the British-held colonies with a transportation network could make governance easier and aid in conducting a war, if necessary. The project was never completed because Britain never gained control over all the land on which such a railroad was to be built. The overwhelming majority of railway workers in Africa were natives who were paid far lower wages than their European counterparts. Thus, railroad technology was a means of extracting as many resources as possible from subject lands while paying colonial laborers as little as possible. De Beers was one of many transnational companies—those that operated across national boundaries—that emerged in the 19th century. For example, the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, a British-owned bank opened in its colony of Hong Kong in 1865, focused on finance, corporate investments, and global banking. The Unilever Corporation, a British and Dutch venture, focused on household goods—most famously, soap. By 1890 it had soap factories in Australia, Switzerland, the United States, and beyond. Unilever sourced the palm oil for its soaps first from British West Africa and later the Belgian Congo, where it operated huge plantations. Because these companies were transnational, they gained wealth and influence on a scale rarely approached before.

Explain Ghost Dance and how it impacted the Sioux. Who was Tupac Amaru II - what was his role in refusing imperialism? What was the result of Mexico's attempt to overthrow Benito Juarez?

Ghost Dance: In the northwestern United States around 1869, prophet-dreamers among the Northern Paiute Indians announced that the dead would soon come back and drive out the whites, restoring the lands and traditions of Native Americans. The Ghost Dance rituals of dances and songs were meant to hasten this event. The Ghost Dance spread from the Sierra Nevada to the Missouri River and from northern Texas to the Canadian border. It reached the Sioux by 1890, coinciding with the Sioux revolts. Sioux warriors wore "ghost shirts." However, the Ghost Dance resistance movement fell at the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890, marking the end of the Indian Wars. Túpac Amaru II José Gabriel Condorcanqui was a cacique (hereditary chief) in southern Peru. He was descended from the last Inca ruler, Túpac Amaru, and took the name Túpac Amaru II. Born around 1740, he continued to identify with his Inca heritage in spite of having received a formal Jesuit education. In 1780 he arrested and executed a colonial administrator, charging him with cruelty. This action led to the last general Indian revolt against Spain, which at first was supported by some criollos (Spaniards born in America). The revolt spread throughout southern Peru and into Bolivia and Argentina before Túpac Amaru II and his family were captured in March 1781. They were taken to Cuzco, the former capital of the Inca empire. There Túpac Amaru II was forced to watch as his wife and sons were executed before he was tortured and executed himself. Mexico owed France money, and Napoleon III wanted to further his imperialist ambitions. He offered to make a European noble, Archduke Maximilian, the emperor of Mexico.

Hatt-i Humayun: created equality for all men in ..., ..., and ...regardless of religion or ethnicity. What was a millet? How was it changed during the Tanzimat and how did people feel about the changes?

In 1856, the sultan issued an edict known as the Hatt-i Humayun (Ottoman Reform Edict) that updated the legal system, declaring equality for all men in education, government appointments, and justice regardless of religion or ethnicity. The new legal system also regulated the millets, which were separate legal courts established by different religious communities, each using its own set of religious laws. Christians in the Balkans protested the new regulations because they felt that their autonomy was being threatened. Muslims, on the other hand, protested the reforms because they conflicted with traditional values and practice. Although not achieving religious equality, the Tanzimat reforms continued to have wide effects in areas such as the military and education. These effects continued even when succeeding sultans blocked other reforms.

Resistance to Reform in Japan: Describe the role of Samurai in Japan after 1871. List some successes of Japanese Reform. Traits of democracy:

In 1871, Japan gave samurai a final lump-sum payment and legally dissolved their position. They were no longer fighting men and were not allowed to carry their swords. The bushido, their code of conduct, was now a personal matter, no longer officially condoned by the government. Some samurai adjusted to the change by serving the government as genros, or elder statesmen. Others, particularly those from the provinces of Satsuma and Choshu, resisted the change. They defended their right to dress and wear their hair in traditional ways and to enjoy relative autonomy from the centralized government. The last battle between the samurai shogunate forces and those loyal to the emperor occurred in the 1870s. Dismayed by defeat, the samurai became the main victims of Japan's rapid modernization. Ironically, some of their leaders were the same people who had supported the Meiji Restoration in the 1860s. The new schools quickly improved literacy rates, the economy rapidly industrialized, and the country began to develop traits of democracy such as a free press, strong labor unions, and respect for individual liberties. However, by the 1920s, army officers again began to dominate the government. Turkey, China, and Japan each followed its own path in responding to industrialization in the 19th century. Of the three: Turkey began to make changes earliest. However, Sultan Abdulhamid, though he supported reforms at first, became more conservative during his time as ruler. China began to make changes only later in the century. In contrast to Abdulhamid, China's Cixi started as skeptical of reform but became more liberal during her reign.

Resistance and Rebellion in the Americas: Why was the Proclamation of 1763 significant? How did the Cherokee Nation assimilate to white settler culture? Even though they assimilated, they were negatively impacted by expansion - how?

