hde 117 final
Family life cycle
- More sociality - All great ape species, of whom we share a common ancestor with, constructed and maintained nests --> From nest to house: Platform nest --> domed nests --> huts --> house - Offspring would constitute part of the family's workforce in different stages of the family throughout family evolution. -------------------------------------------------------------- STAGE i. FORMATION: Marriage -> Birth of first child ii. EXTENSION: Birth of first child -> Birth of last child iii. COMPLETED EXTENSION: Birth of last child -> first child leaves home iv. CONTRACTiON: First child leaves home -> Last child leaves home v. COMPLETED CONTRACTION: Last child leaves home -> first spouse dies vi. DISSOLUTION: first spouse dies -> last spouse dies.
Genetic concepts (amino acid/protein relationship, genetic code, mutation, abnormalities, genetic mechanisms)
1. Living organisms are made of proteins. - Humans have around 50,000 different proteins that can be classified into 3 groups: structural proteins, enzymes, and hormones 2. Proteins consist of amino acids: the sequence, arrangement, and types of the 20 amino acids determine the protein type 4. DNA contains genes. - A gene is a segment of DNA located in a particular place on a chromosome--the structure upon which genes are carried in cells 5. Genetic Code An RNA strand consists of a sequence of 3 base groups or triplets that indicate: - When to START a new protein - The type and order of amino acids - When to STOP (end of gene) 6. Mutation An insertion, deletion, or a change in any base in a specific piece of DNA--a mutation-- can DISRUPT the production of a protein coded for, stop the protein from being produced, or upset the normal function of the protein produced. 7. Genetic Abnormalities NUMERICAL: an addition or reduction in the normal chromosome number. ex: down syndrome --> 3 copies of chromosome 21 instead of 2 STRUCTURAL: Changes in the chromosomal structure including: - monogenic: single-gene diseases - polygenic: multiple genes affected Changes in structure could include a break in the chromosome, duplication, or inversion 8. Genetic Mechanisms: PRIVATE: Distinctive of certain lineages, populations, or species (e.g. only to humans; only to primates) PUBLIC: Operational over a large diversity of organisms (i.e. across multiple branches)
Effects of undernutrition in different times of embryonic development and gestation
1. Small human babies are either proportionate (perfect miniatures) or disproportionate 2. Thus the symmetrically small baby is thought to originate through undernutrition in early gestation 3. The disproportionate baby is thought to result from undernutrition later in gestation. 4. Thus undernutrition in early gestation affects body size permanently, whereas undernutrition in late gestation has profound effects on body form. 5.The long term consequences of different kinds of disproportion at birth are a recurring theme in fetal origin concept
Hayflick Limit and other theories of aging
ACTIVITY AND/OR METABOLISM-BASED THEORIES Wear-and-tear: Ordinary insults and injuries of daily living accumulate and decrease the organism's efficacy Rate of living theory: The metabolic rate of a species is inversely proportional to it's life efficacy. --> High metabolic rate correlates to low life expectancy, and vice versa. Oxidative Damage theory: Physiological decrements due to age-related changes can be ascribed to the intracellular damage done by free radicals (unpaired electrons) -------------------------------------------------------------- GENETIC, DNA, AND MOLECULAR-BASED THEORIES Error-Catastrophe Theory: Many small errors in the systematic and enzymatic machinery of the cell mount to a point where cell life is no longer possible. Somatic Mutation and DNA Damage: The integrity of the genome control the aging process, so mutations or DNA damage underlie the aging process and determine its rate. Gene regulation theory: Deterioration with age (senescence) results from changes in the expression of genes after sexual maturity -------------------------------------------------------------- REPLICATED & PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH THEORIES Mitotic Clock Theory: Cells have a limited capacity to divide (Hayflick Limit) The mechanism is thought to be the shortening of telomeres (structures at the end of chromosomes) after each cell division. Apoptosis Theory: Programmed cell death-- a process of systematically dismantling the key cellular components as the outcome of a programmed intracellular cascade of genetically determined steps -------------------------------------------------------------- EVOLUTIONARY THEORIES Negative pleiotropy: Alleles (genes) that have beneficial effects on one set of components of fitness also have negative effects on other fitness components. Mutation accumulation: Arises when the force of natural selection has declined to a point where it has little impact on recurrent deleterious mutations w/ effects confined to late life. --> natural selection is not strong enough to act upon negative mutations that are recurrent.
