HI184 Final #3

Black Friday

9/8/78 protests erupt in Jaleh Square in Tehran in response to the Rex Cinema burning, which was widely perceived as a false flag operation by the government intended to slander the religious establishment. Government fires on protestors, 100 killed, and this is the point that people overwhelmingly choose sides in society. Abadan workers strike, etc. the second of two events that pushed the country to revolution.

Lebanese Civil War

April 1975 somebody tries to assassinate Pierre Gemayel, founder of Phalange group and influential Maranite politician. his militia kills busload of Palestinians. In august 1975 fighting really breaks out, Muslims support Jumblatt and Christians support Phalange. Phalange started expelling Muslims from their occupied zone, and soon the rest of Christians joined into coalition called Lebanese Front and seiged Tal al Za'tar. In may 1976 Asad intervned on behalf of Maranites, switching for some reason from supporting the Palestinians. Oct 1976 ceasefire accepted, and Asad army stays in country to guarantee peace, PLO continues raids into Israel and Lebanon becomes divided up into sectarian pockets. In 1978 Israel wants to destroy band of PLO influence between west Beirut and the border, because Begin knows it will be easier to annex west bank without them. 25k troops invade up to Litani river, caused Shia exodus. After their withdrawal, UNIFIL installed for buffer. Begin learns: gotta go farther north, and gotta solve problem of political instability to get Palestinians out of there forever. Next plan: destroy PLO, get Syrians to withdraw, put Bashir Gemayel into power. Start coordinating with him as he starts crushing other militias. June 6 1982 Israel Invades with aim to eradicate PLO and get Gemayel elected. West Beirut seiged, and August 18th US supervised withdrawal of PLO fighters agreed. Gemayel elected as president, but quickly assassinated. PLO screws off to Tunis. Amin Gemayel (brother) calls for Syrian help to put down other militias, including newly created Hizbullah. When his term expires 1988 he appoints General Michel Aoun as PM, but this violates the pattern started by Edde that the Maranite president picks a Sunni muslim PM, b/c Aoun is Maranite. Started a huge war to drive Syrian troops from country. Eventually was fighting everybody, including maranites. Syrians beat his ass and took control of Beirut, began process of disarming.

Declaration of Israel

At end of intercommunal war following Un partition plan: 14 May 1948 by David Ben-Gurion, the Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization and the chairman of the Jewish Agency for Palestine. It declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz-Israel, to be known as the State of Israel, which would come into effect on termination of the British Mandate at midnight that day. Before this, haganah disciplined forces had established control over arab majority jewish land + many arabs flee their homes. As british had established no political structure, didnt have any government to transfer power over, left behind a communal struggle for power in which the jews emerged victorious.

General Zahedi

Kermit Roosevelt and the CIA realize the danger PM Mossadeq and his Iranian nationalism pose for their (and British) oil interests. Craft plan whereby Shah will proclaim that Zahedi (previously a general) is PM, not Mossadeq. This happened, and Shah fled after massive protests, soon returning to Zahidi as PM with the help of SAVAK.

1956 War

UK paying great cost for keeping troops in suez. Dam going to be part of agreement, send troops back if any problem threat to suez. Nasser Buys soviet weapons + know-how of how to use them. All for the low price of cotton. Israel: Need to strike Egypt before they use weapons so Israelis want to destabilize Nasser. French convinced that 1955 battle for Algiers are watching a revolution unfold. French convinced Nasser aiding and funding the Algerians, outside agitator. They are absolutely wrong, it's a home grown revolution. Israel: what we really need to do is smash all of Nasser's weapons. What can we do? Need a pretext that can trigger action. July 56': long speech, 2.5 hours. Rips apart suez deal and talks about de Lesseps. That was codeword, by morning Suez nationalized as forces occupy the offices. Sends ships to disrupt traffic, Egyptians succeed in managing canal. Israelis plan with UK to invade. British and French muck it up. Eisenhowers approval not taken, he disapproves. US shoot this down in UN GA. We will withdraw support for pound, economy will freefall so reconsider suez.-Don't mess with USA. French lesson- damn brits, French and germans start talking about unity and Europe. Start of EU-Egyptian people: Nasser great leader, rally around his resistance. Peacekeepers come into Sinai for the first time- buffer region.

Operation Desert Storm / Shield

US cant let saddam have 20% of world's oil supply. SO bring up his gassing of kurds, huge coalition called desert shield. 2500 planes, 500k troops stationed in saudi arabia. 1991: air war begins, iraqi infrastructure destroyed and in land war in feb: lasts 100 hour only. Defeat is massive, iran steals iraqi jets. Ceasefire signed later, but led to a new refugee crisis, destruction of iraq and US rises as superpower in middle east. Decision to not remove saddam from power becomes a hotly contested issue later on.

USS Vincennes

US ship's side is blown apart, iraqis did it but iran is blamed due to poor relations. USS Vincennes shoots down Iranian passenger jet in 1988. This ends the Iranian Iraq war. Iranian public's response to 290 civilian response is at first very muted, but they accept the ceasefire because continued US support of Iraq would not lead to any resolution. We see the government clash between US and Iran after this, both cant give any ground and this stems from the revolution of 79.

1967 War

Water key resource, part of conflict from very beginning. Settlements today are along the water resources. Syria diverges water coming from Jordan-Israel shared lake, Israel fearful over losing food production. Syria continues to fund Fatah and has an agreement with Nasser. Setup for conflict as Israel planning a strike over water, Jordan hates Syrians as Fatah fighting thru Jordanian lands and Nasser pretending to be a strongman in all of this. Nasser puts troops in Sinai and also signs a treaty with Jordan- both enemies allied with Egypt now. June: Straits of Tiran closed, Nasser looking for a diplomatic solution but Israel cant give him a political victory so they launch a preemptive strike and destroy Egyptian airforce, occupying Sinai. Jordan start shelling and Israel, much better equipment and US support, take Jerusalem. IDF launch attack on Golan heights, Syria accepts ceasefire. Results: Israel incredibly victorious, status of occupied territories uncertain, Nasser resigns, rise of Assad and Baath party in Iraq (pan Arab nationalism) + jews expelled from Arab world , many Palestinians leave west bank, and a new refugee crisis. UN Resolution 242 follows.

1982 War

With Egypt a treaty partner and Syria and Jordan quiet, Israel turned its attention to the Palestinian guerrillas. Many of them had grouped in Lebanon after being expelled from Jordan by King Hussein, and began attacking Israel from there.The Palestinians, led by Yasser Arafat and his Palestine Liberation Organisation, would not recognise Israel and Israel would not support a Palestinian state. The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) , with support from Maranites, invaded southern Lebanon, after repeated attacks and counter-attacks between the (PLO) operating in southern Lebanon and the IDF, taking Israeli forces right into Beirut. Yasser Arafat and his fighters were forced to depart for Tunisia. But the operation went wrong for Israel as stalemate ensued. It was condemned by world - and much of its own - opinion when Christian fighters massacred hundreds of Palestinian civilians as the Israeli army stood by (Sabra and Shatila camps) , and it failed to make a political agreement with the Christians stick. It pulled back to an enclave north of their border. Hezbollah becomes tied to Iran, nationalist fervor grows after shias in Lebanon feel marginalized. Fight a war of attrition against Israel as weapons not removed, win in 2000 in south lebanon. Lebanese government is reengineered, peace in Taif and end of conflict in 1988-

ARAMCO

World's most valuable company, with largest oil reserves. In 1936, with SoCal having had no success at locating oil, the Texas Oil Co. (Texaco) purchased a 50% stake of the concession(started 33 to start oil exploration). 1944: Name changed to Aramco. 1950: 50/50 split of profits- after King's threat of nationalization- so make Irani deal look really bad. Involved in the oil embargo of 1973 following Yom-Kipur war (made western powers realize the need to restructure the oil distribution system+ OPEC powerful regional bloc), fully nationalized in 1980.

Qajar Dynasty

You really should know this by now. 1785-1925 they lead Iran. In reality, they were super weak and couldn't excersize influence very far beyond the royal court at Tehran. Especially in late 19th century, really got taken advantage of. Ahmad Shah = last Qajar shah.

Stern Gang/LEHI

Zionist paramilitary organization founded by Avraham ("Yair") Stern in Mandatory Palestine. Its avowed aim was to evict the British authorities from Palestine by resort to force, allowing unrestricted immigration of Jews and the formation of a Jewish state, a "new totalitarian Hebrew republic". Split from irgun in 1940, used terrorism: deir yassin massacre and assasinations. Incorporated into IDF later on, lehi leader becomes PM in 83 post rise of jewish militancy.