In North America, following the British victory over the French in the French and Indian War, the British issued the Proclamation of 1763. This act reserved all the land between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River for Native Americans—the first time a European government had recognized the territorial rights of indigenous peoples. However, the British colonists resented this interference in colonial affairs. After winning independence, citizens of the new United States soon overran the Ohio and Illinois river valleys, displacing Native Americans. Cherokee Nation: After 1800, the Cherokee assimilated to white settler culture, adopting colonial methods of farming, weaving, and building. They developed a syllabic alphabet for writing their language. Within a short time, almost the entire tribe was literate, and the Cherokee Phoenix became the first Native American newspaper in the United States. The Cherokee nation adopted a constitution based on the U.S. Constitution. But assimilation did not save the Cherokee from white Americans' greed. After the discovery of gold in 1829 on Cherokee land in Georgia, attempts began to force the Cherokee off their land. After Congress passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830, the Cherokee and other Southeast Native American tribes were forced to relocate to what is now Oklahoma. U.S. expansionism continued, affecting many Native American peoples.

Nationalist Motives for Imperialism: What characterized most of the 1800s - why are countries wanting colonies? How did the following try to assert their national pride through settlement: Britain, France, Italy and Germany, Spain, Japan

In Western Europe, revolutions, the rise of nationalism, and the creation of nation-states characterized much of the 1800s. With a strong sense of identity and loyalty to a state, many world powers boldly asserted authority over other territories. Building an empire in Asia or Africa was one way for a country to assert its national identity in the global arena. Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands would long possess overseas colonies. European Nationalism: After losing its American colonies, Britain looked for new lands to open to settlement. In 1788 the first British settlers arrived in the colony of New South Wales on the east coast of the island continent of New Holland—today's Australia. Britain was also expanding its influence in South Asia, gradually taking control of India from the East India Company. By 1857 Britain controlled the entire Indian subcontinent. Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Burma (Myanmar), the Malay States (which included Singapore), and parts of Borneo in Southeast Asia were also under British control. France compensated for its humiliating defeat by Prussia in the Franco- Prussian War (1870-1871) by expanding its overseas territories. It had already occupied Algeria in Northern Africa, New Caledonia and other islands in the South Pacific, Senegal in Western Africa, and Indochina in Southeast Asia. Italy and Germany were newly unified states in the late-19th century. Each wanted colonies not only for economic and strategic reasons but also for prestige. However, neither began acquiring an empire until the mid-1880s. Spain did not play a dominant role in this second wave of imperialism. Japan's victory gave it control of Korea. Japan also seized Taiwan, which was known as Formosa from the time of Portuguese colonization in the 16th century until the end of World War II.

Ottoman Response to Industrialization: Sultan Mahmud II (1808 - 1839) reformed the Ottoman system in the following ways: (include results of these reforms) 1826 and 1831. Military Officials and Taxes: Building ...and setting up...

In the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was no longer at the peak of its political power. However, it maintained some economic power. Sultan Mahmud II (ruled 1808-1839) reformed the Ottoman system. In 1826, he abolished the corps of Janissaries, which had opposed him, and developed a new artillery unit trained by Europeans. When the Istanbul Janissaries revolted, he had them massacred. The abolition of the feudal system in 1831 marked the final defeat of the Janissaries' power. Military officers were no longer able to collect taxes directly from the populace for their salaries. Instead, tax collections went directly to the central government, which paid military personnel, thus ensuring their loyalty. Mahmud's reforms also included building roads and setting up a postal service. To fight the power of popular religious charities, he set up a government directory of charities. To operate the central administration of government, Mahmud II created European-style ministries.

What were the differences between poor women and middle class women during industrialization? Effects on Urban Areas: What was the effect of rapidly growing urban centers? Define tenements and slums: (What were they, who lived there and why, etc.) What spread among tenement buildings? What were the government's responses to the above?

Industrialization affected not only governments and economies but also people's everyday lives. Dickens illustrated the sharp contrasts in the industrial age between the emerging middle class, who enjoyed the benefits of the new prosperity, and the urban poor, who were ill-treated. Young children worked in factories. Women experienced substantial changes in their lifestyle. Poor women took jobs in domestic service and the textile industries, spending less time at home. Middle-class women, with no economic responsibilities, felt limited by household roles. The middle classes also started spending their free time seeking entertainment in theaters, concert halls, and sports facilities. Effects on Urban Areas: For the first half of the 19th century, urban areas grew rapidly and with little planning by governments. This development left a damaging ecological footprint and created inhumane living conditions for the cities' poorest residents, members of the working class. Working families crowded into shoddily constructed tenement apartment buildings, often owned by factory owners themselves. Tenements were often located in urban slums (areas of cities where low-income families were forced to live), where industrial by-products such as polluted water supplies and open sewers were common. In conditions like these, disease, including the much-feared cholera, spread quickly. So did other public health menaces, such as fire and crime and violence. Over time, municipalities created police and fire departments, and several public health acts were passed to implement sanitation reform by creating better drainage and sewage systems, supplying cleaner water, removing rubbish, and building standards to reduce accidents and fire.

Describe the impact of Adam Smith's 1776 publication entitled Wealth of Nations. Define laissez-faire economics.