All adult onset diseases, Alzheimer's disease; APO-E variants, Lou Gehrig's disease; Huntington's Disease
APO-E Variants APO: Alipoprotein --> three alleles (APO-E2, APO-E3, APO-E4) - Carriers of APO-E4 are highest risk for AD (Alzheimer's Disease) - APO-E2 allele may have a positive affect on longevity -------------------------------------------------------------- Lou Gehrig's Disease Progressive neurodegenerative disease that affects nerve cells in the brain and the spinal cord --> leads to loss of control over muscles in the body and decrease in physical functioning. - Strikes mid-aged adults (40 to 70 years) - Fatal within 5 years - 10% inherited; 90% spontaneous - Think: Stephen Hawking -------------------------------------------------------------- Huntington's Disease Causes degeneration of nervous system --> memory loss, dementia, wrinkled skin, weight loss, and uncontrollable jerky movements (chorea) - Average age of onset is 35-42 years with death within 15 years Disorders include: - MOVEMENT: Jerking; writhing; impaired gain and balance; speech difficulty - COGNITIVE: Difficulty organizing; lack of impulse control; learning difficulties - PSYCHIATRIC: sadness, apathy, social withdrawal -------------------------------------------------------------- Dementia Severe changes in the brain that cause memory loss including language, memory, and decision making MOST COMMON FORMS: -------------------------------------------------------------- Alzheimer's Disease: 60 to 80% of dementia; brain cell death. Characterized by slowly progressive dementia and by changes in neuronal and synaptic degeneration; senile plaques and tangles in the brain THREE STAGES: --> i. Symptoms vague and insidious; memory disturbances --> ii. Substantial memory loss but personality and social behavior relatively intact --> iii. All mental functions severely impaired; inevitably leads to death due to complications. - 2-6% of people under 65 show symptoms; up to 40% of all people over 65 show signs. - Many cases of Alzheimer's Disease are sporadic. In the US: -> 1 in 9 Americans over 65 have AD -> 1/3 of Americans over age 85 have AD -> AD is the 6th leading cause of death in the US -> 1 in 3 seniors die with AD or another kind of dementia -> Typical life expectancy after an AD diagnosis is 4 to 8 yrs -------------------------------------------------------------- Vascular Dementia: Lack of blood flow that causes dementia Dementia with Lewy bodies: protein deposits in nerve cells interrupt chemical messages in the brain Parkinson's Disease: mainly movement disorder but many develop dementia
Genetics of lifespan and life expectancy; approaches in model systems
APO-E gene is the gerontogene in humans Polygenic: more than one gene or alleles determine longevity Mutants: altered genes that modify life span Transgenics: transfer of one gene into another organism Gene expression and regulation: genes that can be switched on and off through life
Death differences in twins
Age differences at death: Monozygotic: 14.1 years Dizygotic: 18.5 years Random: 19.2 years - Suggests that twins die closer in age than random sibling or people at random -Twins, monozygotic and dizygotic, died closer in age to each other than random people
Age pyramids (concepts; Germany)
Age pyramids can be: Expanding: SIGNIFICANTLY more young people than old people or more young people than old people in general. Stationary: There is a similar amount of people of every age. Contracting: There are more people of older age than young people (ages 0-10/20) -------------------------------------------------------------- Germany Age Pyramid (1996) Contracting in appearance - Lots of people ages 25-50 due to post WWII baby boom - Baby boom was MASSIVE; fertility rates following the baby boom were significantly lower --> there were way less people ages 0-20 then people ages 25-50. - Decline of men, war casualties from WWII - Decline in births, WWI - Effects of WWI and WWII on men and women decreased the number of births and the number of men (from death in the wars) amongst people 50+ years old.