Chaim Weizmann

a Zionist leader and Israeli statesman who served as President of the Zionist Organization and later as the first President of Israel. Weizmann convinced the United States government to recognize the newly formed state of Israel. Relied on british support for the state, convinced the cabinet while in uk that support for jewish state would serve their imperial needs as it would require them to be in the region, prevent france from getting suez. Effective spokesman and made ties with british politicians, set up WZO offices and agreed with faisal to cooperate in development of palestine after the Balfour declaration- in which he had an important role to play.

Mujahidin Khalq

a leftist political party in Iran (abbreviated as MKO) that held power in Bazargan's provisional government. One of the leftist groups that Khomeini divided and conquered (because he could reach out to new urban immigrants who couldnt understand what the MKO stood for). Marxism + Islamic ideas. Wanted a militant socialist constitution but not successful as Khomeni came out on top as being the most organized.

UN S. C. Res. 242

adopted unanimously by Security council after 6 day war in 1967. Called for withdrawal of Israeli forces from occupied territory beyond the 1948 boundaries, and "respect for sovereignty of states. This is the "land for peace" strategy. However, it never specifically mentioned the Palestinians by name, mentioned it as a refugee crisis not a national one thus rejected by fatah. Also recognizes israel, problem for some, but accepts two nation theory.

Secularism

amendment of the Constitution of 1924, which removed the provision declaring that the "Religion of the State is Islam", and with the later reforms of Attaturk to form a state based on Kemalism and a brand new ideology. Define's state's stance as one of 'active neutrality'- not complete separation. Eliminated the position of the caliphate, shifted power from islamic laws to national assembly and the insertion of the word 'laicite' officially marked the transition. Far ahead of most of europe.

Phalange

the bloc that most represented the Maronite perspective, pretty much a national Maronite political organization. Founded by Pierre Gemayel in 1936, it was influenced by European fascist parties. Becomes main maranite militia.

UN S. C. Res. 338

the ceasefire of the 1973 Yom Kippur war. Basically reminds everyone to respect resolution 242 in all its parts.

UN Resolution 181

the original partition plan, created after UNSCOP spent five weeks investigating conditions in Palestine and submitting recommendations. unanimously recommended that Brits terminate mandate and grant independence to Palestine, but divided on what kind of state Palestine should be. One group wants federal state, one wants two states, one Jewish one Arab and Jerusalem as internationalized district. Zionists like, Arabs don't. Huge lobbying effort from the US and threats of economic blowback for not voting for the proposal in the UN. as soon as presented for vote, Brits announce that they are withdrawing may 15 1948. Plunges Israel into chaos. P.246 independence struggle.

Hajj Amin al-Husayni

was a Palestinian Arab nationalist and mufti + head of Supreme Muslim Council (ran a patronage network and responsible for muslim waqf, shariah courts etc.). His appointment was used by british to continue the rift between two leading muslim families in jerusalem- raghib bey opposed any position he took, detrimental to palestinain cause. British ally uptil before the war, during which he allied with nazi germany and considered a war criminal by some. Controversial to some (nationalist or antisemitic?) for raising anti semitism in modern islamic fundamentalism + but actually MODERATE and pragmatic, before 36: urged followers to cooperate with british.

Vladimir Jabotinsky

was a Revisionist Zionist leader, massive support and leadership cult amongst groups in eastern europe because it condemned Weizmann's strategy of relying on the british. He said british capable of abandoning the jewish cause so only way was to immigrate 50,000 jews per year. His territorial demands were controversial and demanded transjordan to be part of Jewish commonwealth. Later he established his own military force called the irgun. Followers include Begin and Shamir, israeli PMs. Arabs during this period avoided political participation because that would mean accepting Balfour whereas Zionist leaders sought immigration and ways to deal with uncooperating british.

French Mandate

why Lebanon was "born schizophrenic." General Gouraud's objective with Lebanon was to safeguard the Maronite community by making sure it doesn't get absorbed into Syrian Muslim state, but make them dependent on French support by making them religious minority. French wanted it to be a meditteranean country. Hugely mixed sectarian and urban/rural divide of wealth, hugely dispersed population and religions living next to one another. 1926 constitution creates Lebanese republic, but doesn't say anything about indepdnence. French high commisioner could suspend the constituion and dissolve parliament, and french advisors involved within each ministry. Franco-Lebanese treaty guaranteed fair representation of all countries religions in government, and Edde was elected as president and appointed Muslim Khayr Ahdab as his PM, looks like independence but no! French hamber didn't ratify, so gotta wait till after ww2. Protests follow blockade and hunger in 1941. Khuri, maranite, and Sulh his PM hammer out National Pact 1943. Couple of days after war ends France starts building up troops in Levant, this causes protests and violence, French bombard Damascus, Britain intervenes and armistice, French leaves finally.

Tudeh

"Masses" party of Iran. Founded in 1941 by Marxists and have pro-Soviet stance but don't like to call themselves communist. Most popular reformist movement under the Shah, scared USA and Brits because they were well organized and they knew that if they took power in the Majiles it would be bad. Best able to organize support in southwest near Abadan refinery. During war, competing in majilis / debate sphere with other nascent parties for control after Russia/Brits withdraw. Got Russia to withdraw after they didn't want to after war by saying "we can't talk to you while you're here so GTFO and we can talk about concessions." nothing ever happened tho. Served as opposition to Mossedeq's National Front, which were more conservative. When Mossadeq's oil nationalization started screwing the economy, and social changes scared ulama, National Front coalition started falling apart and Tudeth became way more powerful in the south and looked like they were gonna grab power. USA acted to depose and started program 'Be damned'- CIA shaping public opinion, seems like its coming from locals but is actually american instigated to make tudeh look bad.

Zouama

"the elites of the millet communities". Effectively feudal lords, manipulated elections to get themselves and friends elected. Getting everyone in your clan / in your feudal domain to vote one way = the elected person only looks how for that community's interest, and it becomes normal for ideology to become irrelevant to voting. Sectarian based blocs.Zouama get to know eachother at American University of Beirut.Start to push for relenquishing of French control. But gotta deal with problems. Christians anxious because now their protector/sponsor gone. Make agreement, and decide Christian groups forgo French protection as long as Muslim groups don't seek to join with another state. Participate in Lebanon not other countries. Agree to form independent government. Agree to ethnic divisions too: President always Maranite, Sunni PM and Gov't, Shia foreign minister etc. Use 1932 census to determine apportionment of representatives, even tho 1950 there are more Muslims than Christians.

Operation Ajax

(p.267) the operation coordinated by the CIA and MI6 aimed at overthrowing/deposing Mossadeq for fears that he might actually succeed at nationalizing oil.Majiles elect him, and he passes law nationalizing Iranian oil. AIOC calls for worldwide boycott backed up by Brit navy. 1952 Iran Brit sever negotiations. When Eisenhower takes power, approval is given for coup. Shah will issue proclamation that mossadeq isn't PM anymore, Zahidi is now PM. Shah stays shah. CIA tells shah because he is popular in military and he needs to convince them to go along with plan. Gets his sister to tell him to play along with the coup when it starts happening. Shah wants signed but undated Zahidi resignation letter. August 15th 16th they decide to do it. Mosadeq hears about the coup coming. Everything goes nuts 230am august 16th. Most conspiratorial gets arrested, everyone goes into hiding, mohammad reza flees to baghdad with his family. Doesnt liek that. Flees to rome. After shah flees, 16th and 17th massive protests, Roosevelt wants to go ham on Be Damn and plant rioters / ulama haters. CIA agents attack americans to get iran to crack down on rioters. CIA pays mob to attack Mossadegh's house. 22nd shah returns. Zahidi sets up SAVAK

Tarif Accord

1989 held in Saudi Arabia, reengineered the Lebanese government to give Muslims more power. Specifically did this by giving the prime minister (who is always Muslim) some powers the always-Maronite president previously had. Also added nine new Muslim seats, three of which were mandated to be Shia. Acknowledged special relationship between Lebanon and Syria, and mandated that Syria could help the different parties of civil war disarm. Controversial surrednering of sovereignty that scares Christians. Hizbullah and Amal both didn't turn in weapons, and they did not like PLO resurgence in south.

Hashemi Rafsanjani

1989: became president of Iran. During the final years of Iran-Iraq War Rafsanjani was the de facto commander-in-chief of the Iranian military.. He played an important role in the choice of Ali Khamenei as Supreme Leader. He supported a free market position domestically, favoring privatization of state-owned industries and a moderate position internationally, seeking to avoid conflict with the United States and the West. "kingmaker".