Industrialization and modernization led to new philosophies and business structures. In the Wealth of Nations (1776), Adam Smith, arguing that humans are naturally transactional, provided a foundational text in support of capitalism and the establishment of private entrepreneurship and shaped the economics and politics of the industrial age and the centuries to follow. Mercantilism, a system of economic protectionism, was replaced by a laissez-faire ("leave alone" in French) policy that promoted minimal governmental involvement in commerce and encouraged countries to reduce tariffs on trade. These economic ideas were reflected in, and supported by, emerging transnational institutions, including banks such as the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC) and manufacturers such as Unilever. As trade increased, so did the availability, affordability, and variety of consumer goods.

Japanese Reforms: Abolished ...by the Charter Oath, Established a .... Established ... before the law and abolished cruel punishments, ...the military, Created new ...that expanded educational opportunities, Built ... and ..., ...Industrialization in key industries of ..., silk, weaponry, shipbuilding, and sake (rice wine).

Japan systematically visited Europe and the United States and invited experts to Japan in order to study Western institutions. Then, Japan adopted reforms based on what it admired: • It formally abolished feudalism in 1868 by the Charter Oath. • It established a constitutional monarchy based on the Prussian model in which the emperor ruled through a subordinate political leader. • It established equality before the law and abolished cruel punishments. • It reorganized the military based on the Prussian army, building a new navy and instituting conscription. • It created a new school system that expanded educational opportunities, particularly in technical fields. • It built railroads and roads. • It subsidized industrialization, particularly in the key industries of tea, silk, weaponry, shipbuilding, and a rice wine called sake. The government financed all of these reforms with a high agricultural tax. The taxes proved a good investment because they stimulated rapid economic growth. The government's ability to collect increased taxes also provided revenue for the bureaucracy, now centered in Tokyo. However, in replicating the methods of Western countries, the Japanese also replicated some of industrial society's problems. For example, accounts of abuse and exploitation of female Japanese mill workers are similar to the experiences that British female mill workers had recorded decades earlier.

Japan and the Meiji Restoration: Why did trading states want to interact with Japan? Who was Matthew Perry and what effect did he have on Japan? Why did many Japanese people feel as though they needed to adopt Western technology? What was the Meiji Restoration?

Japan's transition to a modern, industrialized country took less than half a century to accomplish. No country made such a rapid change. A Challenge to Isolation: Between 1600 and 1854, Japan had very little contact with the rest of the world. However, the rising imperial powers in the world were not content to let Japan keep to itself. The great powers of Europe, such as Great Britain, the Netherlands, and Russia, all wanted to sell goods in Japan. Further, in the age of coal-powered ships, trading states wanted to be able to refuel in Japan as they sailed to and from China and other parts of East Asia. Japan Confronts Foreigners: In 1853, a naval squad led by Commodore Matthew Perry in 1853 sailed into Yedo and Tokyo Bay, asking for trade privileges. The next year, Perry returned with even more ships, demanding that the Japanese engage in trade with the United States. Faced with the power of the U.S. warships, the Japanese gave in to U.S. demands. Soon they yielded to similar demands by other foreign states. The arrival of Perry, and the threat he posed, caused Japanese leaders to realize the danger they and their culture were in. They had seen how even a large, traditionally powerful country such as China had been humiliated by Westerners. They had watched as the British had gone to war to force the Chinese to accept opium imports. While some Japanese argued that the country could defend itself, many reformers feared it could not. They argued that the country should adopt enough Western technology and methods so it could protect its traditional culture. To accomplish this goal, they overthrew the shogun and restored power to the emperor in 1868, an event known as the Meiji Restoration.

Why did Japan end its isolation in 1853 - what impact did this have on the country? Where is Japan imperializing/setting up colonies? How could this help them successfully colonize further?

Japan: Industrialized countries outside of Europe also desired colonies. Japan had sharply limited its contact with other countries since the early 1600s. In 1853, United States Commodore Matthew Perry came to Japan in large warships to secure a treaty that opened Japanese ports to trade. In the following decade, Japan overthrew its traditional government in an uprising called the Meiji Restoration and began to rapidly industrialize, hoping it could become strong enough to protect its distinctive culture. As part of this change, Japan began to look outward for territorial gains. An island nation with few natural resources and little arable land, it sought lands and natural resources to fuel its own growth. Partly to relieve population pressures in rural areas and partly to gain knowledge of foreign places, Japan's government began to encourage agricultural workers to take seasonal contract work on Hawaii, Guam, and other locations. Through a Colonization Society established in 1893, leaders began plans to establish colonies in Mexico and Latin America. Japan set up an empire in East Asia that included parts of China, Korea, Southeast Asia, and Pacific islands that lasted from the 1890s until the end of World War II.

Reform Efforts in China: What was the Self-Strengthening Movement in China? Chinese officials wanted to strengthen China in order to do what? What and who led to the Hundred Days of Reform? What did the Hundred Days of Reform include?