Multiple questions on kinship categories and various relationships from pedigree chart
Ego: central person in relationship Common progenitor/ancestor: (e.g. great grandfather) -> person you descended from Descendent: (e.g. son, grandson) -> person who is descended from you -------------------------------------------------------------- Vertical genealogy: concerned with lineal and colineal kin (e.g. grandparents; great aunts) Horizontal genealogy: concerned with ablineal kin (e.g. second cousins) LINEAL KIN: Your direct descendants (e.g. children, grandchildren) and progenitors (e.g. parents, grandparents) -------------------------------------------------------------- COLLATERAL KIN: All other kin. - Colineal kin: Uncles/aunts, brothers/sisters, nephews/nieces - Ablineal: cousins COUSINS: Degree of cousins: e.g. first cousin, second cousin, third cousin (same generation) Generation removed cousins: e.g. first cousin twice removed, third cousin once removed, (different generations)
Evolution of the family and the significance of child labor
Evolutionary bottom line: Longevity extension and social complexity are mutually enforcing. ---> As organisms have become more social and formed socially complex groups, their longevity has increased and each individual has lived longer. EXAMPLE: Short-lived, solitary parasitoid evolves to long-lived, social yellow jacket wasp. ------------------------------------------------------------- Primordial Human Family: Nests, Pair, Offspring First principles: Human Family Evolution - Central place (home) - Matriarch & patriarch (parents) - Overlapping offspring (siblings) Cooperative breeding: a reproductive and social system in which non-parental members of the social groups help to support offspring STAGE: GREAT APE Parent(s): Mother Offspring (workforce): Infant-to-juvenile (n=1) Grandparent(s): "Aunting" Lifespan: 40-45 years STAGE 1 Parent(s): Mother, male guarding Offspring (workforce): Infant + juvenile (n=2) Grandparent(s): Proto-grandmother Lifespan: 50-55 years STAGE 2 Parent(s): Mother, proto-mate Offspring (workforce): Infant + 2 juveniles (n=3) Grandparent(s): Proto-grandmother Lifespan: 60-65 years STAGE 3 Parent(s): Mother; Mate; proto-father Offspring (workforce): Infant + 2 juveniles + 1 child (n=4) Grandparent(s): Grandmother; proto-grandfather Lifespan: 65-70 years STAGE 4 Parent(s): Mother, husband; father Offspring (workforce): Infant + 2 juveniles + 2 children + adolescent (n=6) Grandparent(s): Grandmother, grandfather Lifespan: 75-80 years *AS HUMANS STARTED HAVING MORE KIDS, THEY HAD MORE HELP SUPPORTING THEMSELVES (LARGER WORKFORCE)*
Experimental biodemography (medfly studies; supine, reproduction)
Experimental biodemography is likely the study and experimentation that seeks to understand biological and demographic interactions between birth and death that shape the population. ------------------------------------------------p--------- Medfly Studies: Researchers discovered that life expectancy may not always decrease as organisms get older. - a few individuals (fruit flies) were so long-lived in the study that, past a certain age, life expectancy increased with increased age. - VERY ABNORMAL RESULTS: Indicates that there is not a fixed length of life, and that longevity can increase during the lifespan - Male-Female Longevity Paradox: Males have the highest life expectancy but females are the last to die. - Sugar-only diet: Females have higher mortality in the beginning, but males have higher mortality towards the end - Full diet: Males have higher mortality at first, then females have higher mortality towards the end - Sterilized: Males overall have higher rates of mortality than females -------------------------------------------------------------- SUPINE BEHAVIOR: Lying on the back or with the face upward. - Younger medfly males are very likely to die in the supine position. -Older medfly males are less likely to die in the supine position. -Medflies can enter into a supine state and remain that way for days before they die. -Medflies have a shorter life expectancy for their ACTIVE state, that is, their normal state BEFORE supine behavior kicks in than their TOTAL LIFE EXPECTANCY. -Conclusion: All medflies experience a period of disability and deteriorating health at the end of their lives, in fact, all organisms do in the absence of predation. -------------------------------------------------------------- REPRODUCTION: Strange egg-laying behavior in fruit flies. -0-2 days: 0 eggs -3-4 days: 1-50 eggs -5 days: >50 eggs -6-7 days: 1-50 eggs -8 days: 0 eggs -9-10 days: >50 eggs -Very variable periods of egg-laying. - Abnormality: 8 days --> 0 eggs, followed by >50 eggs at 9 and 10 days old.
Cause of death by day of week
Homicides and auto accidents happen more on Fridays, Saturdays, and Sundays Suicides happen more on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday --> with spikes on Monday and Tuesday
compression of morbidity concepts
If morbidity is the period from disease until death; If the date of morbidity can be postponed If the rate of postponement is greater than the increase of life expectancy Then morbidity can be compressed to a shorter period of time
Countries with near or below replacement level fertility
India, China, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nigeria, and U.S.
Historical relationship of life expectancy maximum lifespan and variation
LIFE EXPECTANCY -> Before 1960: Life expectancy increased rapidly because averted deaths are among younger people; very rapid reduction in younger deaths linked to infectious disease control -> After 1970: Life expectancy increased moderately, because averted deaths are among older people. Accelerated reduction of deaths in older-age mortality linked mostly to reduced cardiovascular disease MAXIMUM LIFE SPAN -> Before 1960: Maximum life span increased slowly due mostly to gradual reductions in death rates at older ages. (increases in births and improved survival at younger ages mattered less) -> After 1970: Maximum life span increased moderately due to almost entirely accelerated reduction in death rates at older ages. VARIABILITY OF LIFE SPAN: -> Before 1960: Variability of life span decreasing rapidly due to reductions in mortality at younger ages -> After 1970: Variability of life span is stable because death rates at older ages are decreasing as rapidly as at younger ages.