The Free Officers

284 A group of nine officers from humble social backgrounds, lead by Nasser, that overthrew Faruq. Persuaded Muhammad Naguib to serve as their figurehead leader, because their youth won't be respected. THey were pragmatic nationalist and military bureaucrats with no predetermined views on politics or ideology. Formed into the Revolutionary Command Council, very ad hoc, but dominated by Nasser and used to infight. In 1953, RCC abolished the 1923 constitution, political parties were banned, and RCC is supreme executive. Had to face off with Muslim Brotherhood, outlawed them in 1954. Land redistribution, Economic development, Electrification. Another big problem is Israel. National Union = only state party allowed.

Golda Meir

4th PM of israel, elected in 1969 after winning 56 seats- best showing ever in an israeli election. 'Iron lady' of israel. accepted a U.S. peace initiative that called for an end to the War of Attrition and an Israeli pledge to withdraw to "secure and recognized boundaries" in the framework of a comprehensive peace settlement. 73 war: didnot mobilize forces early but did fully mobilize so prevented major losses, not clear about incoming war and decided against pre emptive strike due to need of foreign aid. Resigned following the war.

Rex Cinema

8/19/78 Shah government burns down a cinema and tries to blame it on the clergy and radicals. This backfires completely, and leads to protests everywhere. First event that really pushed people over the edge, and it is directly responsible for Black Friday Jaleh Square protest events.

General Edmond Ironside

A british general stationed in Iran, was in charge of replacing the Russians that the Persians hired to help their military. He ousted Russian guy in charge of training Cossacks, chose Reza Shah to become head of the Cossacks. Also influenced + "winked" at Reza to overthrow Ahmad Shah.

Dayr Yassin

A village on the outskirts of Jerusalem that was the site of a huge massacre at the hands of the Irgun in 1948. 250 people were killed, and maybe Begin had something to do with it. Lead to a retribution killing of 70 Hebrew U nursing students. The narrative was embellished and used by various parties to attack each other—by the Palestinians against Israel; by the Haganah to play down their own role in the affair; and by the Israeli left to accuse the Irgun and Lehi of blackening Israel's name by violating the Jewish principle of purity of arms. Led arab states to intervene and sparked terror among palestinian villagers- forcing them to flee.

Majilis

After the constitutional assembly was authorized by Muzzafir al-Din Shah because of huge protest, Majilis met for first time in 1906. Literally means "assembly" but it is the parliament of Iran. Suspended when Majilis refused to dismiss an American financial adviser at behest of Soviets, who had just invaded in 1909 after British did and occupied the South. Under Reza Shah Pahlavi, it was a rubber stamp congress whose elections were closely controlled. After he got deposed when Brits / Russians invaded, majilis passed bill outlawing even discussing concession agreements while foreign troops in Iran. Same thing under Mohammad Reza Shah, elections were totally fradulent and eventually only one party was allowed (National Resurgence Party.) Other coalitions or parties include Mossadeq's National Front Coalition, and the Marxist Tudeh

Kucheck Khan

An Iranian nationalist and leader of Jungali movement. Jungali = "those of the forest" and they are worried about wealth inequality and distribution of resources. Not ideologically aligned but strategically aligned with Soviets, based in Northern Iran / Gilan. Allows Bolsheviek forces to land in Rasht, causes Reza's army to rise up and change plans and take power in Tehran. Killed after infighting started because of percieved betryal by Soviets, because of the fact that they signed a nonagression pact with Reza and Sayyid.

Mehdi Bazargan

An engineering professor by trade in Tehran, Bazargan founded a pro-Mossadeq political party in the 1960's and was jailed for it. When Khomeini came back in early February 1979, he was appointed prime minister of the temporary provisional government. He was viewed as both a pious Muslim and an educated technocrat. After Bakthiar fled on Feb 11th, he became the Iranian prime minister. Has little say in the drawing up of the constitution.

White Revolution

Attempt to reform society from the top. Shah's solution to Kennedy's pleas. Kennedy wants him to be nicer to his people so that communism doesn't succeed / become popular there. Long term distorting effects. 1. 1963 redistribute land, break up large landholdings. Land reform is meant to coopt peasants and break power of rural landowners. Breaking this power breaks the previous guarantee that landowner wouldn't let peasant die. This makes tons of people move to cities, huge slums, sprawling nonintegrated bits of cities .2. privatize factories that Reza Shah Pahlavi (mohammad Reza Shah's dad) had created. 3. Women get suffrage and their norms start to westernize. On paper champions womens rights, but in practice doesn't really do much. 4. Nationalize timber industry 5. Create literacy corps that go to country and teach people how to read. Literacy ^ a ton. This creates educated group of citizens from the bottom. Inculcates nationalism thru educational system. 6. Profit sharing in factories. Give people a stake in the system. Create middle class that naturally / lovingly support Shah. Result :land reform drives ppl to cities, destroy link between landowners and peasants-

Oil&AIOC etc

Bad deal with British (darcy finds oil in 1908 +exclusive rights), Iranis get only 16% of oil profits in Reza shah's rule from the refinery in the south. Iranians get fixed royalty attached to the volume and not the market price of oil. With Irani nationalism on the rise, Reza changes name from Anglo Persian to Irani oil company. Oil negotiations due in 1949- Oil becomes topic for coalition. British dont want to make concessions because vertical control from production to transportation by AIOC and 30% tankers owned by them. Also their economy was ruined by war and they NEEDED cheap oil. But Iranians see ARAMCO 50/50 split deal and they look to American companies to offer better deal than Brits. Our gov't starts backing companies looking at this market. Negotiations starts to stall... nationalize? 1951: Mossadeq comes to power, complains to majlis about oil and nationalizes it. British response negative, deems oil trade with Iran as 'stolen goods' and boycotts it + crippling effects on economy. 54': after Mossadeq coup, once again foreign influence in oil but now a 50/50 deal with less monopolization, but management under foreigners, remains until 1979.

Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi

British and USSR forces divided Iran into sphere of incluence. Spending by these troops = massive inflation. Spent youth detached from public in Switzerland. Became close with the US when US started backing him to oppose Soviet backing of Tudeh. When Mossadeq took Majiles and nationalized oil, US convince him to sign a decree dismissing mosedeq and appoint Zahedi to PM. OSS and Iranian agents capture Mossadeq, return Shah from Rome to power. He restores diplomatic relations with Brits, US gave 500 mil in military aid between 1953 and 1963. In early 60's we pressure him to be nice, he lets National Front run in Majileis elections, obvious fraud, strikes start breaking out and Khomeini starts his popularity and preaching here. By 1972 Iran had 5th largest military in the world. Implemented the WHITE REVOLUTION. Emphasized Iran's pre-Islamic past, epitomized by huge party at persepolis in 1971 that cost 100 million dollars to commemorate 2500 years of Iran monarchy. Started to be denounced heavily by ulama, and in 1975 he instituted two party rule by forming the National Resurgence Party. Also cut spending in 1975 by firing and withholding benefits in order to keep inflation down, made him more enemies. Carter's "island of stability" comment in 1977 emboldened gov't to heavy-handidly pursue Khomeini, leads to revolution.

Balfour Declaration

British declaration in support of Zionist objectives in Palestine, issued in 1917 by British secretary Arthur Balfour. Reasons: cement wartime alliances, sympathy toward religious aspects of zionism and chance to secure british strategic interests. Reflected cabinet sympathies for a jewish state in palestine. Confused all parties named in it, clearly 85% arab population interests were going to be harmed. Led to greater jewish immigration into Palestine and created rifts between the two communities later on.

Yasser Arafat & Fatah

Chairman of PLO (69-04), put question of palestine rights in UN light and shined spotlight on israeli occupation of gaza, west bank. Founder of Fatah: guerilla force formed in late 50's by young palestine uni graduates and post 67 found great support in jordan refugee camps. Most formidable, independent guerilla group amongst PLO. Emphasized palestine nationalism above all, linked the movement to historic events such as 36-39 revolts and avoided tying it to communism etc just focused on getting palestine homeland back using force. Appealed beyond class/ religious links and recovered the question of palestine-israel conflict. 74: dropped regaining all of palestine then in 88: endorsed 242 resolution and recognized israel's right to exist within pre-67 boundaries after end of war in lebanon. Became the voice of all palestinians and after the intifada, recognize the need for peace and leads to oslo.