Like other powers, China under the Qing Dynasty felt pressure to modernize.Its major reform effort of the late 19th century was known as the Self-Strengthening Movement. It developed as a way for the government to face the internal and external problems confronting China. Government officials hoped to strengthen China in its competition with foreign powers by advancing its military technology and readiness and by training Chinese artisans in the manufacture of items for shipyards and arsenals. French and British advisors helped Chinese reform efforts. A stable government capable of collecting revenue allowed China to repay debts and participate in trade. For the Chinese, their existence as an independent state depended upon economic solvency. Reform in the name of modernization seemed inevitable. As another step toward reform, the Chinese government set up its own diplomatic corps and a customs service to help collect taxes on imports and exports. The government's strategy was to graft some modern ideas and technology onto Chinese tradition rather than to create major change.

Effects on Business Organization: Describe why corporations became popular? (How do they minimize risk? What role do stockholders play?)

New ways of organizing businesses arose during the Industrial Revolution. Some manufacturers formed giant corporations in order to minimize risk. A corporation is a business chartered by a government as a legal entity owned by stockholders (individuals who buy partial ownership directly from the company when it is formed or later through a stock market). Stockholders might receive sums of money, known as dividends, from a corporation when it makes a profit. If a corporation experiences a loss or goes bankrupt, the stockholders are not liable for the losses. The most that stockholders can lose is what they paid for the stock in the first place.

List CONTINUITIES and CHANGES listed in the sections below "Social Continuities and Changes"

Physical Labor: As the Industrial Revolution spread, the need for factory labor increased. An industrial working class emerged. Members of this class were paid low wages, worked long hours in poor conditions, lived in squalid housing, and resided in crowded and polluted parts of the new industrial cities. Much of their daily lives revolved around their jobs in the factories. This was a change from the agricultural economy of the previous era, when farmers and farm laborers could more or less set their own work schedule based on the seasons. In response to their working and living conditions, the working class formed worker associations, or labor unions, that used labor strikes and collective bargaining to win concessions on wages, working conditions, and hours from the factory owners. Office Labor: Along with the emergence of the industrial working class, the Industrial Revolution also changed the size and make-up of the middle class. In pre-industrial society, the middle class was often made up of professionals such as doctors and lawyers as well as local merchants or shopkeepers. Gender and Industrialization: The role of women changed significantly during the Industrial Revolution. In an agricultural economy, women provided labor at critical times during the planting and harvesting season but were rarely paid for their labor. In a proto-industrial system, women were able to earn some extra money in the manufacturing of textiles. Despite these activities, women were still mainly supported by the labor and income of their male family members. This pattern began to change with the Industrial Revolution. Due to the low wages paid by the factories, all family needed to work. Despite the importance of female labor, women were often paid less than men for the same work and denied high-wage jobs.

List CONTINUITIES and CHANGES listed in the sections below "Political Continuities and Changes"

Political movements of the Industrial Revolution were almost always connected to the interests of the growing middle and working classes. People wanted not just general natural rights, but specific rights recognized by their government. Voting Rights: As the number of wealthy capitalists and the middle class grew, more frequent calls for greater political participation were made. As a result, some political reforms were enacted that included the extension of voting rights to city dwellers, non-landowners, and, eventually, to the working class. However, the voting franchise was extended to male voters only. Women would not gain the right to vote in Western industrial countries until the early 20th century. Sometimes voting rights were extended through the legislative process, as in Great Britain. However, in other instances, protests and revolutions forced governments to enact political reforms. Protections for Workers: Reforms that began in one country often spread. For example, Otto Von Bismarck's social reforms spread throughout Europe and eventually the world. All industrializing nations grappled with the new challenges that factory life introduced. Among these nations, Germany implemented the most comprehensive set of social reforms to protect industrial workers. Under the leadership of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, Germany started workers' accident compensation insurance, unemployment insurance, and old age pensions for employees. Bismarck was concerned that if his government did not address these problems, socialists and more radical citizens would demand stronger government action.

Imperialism in Southeast Asia: Describe the impact of: The Dutch, French, and British in Southeast Asia, and Siam

Portugal and Spain originally controlled European trade with Southeast Asia. After 1600, the power shifted and the English and Dutch supplanted them. The Dutch in Southeast Asia: Dutch imperialism in Southeast Asia began with a private company, just as English imperialism in South Asia had. In 1641 the Dutch seized control of the Spice Islands (now part of Indonesia), so called because they produced spices such as cloves and nutmeg that were in great demand in Europe. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) took over the spice trade from the Portuguese, setting up several trading posts on the archipelago. Although the trade was very profitable for the VOC, corruption caused the company to go bankrupt by 1800. Once the VOC folded, the Dutch government itself took control of the Dutch East Indies. By the mid-19th century, the islands were producing cash crops to support the Dutch economy. The French in Southeast Asia: The French government also wanted an imperial presence in Asia. After it defeated China in the Sino-French War of 1883-1885, France gained control of northern Vietnam. France later pressured Siam to cede control of the territory of modern-day Laos to the French. By the 1890s, France controlled Cambodia, Laos, and all of modern-day Vietnam. Together, these nations became known as French Indochina. French motives for imperialism were like those of the Dutch—a desire for cash crops. Soon rubber plantations dotted the landscape of Cambodia and Vietnam. In addition, Britain promoted the planting of cash crops such as pepper, tobacco, palm oil, and rubber. By the end of the 19th century, Malaya was the world's greatest producer of natural rubber. Siam: Only one Southeast Asian nation, Siam—modern-day Thailand— managed to escape the clutches of 19th-century European imperialism.