Graphics of projections 2030 male female differences and different key countries
Male-female differences 2010 vs 2030 - Male-female life expectancy difference: 6 years - South Korea women will be the longest-lived (>90 years) --> followed by France, Spain, and Japan - Female life expectancy shrink in all countries except Mexico. Different key country differences 2010 vs 2030 - Life expectancy increases across the board, but some countries see bigger increases than others. - Highest life expectancy in 2010: Japan. - Highest life expectancy in 2030: South Korea - South Korea projected to have higher life expectancy than Japan in 2030, even though South Korea had a much lower life expectancy than Japan as of 2010. - USA drops below two countries (Czech Republic and Poland) in life expectancy for women.
Categories of genetic transmission (e.g. autosomal; mDNA)
Nuclear DNA/Autosomal DNA: Inherited from both parents and includes genes that are rearranged in the process of recombination. Passed on in part, from all ancestors mtDNA: Passed on complete, but only by daughters. y-chromosome: Passed on complete, but only by sons
States where euthanasia is legal
Oregon, CA, Vermont, Washington, Colorado, D.C., Hawaii, Maine, New Jersey, Montana
Disability, functional limitation, impairment, and pathology
Pathology: the cause (usually a disease) Impairments: what is wrong with her body (fingers hurt) Functional limitations: her limitations (can't rotate fixed items) Disability: what she can't do (open doors) Interventions: what can help them to accommodate them (special handles)
Aging Concepts
Physiological Components of Aging - Changes in appearance - Reduction in height and weight loss due to loss of muscle and bone mass - A lower metabolic rate - Longer reaction times - Functional decline in memory, audition, olfaction, and vision - Declines in kidney, pulmonary, and immune functions - Declines in exercise performance and endocrine function -------------------------------------------------------------- The Science of Aging Gerontology: Science of aging; the study of the social, psychological, and biological aspects of aging Geriatrics: Branch of medicine (clinical) that studies the disease of the elderly Gerontology includes biogerontology: investigating the aging process itself.
Both types of progeroid mutations
Progeroid mutations: refers to one of several human genetic syndromes that accelerate some physical aspects of aging 1. Hutchinson-Gilford (HG) Syndrome - Rare (17 cases) - Caused by a de novo gene mutation - At birth HG patients appear normal; but severe growth retardation by one year; loss of subcutaneous fat and display of scalp veins; median age of death is 12 years. 2. Werner's Syndrome - First manifested as failure to undergo adolescent growth spurt - Early 20s suffer hair loss, graying of hair, atrophy of skin, cataracts, diabetes, and cancers - Death typically by mid 40s
Caloric restriction in rhesus monkeys
Reducing calories
Epidemiological transition concept and details
Refers to the decline of acute infectious disease and the rise of chronic degenerative disease due to expanded public health and sanitation - Phase of development witnessed by a sudden increase in population growth rates, brought about by medical innovation in disease, followed by a releveling of population growth from subsequent declines in fertility.
World population growth rate details
U.N. projections of world population to 2100, medium-fertility variant: 2019: 7.7 billion people 2100: 11.2 billion people Annual growth rate of world population, 1900 - 2100 1900: 0.5% 1970: 2.1% 2020: 1.3% 2100: 0.2% TREND: Annual growth rate increased, with a major spike due to the baby boom, up until about 1970. Afterward, the growth rate has been gradually decreasing (massive decreases during the recession) and will continue to decrease quite a bit until it reaches 0.2% by 2100.
Pedigree collapse
When a common ancestor is shared resulting in less distinct ancestors in the pedigree, significantly shrinking it (mostly from cousins marrying cousins) - each time cousins marry, duplication occurs in their descendant's pedigrees because cousins already occupy a slot there. - Each person's complete family tree is shaped like a diamond - At some point, hundreds of years back, the rate of expansion peaks, the base of the inverted triangle is reached and overwhelmed by "collapse" - The pedigree starts to narrow again, eventually coming to a point at a theoretical first couple
Genetic relatedness
closeness or distance between the heredity or inherited traits of individual organisms. 1 or 100% Lineal kin: Self Colineal kin: Identical twin 1/2 or 50% Lineal kin: Parents/children Colineal kin: Siblings 1/4 or 25% Lineal kin: grandparents/grandchildre Colineal kin: Aunts, nieces, half-siblings Ablineal kin: double 1st cousins 1/8 or 12.5% Lineal kin: great-grandparents/ great-grandchildren colineal kin: great-aunts, grand-nieces ablineal kin: 1st cousins 1/16 or 6.25% Lineal kin: Great great grandparents, great great grandchildren Colineal kin: Great great aunts, great great grand nieces Ablineal kin: 2nd cousins, 1st cousins once removed. 1/32 or 3.125% Lineal kin: Great Great Great Grandparents, Great Great Great Grandchildren Colineal kin: Great Great Great Aunts, Great Great Great grandchildren Ablineal kin: 3rd cousins, 2nd cousins once removed, 1st cousins twice removed