February Fourth Incident

King Faruq wanted to appoint Ali Mahir to vacant premiership from coaltion falling apart and resiging. But Brits didn't want this because he is a nazi sympathizer, so they sorrounded palace with tanks and made Faruq agree to appointing a pro Britain Wafdist cabinet. Screwed the reputation of the Wafd, made them seem like a puppet of the british. 189

Black September

Civil war between PLO who were trying to be autonomous inside Jordan and King Hussein, hashemite monarch. Armistice signed between egypt and israel post 67 war. Fatah sees Nasser trying to cut a deal, heavy suspicions about syria as well. PFLP: wanted jordan to be a base for arab unity so that they can launch attacks against israelis + desire to radicalize regimes like King Husseins. 4 planes hijacked, make demands of hussein he cant really fulfill so he launches a war against PLO. 3000 dead, PLO moves to lebanon, destabilizes PLO that leads to ugly phase for them & munich attacks (72) and nasser dies of heart attack.

Moshe Dayan

Defense Minister during the Six-Day War in 1967, he became to the world a fighting symbol of the new state of Israel. following the election of Menachem Begin as Prime Minister, Dayan left the Labor Party and joined the Likud as Foreign Minister, playing an important part in negotiating the peace treaty between Egypt and Israel. Before that, didnt want to give away pre 67 territories and was a big hero after the war Part of the foreign policy that wanted a maronite christian led lebanon that would ally itself with israel and openly desired to annex southern lebanon to be part of israel.

Theodor Herzl

Didnot originate the idea of zionism, but through energy he forged the existing strands of ideology into a coherent international movement. Trained in law, was convinced anti semitism was deeply rooted in eruopean society and couldnt removed by legislation. Wrote Jewish State- a treatise on nationalism rather than religion. Constituted a nation but lacked a state within whch they could freely express their culture. Didnt specifiy palestine as future location, only solution to discrimination was a political sovereign jewish homeland. Set up world zionist organization, through grassroot support, and attracted more people to annual conference every year.

Hafiz

FILL IT IN

Mohammad Khatami

Fifth president of Iran, served two terms. Member of ulama, education in theological studies at Qum, also had degrees in education and philosophy. Wanted involvement of young and women, which resulted in pro-reform wave in 2000 elections. Advocated for civil liberties, tolerance, nice shit etc. Khamenei did not like, and frequently denounced him. No economic or political success first term, but still elected second term, popular with student leaders. Public disillusionment because reforms were not going far enough and tried to avoid confrontation.

David Ben Gurion

First PM of israel. Declared independence for israel in 48. Came from eastern europe, founding member of Histadrut. Leader of Mapai and Jewish Agency, thus leader of the Yishuv. Believed state and religion will eventually separate, but his concessions added upto laws that have institutionalized the role of religion in Israeli public life and generated tensions. Foreign policy: every arab act will be met with one more of greater intensity and retaliation, only means of survival. His ideology challenged after the rise of Begin and jewish militancy in 77 election.

King Faysal I

First king of Iraq, spotted by Bell as to be a good potential ruler for Iraq. Was king of syria but moved due to french mandate. Faysal constructs a state with sunni advisors who came with him at apex of power but population is 60% shia. Uses tribal system and loyalties to his advantage. Draws sunnis into elite because he can trust them BUT leads to poor distribution of resources, sunni shia issue is a myth, only issue is favoritism of sunni minority in important positions. Britain is still necessary for survival of state, faces problem of money because revenue from oil is still low + IPC has concession.

Nuri al-Sa'id

First term as PM in 1930: he signed the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty, which, as a step toward greater independence, granted Britain the unlimited right to station its armed forces in and transit military units through Iraq and also gave legitimacy to British control of the country's oil industry. Poverty and social injustice were widespread, and Nuri had become a symbol of a regime that failed to address the issues + pro British policies, choosing a course of repression instead, to protect the interests of the well off. Killed in 58 revolution at overthrow of monarchy.

UNRWA

Founded in 1950 to oversee welfare of the refugee camps post 48 war. Overwhelmed by the magnitude of the relief task it faced, post june war over 1 million refugees. Lived in camps, some moved to arab states but most in destitute conditions with their houses taken over by jews. Extremely strained budget of only 27k per person for housing, education, medical etc. Tents consisted of shacks with extended families & had an unprivate existence. People deprived of homes and a future, came to resemble villages. Only agency that provides support to a specific region, independent of UNHCR.

Ariel Sharon

Greatest commander in Israeli history. Involved in all wars, became a national hero post the 48 war, 73 war: he crossed the suez by catching the egyptian forces red handed occupying parts of sinai. and 82 lebanon war aswell: policy maker with Begin that aimed to destroy PLO, eliminate syrian troops in lebanon and to establish a christian maronite govt in lebanon- leave israel free control in occupied territories. 70-90's: supported israeli settlement growth. Allowed Phalange to enter Sabra-Shatia camps and carry out a massacre. Leader of likud in 2000, as PM in 2005: supported disengagement of israel from west bank and gaza.

1948 War

Haganah and Irgun purchase weapons. IDF= Haganah, becomes national army. Everybody has blood on their hands. Plan D: forceful fleeing of Arab Palestenians to move out, essential to establish the state. Civil war begins, with nasty fighting. British backing away, get out quickly and dont intervene so more violence because of vaccuum. No handover of power by british. Ben Guiron declares independence. Arab resistence is weak, send troops but not ready to fight. They lack equipment, weak army not enough numbers. King Farouk worried about his position in Cairo. No coordination among Arab troops and weakness of Israel forces not true. Jordanian war aim is to absorb Arab lands on west bank so it takes King Abdullah off the table, further disunity. Ceasefire agreed in June, IDF better situation with modern army who had fought in WW2 aswell. Armstice in 1949 after IDF's domination. 700,000 flow into West Bank and Gaza and neighboring states. Massive refugee crisis begins.

Gamal Abd al-Nasser

Hard childhood experience, from humble background which was typical of officer corps. Because of officer schools set up to improve social mobility. Fought in the palestine campaign in 1948, had huge impression on him, wanted to avenge what happened. Power struggle between Naguib and him, because Naguib had become more than a figurehead, placed him under house arrest. Passed Agrarian reform law of September 1952, way of RCC building popular support, limits one person's land to max 200 feddans. also outlied titles like "pasha" and "bey." Establishes 350 member national assembly and a bill of rights. National Union = RCC mass political organization.Massive plebiscite approved constituion and Nasser as president, set precedent for plebiscites and not votes. Bought tons of guns, 200 million worht from the soviets, viewed thru cold war lens in west. Nasser requesting aid is violation of the Baghdad Pact, which aimed to contain Soviets in the Middle East.

Peel Commission

Headed by lord peel, investigative comission, 1937. Premise on which the mandate was based was untenable, unitary state couldnt be created out of contradictory obligation made in balfour- declaration had led to the communal rifts. Said mandate should be terminated, separated into arab and jewish states with british retaining some control from jerusalem. Neither party content, idea of partition faded away as zionists not content with land, and arabs saw this is a violation of their right. Led to rise of arab rebels who disrupted government mostly in rural areas. Led to 20,000 british troops to settle the violence and exile of arab leaders from palestine.

Iranian Hostage Crisis

In February of 1979, following the revolution, there was a large sit-in by students in the courtyard of the embassy, to which the Marines did not fire. On november 4th, they thought same thing was happening, so they held fire, but they got overran and 50 hostages were taken by the students. The reasons for this are rooted in history. The events of 1953, when the Shah fled and then came back with US backing, came flashing back when the Shah went to NYC for cancer treatment. Believing another coup is on the way, they invade embassy and take hostages to preempt this coup. These hostages were held for 444 days, and were the cause of lasting enmity between the US and Iran. Paraded around on nightly television, these hostages caused Americans to dislike Iran intensely, which provided electoral incentive for hardline positions against Iran. This is why so many Iran hawks. Inside Iran, hostage crisis is good, because lets Khomeini argue that not passing the constitution is tantamount to helping US - "Shaitaan-e-Buzurg" + helps constituition pass, and when tensions heightened between the two nobody wants to be accused of this. Outside of Iran, it is bad for revolution, because before world united against d-bag Shah, but after breach of diplomatic norm everyone scared of Iran. The hostages were released when the Shah died. Failed rescue mission leads to Carter's downfall in the next elections.

land tenure

It was the policy of the Zionist Organisation to encourage Jewish acquisition of land in Palestine for Jewish settlement. For that purpose, the Fifth Zionist Congress (1901) set up the JNF to buy suitable land. The rules of the JNF forbade it from selling the land it acquired, but to lease it. Land owned by the JNF was leased to kibbutzim and other Jewish settlements on long-term leases. Lands left by arabs taken by israeli state. First big JNF purchase made from sursock family, 50k acres to JNF. Led to increased Palestinian peasantry and revolts later on.