Imperialism in South Asia: What items do Europeans want from South Asia? How does this lead to the Seven Years' War? What was the role of the East India Company?

Portugal, France, and England competed for control of India's spices, gems, and trade with regions to the east. Portugal established a coastal trading port on the southwestern coast, in Goa, in the early 16th century.However, it never extended its control inland. France established trading ports in the 17th century. However, its loss to Britain in the global conflict known as the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) drove the French out of India. England's East India Company (EIC), steadily encroached on the land of the weak Mughal Empire. Eventually, Britain controlled the entire Indian subcontinent, from Pakistan in the west to Kashmir in the north to Bengal in the east to the island of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) in the south. At first, the EIC's small forces of British soldiers protected the firm's employees. As the British crept into India's interior, they began recruiting native Indian soldiers, called sepoys, to join the British colonial army. However, as explained in the next topic, the sepoys ignited an unsuccessful rebellion against the British in 1857.

After Mahmud, reforms called Tanzimat (reorganization) took place....Root out long standing ... in the government. Create a secular system of.... Codify Ottoman....

Reorganization Reforms after Mahmud (during the years 1839-1876) are called Tanzimat (reorganization) and include the following changes: The sultans in this period worked to root out long-standing and widespread corruption in the central government. Education had long been under the control of the ulama, the educated class of Muslim scholars. Now the sultans created a secular system of primary and secondary schools. Secular colleges were also gradually set up, one for each special purpose: military, engineering, translation, civil service, and so on. The sultans codified Ottoman laws and created new ones, including a commercial code (1850) and a penal code (1858). These codes made it easier for foreigners to do business in the empire.

Economic Motives for Imperialism: How did treaties and company charters lead European powers to take over other countries? How did this impact other nations? Describe how the following are examples of economic imperialism: East India Company (EIC) and Dutch East India Company

Some people believe the ideological motivations were more accurately justifications for pursuing economic motives. Seeking ways to maximize profits, companies chartered by the British, French, and Dutch governments signed commercial treaties with local rulers in India, East Africa, and the East Indies. These treaties gave the Europeans the right to establish trading posts and forts to protect their interests. East India Company: The English monarch granted the East India Company (EIC) a royal charter in 1600 giving it a monopoly on England's trade with India. After driving the Portuguese out of India, the company traded primarily in cotton and silk, indigo, and spices. Eventually, the EIC expanded its activities from the Persian Gulf to East Asia. By the beginning of the 18th century, it had become the major agent of British imperialism in India, and after 1834 it became the British government's managing agency in India. Starting in 1620, the EIC engaged in the slave trade, and during the 19th century it illegally exported opium to China in exchange for tea. The East India Company is often referred to as the English East India Company or, after 1707, the British East India Company to distinguish it from the Dutch East India Company. Dutch East India Company: In 1602 the Dutch government gave the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, or VOC) a monopoly on trade between the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa and the Straits of Magellan at the southern tip of South America. The VOC concentrated on the islands around Java, replacing the Portuguese who had controlled the region. Corruption and debt led the government to take control of the company's possessions in 1799, creating the Dutch East Indies (today's Indonesia).

Explain what led to the Boer War conflict. Why was there tension between these groups? What was the impact or result of the Boer Wars?

South Africa and the Boer Wars: During the Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815), the British replaced the Dutch in the Cape Colony in the southern tip of Africa. The British introduced the use of English but allowed people to use the Dutch language as well. Many of the Dutch-speaking Afrikaners, the descendants of 17th-century Dutch settlers, moved east of the Cape Colony, where they came into conflict with indigenous groups, including the Zulus, with whom they fought several wars. Throughout the 19th century, the British and Afrikaners continued to fight over land. This conflict came to a boil in the Boer Wars (1880-1881, 1899-1902). These conflicts were bloody and brutal. In the end, the British army drove the Afrikaners and the Africans from their lands, forcing many into refugee camps. These settlements, which were segregated by race, came to be known as concentration camps. Medical care and sanitation were very poor, and food rations were so meager that many of the interned died of starvation. Once news arrived in Britain about the wretched conditions of the camps, activists tried to improve the lives of displaced refugees. However, while white camps received some attention, conditions in black camps remained terrible. Of the 100,000 blacks interned in concentration camps, nearly 15,000 perished. By the end of the Boer Wars, the British had absorbed the settler colonies of British and Afrikaner peoples and the black Africans in the southern tip of Africa into its empire. Millions of Afrikaner and black African farmers had been displaced onto poor land, making it hard for them to earn a decent living.

Resistance in Australia and New Zealand: Who were the Aboriginal people? How was Britain using Australia and New Zealand? Describe the resistance movements that occurred in these locations.

