HI 322 Exam 2 Review

What did natural philosophers think was meant by "hypotheses non fingo"?

"I have not been able to discover the cause of those properties of gravity from phenomena, and I frame no hypotheses [hypotheses non fingo]" - Newton

What were the competing views on the role for God that Newtonian physics leaves?

- Argument from design - Scripture expounded by Reason - Natural Theology - Atheism - Divine creation + Rational science/philosophy coexisting - Reason & Logic as an argument against belief in a God

What were the sources of excitement, motivation, and direction for the new mechanical philosophy in the 1600s?

- goal of a new physics of particles and mechanical properties (Descartes's The World [written 1633, published 1664]) - critical anti-Scholastic campaign - cultural support in the arts, commerce, consumerism, politics

Describe Newton's Method (his "Rules of Philosophy")

1) We are to admit no more causes of natural things than such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances. For nature is simple and does not luxuriate in superfluous causes of things. 2) Therefore the causes of natural effects of the same kind are the same. 3) The qualities of bodies which admit neither intention nor remission, and which belong to all bodies on which one can make experiments, are to be taken as the qualities of all bodies whatsoever.

How was the "clockwork" analogy updated to remain appropriate in Newtonian philosophy?

Argument from design? Newtonian philosophy reinforced the fact that the laws of nature/the physical world are very intricate & were probably made as a result of the design of a benevolent, intelligent creator.

Why did mathematical physics become the leader of science in the 1700s?

Because mathematical physics was "trendy" and popular in society, and because all of the leading thinkers/mathematicians/physicists of the time were advancing schools of thought and discovering new things at a more rapid pace than other fields of science.

What objections were raised to Newton's theory at first?

Criticisms: - gravitation as an "occult force" [Huygens] - difficulties with mathematics - priority claims of Hooke

How was Galileo a new hero in the 1700s?

During the 1700s, Galileo became the venerated agent of opposition to ancient ... Galileo as the emblem of the new science, and the scientist-hero standing for ...

Characterize the successes and limitations of Newtonian science in the 1700s, and the hopes or fears it generated.

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Describe how experimental work in physics (heat, electricity) in the 1700s was tied to the Newtonian approach.

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How did theories of "subtle" matter fit the scientific (Newtonian) ideals of the 1700s?

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How were the politics of the Enlightenment tied to Newtonian science?

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Why was the "clockwork" analogy appropriate to the new mechanical philosophy, and what lessons was the analogy meant to teach?

Machines, consumers, and the "clockwork" analogy: - the popular appeal of new technology: machines, clocks, miniaturization, automata - regularity, permanence, predictability - reductionism to component systems - mechanical imagery for causes - parts in linkage - designed order, universal law - broad religious implications

What were the topics and goals of Newton's early work at Cambridge?

Newton at Cambridge: - practical technology, inventions, and mechanical philosophy - alchemy and chemical experimentation - mathematics: new Cartesian geometry, algebra, infinite series - theology (secret Arianism) - language - historical chronology and prophecy (Book of Daniel)

How did Newton's social setting, character, and interaction with others influence the progress of his work?

Newton was quieter, socially awkward, not from wealth: - "delay" in publishing his first books - controversy with Hooke: - disputes over priority of optics theory and mathematics of orbits - personality clash - disagreement over empiricism, models, method

What did Newton do in the Principia? (What was its style, its structure, its topics, its solutions or insights?)

Newton's Principia [Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy] (1687) - Book One: general dynamics on a mathematical basis (starting with the motion of particles), laws of motion, principles of mechanics, Kepler's Laws - Book Two: motion in fluids, motion of fluid media vortices - Book Three: universal gravitation (moon & earth), particle attraction, extension to problems of pendulum, tides, irregularities, general principles for physics

What is meant by "consilience" when talking about the persuasiveness of a theory in modern science?

One of the tests of hypotheses that convinces us Whewell described, in a new term, as "consilience" —> "Accordingly the cases in which inductions from classes of facts altogether different have thus jumped together, belong only to the best established theories which the history of science contains."

What made Newton's Principia so impressive or persuasive in its own day?

Persuasiveness of Principia: - solutions to fit data - unification of celestial and earthly physics under universal laws - coverage of old facts and dilemmas within one system - novel ideas and extension to new problems and solutions - mathematical derivations, proofs, synthetic system - principles or method of doing mechanical philosophy

What were the new roles or opportunities for scientific careers in the 1700s?

Physics? Mechanics? Mathematical Physics?

What are the typical traits of the scientific "genius" that we see in Newton?

Quiet, secluded, awkward, bad social skills, very scatter-brained (forgot to eat meals), observant, highly intelligent, bored with school due to higher intellectual abilities, etc.

What is the "argument from design" and how did it connect to Newtonian science?

See above cards

What was the role of textbooks and popular versions in spreading Newtonianism?

Textbooks written by Newton & other scientists/philosophers (such as Voltaire) spread more quickly the ideas of modern science & philosophy. These books became popular in society and were more accessible to people of all education levels, not just the sophisticated/highly educated/rich people.

How did "coffeehouse culture" help promote new science?

The Royal Society of London -> Just down the street was the site of England's first coffeehouse (1651), where gentlemen began to gather to discuss the matters of the day over coffee, chocolate, or wine. Boyle's "Chemical Club," including Hooke and Wren, met just a few doors from his house in a new coffeehouse opened in 1655 by Tillyard, an apothecary -> New science, new discoveries, new thoughts/methods (etc.) were often formed & discussed/promoted here.

Describe the role of the Royal Society, the French Académie des Sciences, and local philosophical societies in promoting the new science of the 1700s.

The Royal Society of London: ten men who gathered weekly in 1645 to discuss what they called the "New Philosophy" or the "Experimental Philosophy," including such topics as physics, anatomy, geometry, astronomy, navigation, statics, magnetism, chemistry, mechanics, and natural experiments. The French Académie des Sciences: Similar to the Royal Society but in France (both promoted new scientific thought & reasoning in the 1700s)

How did promoters of the new mechanical philosophy relate it to their religious views?

The mechanistic philosophy characterized God's Creation as a realm accessible through measurement, described by the language of mathematics, and operating through rational causes.

What was the role of the salon and "conversation" in the spread of Newtonian ideas?

The thinkers/scientists/academics of the time would meet up at salons for coffee & conversation to discuss the new ideas of Newton. This allowed Newtonian science and modern philosophy to spread quickly as well.