Camp David Accords

Jimmy Carter invited Sadat and Begin to come and negotiate face to face after Sadat addressed Knesset in form of detente. Produced two documents p.374 "A framework for peace in the middle east" endorsed UN resolution 242, laid out a plan for giving Palestinians autonomy over the period of five years but actually is just a separate peace for egypt. But written too vague, which is what begin wanted. Fate of gaza, west bank not decided and left to a separate treaty. Other document = simple peace agreement between the two. Sets the basis for separate peace treaty march 1979.

Menachem Begin

Leader of irgun since 43, led terrorist efforts to drive british out such as king david hotel. Formed the Herut party (ultranationalist) calling for israel on both banks of the jordan river, allied with more centrist parties to gain power. Marks the change from secular socialist zionism to highly religious militant ideology called the "second israel". Agenda primarily focused on retention of conquered 67 territories as well as to use the religious resurgence to his motives. Begin wins election in 77 due to support from Sephardic community who felt left out of socioeconomic life and wanted change from the Labor party who had been in power since 48. Peace treaty in 79 + lebanon invasion in 82, camp massacre allowed it to happen.

Haddad

Leader of the Southern Lebanon Army, which represented the Shia interests in Lebanon.

Hasan al-Bakr

Led Baath party (68-79) as president of Iraq. From Tinkret, relient on family ties and kinship to run government. Part of reformation of bath party that stressed on absolute unity, people at to were skilled in conspiracy and stress on Trust factor. Coalition with Saddam, who has alot of power during his reign. During his rule, Iraq was blossoming; high economic growth due to high international oil prices strengthened Iraq's role in the Arab world and increased the people's standard of living. Land reforms were introduced, and wealth was distributed more equally. A sort of socialist economy was established in the late-1970s, under the direction of Saddam. Al-Bakr gradually lost power to Saddam in the 1970s

Hamas

Level of respect for PLO is falling as violence grows in late 80's, stood for Islamic Resistance Movement. Founded 1988 by young college graduates, opposed old school power politics of PLO establishment figures + charitable org in gaza . PLO was secular nationalist, and HAMAS used Islamic terms to frame struggle as internal jihad + but used weapons at same time. Conflict starts to take the shape of religion. Palestine as waqf (islamic land) Made accepting two state solution impossible because can't concede islamic land. Crucial to any future palestine state.

Marja-i-taqlid

Literally 'model to be followed', a title reserved for the ayatollah who will rule the ummah until the mehdi isnt here. The synthesis of the concept of Vilayet e faqih (rulership of the guardians or clerical jurisprudence) and the underlying principles of Plato's Republic and his philosopher king is what characterizes this idea. This "model to be followed" principle is specific to Twelver Shia. Allows Khomeni to establish his own new way of ruling via an 'islamic state' and a Rahbar- something that many shia scholars are actively against.

Kurdish / Shi'ite revolts+ No fly zones

Massive revolts in shia areas against saddam. Movement called Dawa, southern iraq consumed by revolt but not supported by other forces so was crushed. Shia revolt against sunni minority and kurdish revolt in north also crushed. one-month period of unrest, tens of thousands of people died and nearly two million people were displaced. 1 mil kurds flow out of northern iraq. No flyzones established in north and south so refugees can actually go home. Sanctions placed on iraq to give up its chemical weapons, 1996 US disarmed saddam but didnt remove him from power. Effect of sanctions was to actually empower saddam because population became dependent on him. The operation provided the Kurdish population with humanitarian aid and reassurance of safe skies. Kurds later established autonomous Iraqi kurdistan after these no fly zones. responsible for systemic social repression and had become vulnerable to regime change. This perception of weakness was largely the result of the outcome of two prior wars- the Iran-Iraq War and the invasion of Kuwait, both of which occurred within a single decade and devastated the economy and population of Iraq-

Yishuv

Name of community living in Palestine before 1948. Within it, was Histadrut- federation of jewish labor founded in 1920 to promote jewish trade unionism. Decisive influence of yishuv and later state of israel. Boycott of arab workers and arab products and set of trade activities for jews. Formed an ideology and image of palestinian jews: self sufficient, hard working, farmers and soldiers of palestine. Control of Haganah. Mapai Party formed from this labor movement, dominated Yishuv until 77. Gave it a socialist egalitarian ideal.

Partition Plan

Nov 1947, leads to civil war. The resolution recommended the creation of independent Arab and Jewish States and a Special International Regime for the city of Jerusalem. The Partition Plan, a four-part document attached to the resolution, provided for the termination of the Mandate, the progressive withdrawal of British armed forces and the delineation of boundaries between the two States and Jerusalem. Accepted by jews, not by arabs who said it was against self determination. British see this as an escape route, leave palestine without any government behind them.

Rumeila oil field

Oil field in southern iraq, largest in iraq. Rumalia oil field was critical in the 1990 Gulf War. Iraq, after accusing Kuwait of allegedly side-drilling under Iraqi soil, launched an attack on Kuwait on 2 August 1990. Iraq said it lost 2.4bil $ due to kuwait stealing oil form rumela. Other reasons for attack: basra inland port, need access to sea + iraq owed money to kuwait which it demanded back + kuwait driving oil prices low and preventing revenue for saddam. Didnt anticipate an international reaction. War against Kuwait turned out to be destructive for him as US responded emphatically.

Ataturk

One of Anwars junior officers in CUP, 1908-09 revolution. Arrogant, exceptional field commander and Anwar dislikes him and sidelined early on. Sent to die in defence of Galipoli but he emerges victorious and status rises in eyes of public. Retreats in Levant in 1918 when pushed back by British, saves 30,000 people who become loyal to him. Post war, decides he wants to become a Politician. When the greeks land in Izmir, expel muslim turks. Attaturk seizes chance to launch a resistance, using stockpiled weapons and uniforms. Given command of all of Anatolia army, greeks pushed back without british support and defeat them in 1922 in 'war of independence'. Tremendous for nationalist credibility, Republic of Turkey officially comes into being post Treaty of Lausiana in 1923, with ataturk as president who oversaw intense westernization and secularization of the country.

Modernization

Opposed to religious faith in public discourse. Try to be part of Europe, join EU attempts. Modernization of the economy. He ordered that girls be allowed to attend school. Kemal also gave women the right to vote and take jobs in business and government. Pretty much same stuff as westernization. 'Let science and new ideas come in freely'- era of new methods of teaching.

Sayyid Zia al-Din

Originally a journalist, he was chosen by Reza to be the first prime minister under the new government in agreement signed in 1921. They sign a friendship nonagression pact with the Soviets so that they can isolate and eliminate Jungalis. Only chosen for his popularity with the masses, after Reza got super popular by eradicating Jungalis and killing Kulcheck, he returned from campaign and ousted him from power.

Yitzhak Rabin

PM on two occasions. Rabin has become a symbol of the Israeli-Palestinian peace process. As prime minister, Rabin put a freeze on new Israeli settlements in the occupied territories. His government undertook secret negotiations with the PLO that culminated in the Israel-PLO accords (September 1993), in which Israel recognized the PLO and agreed to gradually implement limited self-rule for Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. In October 1994 Rabin and King Ḥussein of Jordan, after a series of secret meetings, signed a full peace treaty between their two countries. Assassinated by extremist.

Westernization

Part of Attaturk's vision to dramatically change the life of Turkish people. Use of european caldendar. New weekend in Sat-Sun. Profound shift in mentality. 1928: change to latin script, from modified arabic. Break from all Ottoman viewpoint, key to nationalist discourse, 'we didnt do Armenia'. Dress like a westerner, banned the Fayz in 29. Couldnt wear a veil into a government building. 34: everybody takes a last name.

Immigration

People aware of holocaust, fleeing into palestine. White paper put a restriction on refugees coming in, alarmed zionists who opposed this ban. JNF provided economic support of incoming jews from europe. Ben gurion wanted all of jews to be in palestine for a safe haven and as a means of population boost. US congress and truman, sympathizes with jewish refugees and against british policy against them. From 1931 to 46: influx of around 400k jews into palestine, mostly result of nazi policies. Led to great contest for limited agricultural land and communal tension with arabs.

Gemayel

Pierre is the father. competitor to the Chamoun clan. Pierre is another maranite Zouama. Founder of Phalange. In the 1970's, he became main competitor with Kamal Jumblatt, a Druze leader who established the Lebanese National Movement popular with discontented Muslims, which wanted abolition of confessional politics, freedom of action for Palestinian commandos (versus having the state constrain their actions). His son, Bashir Gemayel is leader of the Lebanese Forces, which is made up of several different militias.