The Aboriginal people have been in Australia for an estimated 50,000 years and have the oldest continuous culture on Earth. At the time of European settlement, there may have been as many as 1 million people in 500 clans, speaking 700 languages. Australia. In 1788, the British began sending convicts and soldiers to establish colonies in New South Wales. The government instructed the settlers to treat the indigenous inhabitants kindly. However, the colonial government did not recognize indigenous land ownership. Further, because the indigenous inhabitants were not considered British subjects, they were not protected by law. Thousands of Aboriginal people were killed as they tried to defend their territory and resources from European settlers. New Zealand: Compared to the Aboriginals in Australia, New Zealand's Maori were newcomers, having arrived from Polynesia in the 14th century. Under the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi, Britain had promised to protect the property rights of the Maori. Within a short time, the Maori became alarmed by British settlement patterns, and the first of a series of Maori Wars broke out. The British were eventually able to overcome the Maori in 1846. Relations deteriorated again in the 1850s as the Maori became reluctant to sell more land to settlers, fearing for their future. Ignoring the promise of the Treaty of Waitangi, the government attempted to pressure the Maori to sell land, sending troops in 1861 to dislodge the Maori from the property in question. Another decade of fighting ensued. The war ended in an uneasy peace in 1872, but by 1900 the Maori had lost most of their land.

The European Scramble for Africa: Explain what the 'Scramble for Africa' was. Explain what happens at the Berlin Conference - who is involved? WHO ISN'T?

The European Scramble for Africa: Tensions mounted among industrialized European nations as they competed for natural resources in Africa. Leaders feared that the "Scramble for Africa," the competing efforts of Europeans to colonize Africa, would lead to war. Berlin Conference: Unlike many German leaders who had imperial ambitions, Otto von Bismarck had little interest in colonies. However, he did want to keep peace in Europe. So in 1884-1885, he hosted the Berlin Conference, a meeting of European powers to provide for the orderly colonization of Africa. No Africans were invited to the conference. European powers peaceably agreed to colonial boundaries and to the free movement of goods on Africa's major rivers such as the Niger River and the Congo River. In most of the continent, Europeans established colonial borders that were merely artificial lines that meant little to the people who lived within them. These borders divided long-unified societies into different colonies and united longtime rival groups into the same colonies. When these colonies became independent states in the later 20th century, these borders became the cause of extensive warfare by making national unity very difficult.

The Legacy of the Industrial Revolution: What was the effect of Mass Production? Why did people move to cities or industrialized countries? What were some of the negative impacts of industrialization?

The Industrial Revolution brought about profound changes. Mass production made goods cheaper, more abundant, and more easily accessible to a greater number of people than ever before. Growth of factories attracted people to move, both from rural areas to cities and from agrarian countries to industrial ones. Both low-skilled workers and high-skilled professionals moved to take advantage of new opportunities provided by industrialization. However, the natural by-products of industrial production polluted air and water supplies. Industry forever changed the nature of work and the lives of workers. Working populations became concentrated in urban centers, as opposed to being spread among rural areas. The workplace shifted from homes to factories, dramatically altering family life. The Industrial Revolution created a new—and many said unequal—working relationship between workers and owners. More crowding and more poverty brought more crime. Global inequalities also increased because of industrialization. States that industrialized early desired more raw materials to power their production. They searched the world for items such as cotton and rubber. By exploiting overseas natural resources, they undercut early industrialization in Egypt, China, and India, and ushered in a second wave of colonization.

List CONTINUITIES and CHANGES listed in the sections below "Economic Continuities and Changes"

The Industrial Revolution transformed the production and consumption of goods. In Western Europe, access to abundant natural resources, transoceanic trade routes, and financial capital combined with an increasing population resulted in a leadership role in industrialization. However, the invention of the machines used to mass produce goods meant a change from the era of skilled artisans working at their own pace to craft unique and well-built products. With automation, many factory jobs required only unskilled labor working on an assembly line doing repetitive tasks to produce identical goods. Industrialization Around the World: New methods of industrial production associated with the Industrial Revolutions spread and changed the economies of other areas of the world outside of Western Europe. Latin America and Africa were important sources of minerals and metals used in industrial processes. Cotton from Egypt, South Asia, and the Caribbean was grown and exported to Great Britain and other European countries. Southeast Asian areas continued to be sources for spices but also for rubber, tin, and timber. New sources of raw materials were also made possible by the invention of the steam ship and steam locomotive. Other inventions such as the telegraph helped to improve communication across these far flung and sometimes remote areas. While industrialization and capitalism produced great wealth overall, many people had hard, short lives. In response to this suffering, many reformers argued for changes. One of these was the German philosopher Karl Marx.

Cultural and Religious Motives for Imperialism: Describe how science was used as proof that colonization was a right of stronger nations. Explain how Charles Darwin's idea of selection/fittest species was used to justify imperialism.

The Kipling quotation that opens this topic epitomized the condescending attitudes shared by imperialism's proponents. Referring to colonized peoples as children reflected how colonizers saw themselves as benevolent protectors on a "civilizing mission" rather than invaders. Racial Ideologies and the Misuse of Science: The attitudes of whites toward others were a form of racism. Colonial powers generally believed that they were inherently superior to those they subjugated. Pseudoscientists, people who present theories as science that are actually incompatible with the scientific method, strengthened these attitudes. They claimed to have proof of the intellectual and physical inferiority of nonwhite races. Phrenologists, people who studied skull sizes and shapes, believed that a smaller skull size proved the mental feebleness of Africans, indigenous Americans, and Asians. These ideas have been proven false. Legitimate science was also subverted to support imperialism. British scientist Charles Darwin's 19th-century theory of evolution by natural selection stated that over millions of years, biological competition had "weeded out" the weaker species in nature and that the "fittest" species were the ones that survived. Some thinkers adapted Darwin's theory of biological evolution to society, creating the theory known as Social Darwinism. While Darwin himself was not a Social Darwinist, advocates used the "survival of the fittest" theory to argue that the spread of European and U.S. power proved the biological superiority of whites. Writers and politicians then used Social Darwinism to justify further imperialism by powerful countries.

The Ottoman Empire: Did the Ottoman Empire adopt Western ideas? What two things led to unrest in the Ottoman Empire? Describe the Ottoman Empire after World War I?

The Ottoman Empire, although bordering Europe, had not adopted Western technology or Enlightenment ideas. Moreover, rampant corruption led to rapid decline, and ethnic nationalism among the empire's diverse population led to widespread unrest. The empire earned the nickname "the sick man of Europe." Europeans, particularly Russians, saw opportunities to expand their own empires at the expense of the weakening Ottomans. Though they feared the results of a power vacuum from a total collapse of the Ottoman Empire, they dismantled it after World War I. A smaller nation-state, the Republic of Turkey, and several independent countries replaced the former empire.

Ottoman Industrialization: Describe the Ottoman Empire in the 1800s (what problems were they facing and what were the results?) How did Muhammad Ali come to power in Egypt? How did Muhammad Ali reform Egypt? What was the long-term results of Ali heavily taxing the poor? How did Ali industrialize Egypt?

The Rise of Muhammad Ali: One part of the Ottoman Empire where the sultan ruled in name but had little power was Egypt. In fact, the Mamluks, formerly enslaved Turks who formed a military class, had ruled there for some 600 years. In 1801, the sultan sent an Ottoman army to retake Egypt. In the conflict with the Mamluks, an Albanian Ottoman officer, Muhammad Ali, rose to prominence, and local leaders selected him to be the new governor of Egypt. Ali was able to act somewhat independently of the sultan. He joined the sultan's military campaigns when it benefited him, and also undertook several campaigns without the sultan's permission, including in the Sudan and Syria. He also began his own reforms in Egypt. He began by taking over the country's military on a European model. He also established schools, sent military officers to be educated in France, and started an official newspaper—the first in the Islamic world. Ali taxed the peasants at such a high rate that they were forced to give up their lands to the state. The government could then control the valuable cotton production and make money on the export of cotton and other agricultural products. Secularizing religious lands put more agricultural produce in the hands of the government, resulting in large profits during the period of the Napoleonic wars (1799-1815), when prices for wheat were high in Europe. Muhammad Ali also pushed Egypt to industrialize. The city of Cairo had dozens of small shops turning out locks, bolts of cloth, and other parts for uniforms and weaponry. Ali is called the first great modern ruler of Egypt partly because of his vision of state-sponsored industrialization.

How did the Japanese government pay for these advancements? What was a negative effect of industrialization in Japan? Define zaibatsu and describe their role in Japanese industrialization.

The Role of Private Investments While the relationship between industry and centralized government was key to modernization in Japan, private investment from overseas also became important. Once new industries were flourishing, they were sometimes sold to zaibatsu, powerful Japanese family business organizations like the conglomerates in the United States. The prospect of attracting investors encouraged innovation in technology. For example, a carpenter founded a company in 1906 called Toyoda Loom Works that made an automatic loom. The company prospered, modified its name, and grew into today's Toyota Motor Company.

Labor Unions: Describe factories in the 19th century. What was the Sadler Report and what effect did it have on Great Britain? What is a labor union and why were they formed? How did the government initially feel about labor unions?

The harsh conditions of industrial life provoked resistance and calls for reform. "Mother" Jones, a labor organizer, described the severe deprivations of the coal miners working underground all day, and other activists told of the horrors of factory work. Philosophers such as John Stuart Mill sought to address this growing inhumanity of the industrial era through social reforms Others, such as the utopian socialists, argued for completely changing a system they considered to be basically flawed. Workers formed trade unions to advocate for higher pay and safer working conditions. Various ideologies and political movements emerged, some promoting alternative visions of society. The Ottoman Empire in the Mediterranean Basin, China, and Japan also instituted reforms to promote industrialization. In response, each faced reactions against the results of economic change.

Ottoman Economy and Society: With the growth of industrialization, Ottoman workers were increasingly paid in ... Most factory jobs went to ...How did the reforms of Mahmud II change the lives of women?