Shimon Peres

President in 2007, member of 12 cabinets. 56 suez war: instrumental in negotiating the Franco-Israeli agreement for a military offensive. 63': negotiated sale of anti-aircraft US missiles to israel, first such exchange between two countries. 94: israel-jordan peace treaty, foreign minister for that. Produced Oslo records, won peace prize. From a hawk in early political life (survival of israel in a tough region) to a dove and supporter of peace later on.

National Pact of 1943

Provided the precise formula for determining how much representation in the Chamber of Deputies each religious minority got. P.213 made clear to Lebanese Christians that it is an Arab state, and made clear to Lebanese Arabs that it can only be Lebanon and not merged into another Arab state. 1932 census determined that christians outnumber muslims 6 to 5, and representation is apportioned this way. Confessional picks become enshrined within political system. Shia underrepresented.

Bedamn

Purpose is to shape public opinion. Develop network of people who are Iranian and have Iranian friends, but will be quiet about CIA involvement. Basically get Iranians to shit on the Tudeh, appears as genuine criticism. This is a mechanism for influencing what looks like local voices."black " or "grey" propaganda - "I am Tudeh, I hate God, ". smear campaign. Pretending to be Tudeh and sounding crazy. Grey propaganda is less overt and subtle Noone is really sure it is really working, Brits not convinced but don't care. Made Mossadeq an unpopular figure in the USA at least. In the wake of Shah fleeing in Ajax, Bedamn operators attacked American citizens to trigger an overresponse from Mossadeq government, and pays mob to attack his house.

White Paper of 1939

Recognized war was coming, need of arab oil resources, the british had to placate them inorder to secure cooperation of the arab states. Shocked zionists, british policy u turned and no support for a jewish state in palestine. Limited immigration to 15,000 per years, land restricted, in 10 years palestine would be independent but granted 25,000 jews entry because of incoming war. Zionist leaders pledged to fight the white paper, arabs thought they would now be in majority. Hitler invaded poland shortly after.

Ayatollah Khamenei

Second Ayatollah, succeeds Khomeni in 89 by choice of council of experts. Was president of iraq from 81-89. Khamenei helped guide the country during the Iran-Iraq War in the 1980s, and developed close ties with the now-powerful Revolutionary Guards. As president, he had a reputation of being deeply interested in the military, budget and administrative details. continued Khomeini's policy of "balancing one group against another, making sure that no single side gains too much power." But is far less charismatic.

Iran-Iraq War

Sensing that Iran was unstable in the wake of their Islamic Revolution, Iraq's Saddam Hussein decided to invade and crosses Shat-al-Arab border was the middle of the shipping channel. His motives were three: the capturing of nearby Iranian oilfields, defending against spreading chaos and revolutionary sentiment of twelver shiasm, and capitalizing on a situation of ill-preparedness of Iran after its revolution. Despite having enough cash on hand to fund the state for two years, Saddam planned poorly; invading after instead of during a revolution. is a great way to help consolidate the revolution, sparked nationalist fervor from the Iranis (use human methods: blow themselves up etc). By 1982 Iran is pushing into Iraqi territory, and Saddam brings out the chemical weapons in 84' which are funded and supplied by the US, they support iraq in this conflict. The war ground on until 1988, and scandals such as Iran Contra, USS Stark, and USS Vincennes must be included in thinking about the conflict.

Abd al-Karim Qasim

Sent by Said to help king husseyn in jordan but seizes oppurtunity to takeover monarchy in 58, royal family killed. Doesnt really have a plan, try to bring all players in but personally: left leaning, interested in unifying country and redistribution + oil. Not interested in pan arabism, more concerned with iraq as an identity. Overthrown in 63 by salam- who gets supports from the bath nationalist party. Set of a decade of military intervention that distorts civil life.

Hezbollah

Shia minority in Lebanon rallied behind two political groups in wake of Israeli invasion and destabalization in 1982. Hizbullah was one of them. Funded by Iran, Syrians help them too (Twelver Shiism has some to do with this). Because hezbollah was focused on fighting Israelis only, they got to keep their guns even when all the other groups disarmed because of Taif accords. Fight Israel in South Lebanon till 2000 withdrawal.

water issues

Six-Day War in 1967 arguably had its origins in a water dispute - moves to divert the River Jordan, Israel's main source of drinking water. Israel always needed water to support influx of immigrants (who planted water thirsty crops), and doubled its water resources after 67 war, these give israel 60% of its water. 67 war not on imminent arab threat, but actually on water.

Iranian Revolution

The Iranian Revolution completely transformed both the present and future of Iran on political, legal and socio-economic lines. It led to the overthrow of the shah and replacement of a secular system with a completely different, Islamic ones. The militant Islamic Republic arose as a result of disillusionment with western ideas of development (e.g. presence of 60,000 foreign military advisors in the country) and desire for a restoration Islamic institutions. It also had two foreign policy effects: it led to the isolation of Iran in the region, and complete reversal of U.S foreign policy who relied on the Shah as its first ally in the region to exert its interests. The Shah intensified his steps to consolidate his power in 1975 by introducing a royal calendar, glorification of monarchy and reduction of Islam in daily lives. These measures led to a joint reaction from the bazaar merchants and ulama. The urban middle class were the first discontent group due to the vast economic inequality arising due to poor wealth distribution in the 70's: the Shah's family and businessmen benefitted from the high oil prices and government contracts whereas the normal man suffered from hyperinflation. Khomeini, part of the militant religious establishment, was not satisfied with a constitutional restoration and demanded a complete overthrow and creation of an Islamic state controlled by ulama. He spread a 'handbook for revolution' after years of criticizing the Shah and was popular as he maintained a large network of loyal students even in exile. His ideas applied to the Iranian community at large, transcending classes and generations, and was based on the essence of Islamic elements involved in change movements such as the Tobacco revolt of 1891. Many believed a return to Islamic values based on a divinely ordained social order would allow Muslims to prosper.

Green Line

The dividing line in Beirut which divided the city between the Muslim West and Marinite East. while pretty religiously diverse on either side before, violence increased homogeneity of religion. During Israel's siege of West Beirut, Israeli armed forces surrounded Western Beirut and stationed tanks along the Green Line. PLA, under syrian control, sent to green line

Ayatollah Khomeini

The founder of the Islamic Revolution and first Supreme Leader of Iran. He taught Western philosophy at Qom, and was considered a pretty radical thinker amongst the clerics. He adopted/was heavily infuenced by the ideology of Jalal Ahmad and Shariati. He tended to view reforms happening under the Shah as a result of US pressure, and because of this was wary of future reforms. Arrested by SAVAK. Once the Shah started really cracking down in the early 70's, all the resistance that couldn't happen in the political sphere started occuring in the mosques/religious sphere, and Khomeini was the main political figure in this area. Helped by the Shah's land redistrution policies (which caused a mass movement of people to urban centers), Khomeini was able to preach conservative, rurally-popular values to masses in Tehran. Possessing crazy charisma, his movement was smaller but better organized and more devoted than the more divided lefist groups, and this is why he got to dictate the outlook of the government. Post-revolution, he co opted the Komiteh (local neighborhood watch forces) and created the revolutionary guard, an alternative to the royalist military; today, the 'morality police' and the RG have pronounced roles (particularly RG) in Iranian gov't.

Ahmad Shah

The last Shah of the Qajar dynasty of Iran. He was ousted after Jungali movement was supported by Soviets (not for ideological reasons) and Cossacks + Reza who were supposed to put them down went after capturing Tehran instead.

Cossack Brigade

The only centrally controlled military force in Iran under the Qajars. Tsar Alex II sent advisors to Persia at request of nasir al-din Shah, to help train the cossacks. Russians intended it to be an extension of their own state, and viewed it as having to serve in their interests. In 1896 it stayed loyal to Shah and instaed Muzzafir al din after Nasir was assasinated. Mohhamad Ali Shah used it to shell the majilis. During ww1, it was used by Russians to fight Otoomans in northern Iran. After ww1 the British took control of it, and purged all the Russian officers / advisors, appointing new blood in their place. This is when Edmond Ironsides placed Reza Shah in charge of the entire brigade.

Shatt al-Arab

The river is geopolitically significant because it forms a natural border between Iran and the Arab world (Iraq). Under Saddam Hussein, Baathist Iraq claimed the entire waterway up to the Iranian shore as its territory. In response, Iran in the early 1970s became the main patron of Iraqi Kurdish groups fighting for independence from Iraq. In March 1975, Iraq signed the Algiers Accord in which it recognized a series of straight lines closely approximating the thalweg (deepest channel) of the waterway, as the official border, in exchange for which Iran ended its support of the Iraqi Kurds. Crossed it and gained territory, but disastrous war for him that ended in 88 with recognition of 75 borders but... shipping had been stopped with port of basra destroyed and govt now in debt. Bad move by saddam. Had other reasons for invasion too, iraq became military power after the war and saddams cult grew to new levels.

Aswan High Dam

an old plan originally, called for building second dam on the nile river. Would enhance prestiege among population, and economic benefits by irrigation and hydroelectric power (enough power for entire country). Its 400 million dollars, so they need a loan, and they go to World Bank and get us to be guarantors on a loan. USA agree to cosign on their loan. However, Brits and PM Eaton start to become convinced Nasser is going to nationalize, but they don't wanna maintain troop prescence. USA Britain France all start getting pissed at Nasser for aiding revolution in Algiers, even though he isn't doing so. Because of this (not actual) meddling in Algiers and military closeness with Russians, USA backs off cosignator agreement. This angers Nasser, and he nationalizes the Suez on July 26 1956.

Kermit Roosevelt

architect of Bedamn and Operation Ajax. After Brits were kicked out of Iran in 1953 Related to TDR, worked for the OSS. Plans to put gen zahidi aside and sweep mosaddeq aside, approves a coup.

Abolhassan Banisadr

becomes president in 1980, the first president of Iran. Like Bazargan, he was anti-Shah while Shah was in control. Eventually impeached for allegedly targeting the clerical establishment.

PLO

body established to do nothing, forced to absorb the guerilla movements: fatah etc. Umbrella organization for countervailing aims factions. Highly divided, dominant group is Arafat's fatah. Trying to represent palestine interests but mostly not doing that. FRAGMENTED: competition for arms, money and recruits, who come from refugee camps and have no other options. Divisions still not resolved. See Black Sept: removed from jordan, flee to lebanon and involved in civil war of 82. Rabat Declaration, 74': PLO becomes voice of palestinians and hussein accepted jordan had no control over west bank. Offered social services, recognized diplomatically by US in 1988. Hamas' strong stance pushed israel to negotiate with PLO instead, OSLO: recognize israel, denounce terrorism and a 5 year plan for Palestine autonomy in occupied territories. Deadline for a state not met after 5 years, basically only recognized PLO.

79 treaty

builds on 78 talks. The main features of the treaty were mutual recognition, cessation of the state of war that had existed since the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, normalization of relations and the complete withdrawal by Israel of its armed forces and civilians from the Sinai Peninsula which Israel had captured during the Six-Day War in 1967. Egypt agreed to leave the area demilitarized. The agreement also provided for the free passage of Israeli ships through the Suez Canal, and recognition of the Strait of Tiran and the Gulf of Aqaba as international waterways. The agreement notably made Egypt the first Arab state to officially recognize Israel.

Knesset

by 1949 Israel had figured out structure. Knesset is the unicameral legislature of state. 120 elected representatives, elected by nation at large and not on regional basis. Parties prepare ranked list of candidates, and number of seats apportioned depending on vote share. This system whereby party bureaucracy determines one's rank means that one will always vote according to party line or risk losing influence within party.

1973 War

coalition of Arab states led by Egypt and Syria against Israel from October 6 to 25, 1973. The fighting mostly took place in the Sinai and the Golan Heights, territories that had been occupied by Israel since the Six-Day War of 1967. Egyptian President Anwar Sadat wanted also to reopen the Suez Canal. Egyptian and Syrian forces crossed ceasefire lines to enter the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights respectively. Both the United States and the Soviet Union initiated massive resupply efforts to their respective allies during the war, and this led to a near-confrontation between the two nuclear superpowers. Military stalemate after successful 'The Crossing' by egyptians into sinai, but Israel fought back and crossed suez. They also reached outskirts of damascus. Results: Ceasefire after 73 OPEC embargo that causes stagflation in US and makes Arab states very rich, Egypt left soviet sphere of influence, israelis realized they might not be always dominant over Arabs, PLO as voice of palestinians + led to peace talks and 78 Camp David.

SAVAK

created by the Shah with the help of the CIA, SAVAK (the organization of intelligence and national security) was the state's secret police. They arrested, injured, or killed political dissidents, and were notorious for their Orwellian breaches of privacy. Example of shah's REPRESSIVE STATE MECHANISM and lack of civil liberties in the regime. Arrests Khomeni on 10 muharram, protests spark and people not keen on white revolution. They become reason for resentment.

The Muslim Brotherhood

created in response to a bunch of Wafdist initiatives and general secular, western, liberal, atheist discourse that was becoming popular at schools and shit. Also by authors stressing pre-Islamic history, trying to mediterranean spin on it. It was founded in 1928 in Isma'iliyya by Hasan al-Banna. Called for reimplementation and restoration of sharia, sought to find a way for Muslims to take advantage of tech advances without feeling like they are compromising morals. Founded technical schools, provided charity, soup kitchens. Widespread cross class appeal. Most potent political force after ww2.

Saddam Hussein

effectively ruling since time of Bakar. Network of patronage, people who are dependent on him. Secretary of party initially and nasty operator so gets control over people by developing a culture of fear around him. Republican guard from Tinkrit, essential to state survival. Effective econ policy, high literacy rates and strong middle class. Solves kurdish problem temporarily. Nationalizes OIL in 72, uses revenue to do all these things. Ourchases military hardware with cash influx. 79: sees weak iran, eyes on the coast + oil, fear of revolution spreading so launches the war. At end of war, in great debt. 1990: invades kuwait. Uses chemical weapons and surrounds himself with people who think like him, series of very bad decisions.

Irgun

fiercely nationalistic organization that served as military arm of the reformist zionists. Advocated policies of reprisals against arabs and british. 43: came under command of begin whose militancy guided later into politics aswell. 46: bombing of king david hotel lead to increased pressure on british to leave who referred matter to UN. Altalena affair, 48: ship containing arms for irgun was prevented from unloading so they shelled and sank it. Later irgun disbanded and absorbed completely into IDF- became less autonomous after that. Begin wins election in 77 due to support from Sephardic community who felt left out of socioeconomic life and wanted change from the Labor party who had been in power since 48.

Haganah

formed as an arm of the Yishuv- part of the labor coalition. Well organized and trained, took part in world war (fight against nazis) and thus were militarily advanced fighting force, reorganized later to become IDF. 48 war: easily crushed the arab armies, were also in greater number. Loyal to ben gurion and pressurized, along with irgun, to pressurize british out of palestine.

World Zionist Organization

founded 1897, initiative of Herzl. goals of the Zionist movement were stated in a resolution that came of that Congress and came to be known as the "Basel Program". Started the quest for a jewish state in palestine, redirected their aims and set institutions that later evolved into state admin for Israel. Met every year. Committees set up to give it cohesion and direction. Until Herzl's death, organization didnot get financial backing of a powerful state and didnt make advances towards a separate state- instigated some form of an anti semitic backlash. Got much more support during the ww1.

Kemalism

founding ideology of the Republic of Turkey. sweeping political, social, cultural and religious reforms designed to separate the new Turkish state from its Ottoman predecessor and embrace a Westernized way of living.

Temple Mount/Dome of the Rock

holy place in jerusalem.

King Hussein

king at age 18 with massive palestine refugees, one of the most durable monarchs and overcame many potential overthrows and defeats. Loyal army, assistance from USA and eloquent speaker of english and arabic. Switched pan Arabism for western aid to maintain monarchy. Alliance with west seen negatively in egypt and syria who formed the UAR, but took his country from british dependent to a prosperous state in an unstable middle east. Post 73 war: realizes west bank not part of jordan. see ^.

Bazaar/Bazaari

merchants and goods-sellers, the Bazaaris were a powerful economic and political class in Iran. They were targeted by the Shah when the Shah sought to fix the Iranian economy without drastically cutting funding for military. In attempts to keep inflation down, he started persecuting high-price-setting Bazaaris, pissing off a powerful and influential class.

Komiteh

neighborhood watch committees that kept order in early 1979 when Iranian revolution collapsed the government. Khomeni brings them in. They are morality police nowadays. As decentralized as it get, they take former power holders to revolutionary courts. Komiteh rounds up former SAVAK and regime - here is where bloodletting happens. But overall not horribly violent.