The reforms under Mahmud II and the Tanzimat occurred during a period of economic change in Turkey. After the Napoleonic wars ended in 1815, prices for food and other crops declined in the Ottoman Empire. However, a global economy was in place, built partially on the flow of wealth into the Mediterranean from European colonial expansion in the Americas. Ottoman workers were increasingly paid in cash rather than in goods. Financial enterprises such as banking increased. These economic changes occurred along with the slow spread of industrialization. The growth of industry affected men and women differently. For example, most new industrial jobs went to men. Legal reforms also benefited men more than women. Traditionally, under shariah, women had been allowed to hold money, to gain from inheritance, and to receive some education. The reforms of Mahmud II made the law more secular, and ended the right of women to distribute their property or cash through trusts to family members. Although women had indirect control of their property, the new nonreligious courts ended even these limited rights. Many reforms had no effect on women. Since women were excluded from the army, the professions, higher education, and commerce, reforms in these areas did not affect them directly. The Tanzimat reforms of 1839 did not even mention women.

African Resistance: Explain what Pan-Africanism was and how it connected to resistance to imperialism. Who were the Xhosa people - why did they kill their cattle? Describe the outcome of the following: Anglo-Zulu War, Samory Toure's War, Mahdist Revolt, Yaa Asantewaa War

Western-educated Africans had a shared identity and nationalism known as Pan-Africanism. The Sokoto Caliphate established the slave trade as a means of economic growth at a time when the British were trying to stop it. The British navy attempted to intercept the ships of the Sokoto Caliphate, free the enslaved people, and relocate them in their colony Sierra Leone. The Sokoto Caliphate was the largest African empire since the 16th century. It was finally subdued in 1903 when the British made it part of their colony of Nigeria. South Africa: From 1811 to 1858, the British fought the native Xhosa people, who did not want to be ruled by Europeans, whether Dutch or English. In 1856-1857, in the region east of the Cape Colony, some of the cattle of the local Xhosa were getting sick and dying, perhaps from diseases caught from the cattle of the British settlers. The Xhosa began to kill their cattle and destroy their crops in the belief that these actions would cause spirits to remove the British settlers from their lands. Some 400,000 head of cattle may have been killed. The immediate result of the Xhosa Cattle Killing Movement was famine and the deaths of thousands of people. However, the British were not driven out of the area. In West Africa in 1868, Mande chieftain Samory Touré led a group of warriors to establish a powerful kingdom in Guinea, extending it until the early 1880s. He opposed French attempts to annex West Africa, first fighting them in 1883. The French finally succeeded but offered Samory their protection. When he was unable to extend his kingdom to the east, he again went to war with the French in 1891. After his forces were ejected, he tried to reestablish his kingdom in the upper Ivory Coast. The French finally captured him in 1898 and sent him into exile.

How did Sultan Abdulhamid continue reforms in the Ottoman Empire? This new Sultan was afraid of "seditious" reforms. How did Abdulhamid react to "Young Turks"? Why was he called the Red Sultan?

When Sultan Abdulhamid took power in 1876, he supported the efforts at internal reforms. He accepted a new constitution for the Ottoman Empire and he continued to emphasize primary education and secularization of the law. A few girls were allowed to attend girls' secondary schools by the beginning of the 20th century. However, fearful of any "seditious" reform, the sultan and the central government maintained tight control over the empire. Abdulhamid eventually drove the advocates for reform, known as "Young Turks" into exile. Further, his government whipped up anger against minority groups, particularly Armenians and Assyrian Christians. Between 1894 and 1896, between 100,000 and 250,000 Armenians were killed throughout several provinces in what has become known as the Hamidian massacres. For this bloodshed, he received the nickname the Red Sultan.

Karl Marx: Who was Karl Marx and what system of economics did he promote? According to Marx and Freidrich Engels in the Communist Manifesto capitalism was an advance on.. because it created a lot of ..., but it also produced unnecessary ... and ...

While most reformers wanted to fix what they considered problems with capitalism, some people wanted more extensive changes. Karl Marx (1818- 1883) was a German scholar and writer who argued for socialism. Unlike utopian socialists, whom he scorned because he thought they wanted to escape problems rather than confront them, he wanted to look at how the world actually operated. He called his approach to economics "scientific socialism." In 1848, Karl Marx and his wealthy supporter Friedrich Engels published a pamphlet (now called the Communist Manifesto) that summarized their critique of capitalism. According to Marx, capitalism was an advance on feudalism because it produced tremendous wealth, but that it also produced needless poverty and misery. This contradiction between wealth and poverty occurred because capitalism divided society into two basic classes.

Define the following: Proletariat and Bourgeoisie. Marx believed that market competition resulted in what? What did Marx believe the proletariat should do? What is the final form of Socialism?

• The proletariat was essentially the working class, working in factories and mines, often for little compensation. • The bourgeoisie included the middle class and investors who owned machinery and factories where workers produced goods. Marx said that market competition drove the bourgeoisie to exploit the proletariat for the sake of higher profits. Because the bourgeoisie owned the means of production, such as machines, factories, mines, and land, they received most of the wealth produced. The proletariat, who did the physical and dangerous work, received very little, just enough to survive. Marx exhorted the proletariat to recognize their shared interest as a class and take control of the means of production and share the wealth they created fairly. For Marx, socialism would replace capitalism. It, then, would later be replaced by a final stage of economic development, communism, in which all class distinctions would end.