Anwar Sadat

old hand of nassar, considered light weight. Looking for solution to economic woes, result of nasser's socialism, and attention from usa. Kicks out all soviet advisors, big gamble, aim to grab us support but didnt get any. At this time, war plans with syria to get small gains in gaza, golan heights. 'The crossing' and 73 war on Yim kipur to gain back land in sinai. Becomes a hero in egypt for this, but later faces great economic hardship. Us support israel, sadat gets russian help to maintain gains in sinai, war becoming a cold war proxy field. Stalemate leads to armistice. Needs peace for FDI and revenue, despite suez open faces trouble domestically, so seeks peace for egypt. 77: goes to kenneset, 79: camp david accords. Assasinated in 81 by radical groups who start a purist militant islamic movement.

Reza Shah Pahlavi

p.171 Ahmad Shah, last Qajar, is ruling but not meaningfully, with Brits controlling south and Russians controlling north after ww1. After Brits offered huge loan for advisory priveleges, there were tons of antiforeign protests. Reza Shah Pahlavi was a colonel in the Cossak Brigade, and he marched to Tehran and made the Shah appoint reformer Sayyid Zia Tabatabai as PM. Tabatabai names Reza army commander, Reza makes him resign and consolidates power, makes majiles increase army budget a ton. Kicked the Shah out in 1923, end of Qajars. Majiles passed universal conscription bill, made military HUGE. Westernized in general, 1936 judges in state court needed law degree from Tehran university. 1939 seized all waqf lands, huge blow to religious establishment. Prohibited segregation of sexes, banned veil in 1936. Changed name from Persia to Iran. Financed trans-Iranian railroad. Strengthened power of large landholders to win favor with rich ppl. Renegotiated (crappily) terms of D'Arcy concession. When ww2 broke out, Brits and Soviets occupied to keep supply corridor to soviets open.

Mossadeq

p.269 born to rich aristocratic family, studied at Paris and Switzerland, got law degree. Started politics in 1915, known for his honesty and integrity and objection to foreigners in Iran. Started the National Front coalition in 1949, included ulama, modern middle class, western educated professionals. Common opposition to foreign influence and royal expansion. His coalition took power in 1951, he became PM and nationalized oil. CIA then convinced Shah to issue decree saying that Zahidi is PM and not Mossadiq, and despite his best efforts royalists / OSS people deposed him.

Infitah

pitched by Sadat as the economic extension of the spirit embodied by the crossing of the Suez and victory of 1973. Infitah means "the opening," and it was his way to economically reform without upsetting people recieving welfare and social benefits from Nasser's scheme. Meant to encourage foreign investment. Banks offered tax exemptions, freedom to import cheap, easier to buy and sell land. Construction boom in Cairo, but too much of foreign direct investment was in housing market, not enough was in industries that employed a lot of egyptians or benefitted egyptians. Marked as a dissapointment in the end, didn't raise standard of living at all. Was forced to cut subsidies that upset many.

Jewish National Fund

responsible for the land purchases, bought it as belonging to the jewish people as a whole and leased it exclusively to jews at a nominal rate. JNF also provided capital for improvements and equipment, providing immigrants to immediately start agro practice. By 39- 10% of farmable land was under jewish ownership, even richer families couldnt say no to prices offered by JNF. Led to poorer condition of arab peasants, and eviction of tenants. British tax policy, JNF attitude and their own political elite- led to violent protests from the peasantry.

Vilayat-i faqih

rulership of the jurisprudence. The historical precedent for this is regarding orphans, and the idea that a cleric has the obligation to make decisions for the orphan until they are mature enough to do so themselves. Khomeini extended this to apply to the 12th Imam, or the Mahdi. He claims that, until appearance of Mahdi, Khomeini has the right and best ability to make decisions on behalf of all his people, almost acting as a regent of or in place of the mahdi. Its an old principle used to justify a ruling state, most shia scholars dont agree with this, say scholars should stay away from politics. Rahbar 'supreme leader' becomes diffused in constitution along with PM etc.

Chamoun

second post-independence president, after Bishara al-Khuri stepped down after a maranite general strike protesting his unconstitutional running for a second term and trying to rig the vote. He was committed to the Western alliance, and liked banking reform that brought lots of investment. Stayed out of the Baghdad pact, didn't break off relations with Brit and Fra in 1956 when they invaded Egypt. Tries to change constitution to allow him to run for another term, starts to get army behind him, but they refuse to participate. Everyone arms themselves after this, wary of a repeat, and general Shihab refused to deploy army to put down revolt. Pro-Nasser coup in Iraq on july 14th got them scared of getting absorbed into Iraq, invokes Eisenhower Doctrine and gets 15k marines to land. Eventually Shihab is selected as successor and everything all good

Sabra / Shatila

sept 16 1982: Palestinian refugee camps in Beirut. Phalange get into this camp and start killing people. ISraeli soldiers want to stop it, but they are told no. Begin and Sharon are found complicit in letting it occur, ruins their political careers. 1000 people who had previously been protected by PLO died. International outcry.

Intifada

shift in visual narrative: david shooting at kids throwing stones. commenced in 1987 by Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza, the Intifada or "shaking off" focused world (+israel begins to think about relationship with palestinians) attention on occupation prodded PLO leaders into negotiating the Oslo Accords in 1993 and the first mutual recognition between PLO and Israel. Started December 9 1987 in Gaza when Israelis shot protesters protesting road accident. Unified National Leadership formed with representatives of local PLO factions, coordinated activities. Demanded that Israel stop settlements, recognize independent state under PLO. civil disobedience was pretty peaceful at first, but got violent pretty quickly. Boycott of israel goods and aim to make gaza self sufficient, tactics to make continued occupation a financial burden for israel. Forced PLO to change its stance and recognize israel + 242.

King Farouk

son of king fuad, who died in 1936. Known as a womanizer, and between 1945 and 1947 he gets a reputation for gambling and womanizing. During world war 2, egypt imposed martial law and broke diplomatic relations with Germany. Famine and economic ruin meant that the traditional institutions of politics, and the coalition lead by Ali Mahir (axis sympathizer_ ended when he resigned in 1940. This prompted February Fourth Incident. Masses felt alienated from him, particularly rural. Huge land inequality. Muslim Brotherhood running train, had 500k members and was violent against foreigners and government. Called elections in 1950 to concilliate, and Wafd won. Al Nahhas Pasha abrogated 1936 treaty, which stated that Brit troops would stay in canal zone, and that when war came egyptians have to support brits in ww2. Popular measure, and when Brits crack down in response and kill 50 cops the next day is Black Saturday where tons of businesses and government buildings got torched. Gov't never regained control of the situation, and Faruq deposed July 23 1952. Ali notes:King Farouk (1936-52) develops a reputation for going to casino, not a moral beacon. 1948: War, foundation of Israel. Egyptians do exceptionally poorly, king didn't think it through, send troops who do very, very badly. Supplies like bullets and Oil don't make it to the front. Uses Egyptian government money to buy things for military, very bad deal to make money. Reinforced idea that society was corrupt, stewards were menial and sold the country out. Farouk reputation has been trashed, he needs to go.

Wafd

started in wake of world war one, when a bunch of landed aristocrats approached Brits and demanded to represent Egypt at Paris Peace Conference. Travelled thru country and raised awareness for this message after getting denied. Lead originally by Sa'd Zahlul, who was from country and went to law school. Mix of educated and peasant roots made him super popular. Arrested in 1919 and exiled, tons of riots in response, crackdown kills 1k Egyptians, but Brits allow them to represent Egypt at Paris Peace Conference. Britain in 1922 issue unilateral delcaration of independence, but not really independence, they can still do whatever they want. Pretty out of touch pretty quickly, became too secular liberal, never had any real power because of constitution reserving tons of power for King Fuad and because Zaghlul was authortarian Af too. In 1936 Brits sign treaty with elected Wafdist government recognizing Egypt independence but reaffirming Britains right to defend Egypt. After Zaghlul dies in 29127, al-Nahhas takes over, but it is not as effective and loses some following.

Occupied Territories

territory occupied by Israel after the 1967 war. It refers to the area between west jerusalem and the jordan river, the Gaza strip, the Golan heights, and the Sinai peninsula. Begin doesn't wanna give up these territories, because of cheap arab labor and economic necessity, and he starts expanding settlements (along aquifers). increases SOLs for arabs + boost for israeli economy with this labor force. "Occupied territories" is the language used in resolution 242. Increase violence driven by control of resources in these areas, palestinians don't get their share of the water. Post 77 policy: isolate areas where arab concentrated to prevent collective palestine identity. 80: Begin policy to add uncultivated land to state and thus annexed more of gaza and w. Bank.