HIS201 Midterm

Queen Victoria

After the Indian Mutiny and the Act for the Betterment of India (1858), India becomes a former colony of the British. It represents a global pattern of hinterland integration. In the meantime, Britain was experiencing a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change, and needed a strong ruler to guide these adaptations in a positive direction. Who: Queen of England, and later the Empress of India What: her reign of 63 years and seven months was longer than that of any of her predecessors; she successfully took Britain through a transformative period, emerging on the other side with a strong, united, and greatly expanded Empire When: 1819 - 1901 (ruled 1837 - 1901) Where: Great Britain, India Significance: she married her cousin Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in 1840, and their children married into royal and noble families across the continent, earning Victoria the sobriquet "the grandmother of Europe" but also spreading haemophilia in European royalty. After Albert's death in 1861, she plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism in the United Kingdom temporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign, her popularity recovered. She is regarded as a legendary figure, and the united bloodlines helped tie Europe together in an era of peace for the majority of her rule

Ulamaa

Context: ?? Who: Islamic jurists, both religious and secular What: guardians, transmitters and interpreters of religious knowledge, of Islamic doctrine and law When: 900 AD - Present Where: Middle East Significance: as guardians of the Quran and longtime servants of India, the Ulamaa represented traditionalism and a respect for religion, government, and self. Their well-being became a low priority with British domination in India, and the esteemed council they once held began to disappear

Samarkand

Context: Afro-Eurasian basic trading system, as well as the dissemination of religion; beginning of the Silk Road Who: Samarkand people, traders and merchants on the Silk Road What: Trading hub city that helped facilitate the development of the Silk Road When: Flourished around 1200 C.E. Where: Samarkand, Central Asia Significance: - Arabs/Muslim culture as a whole begins to play a larger role in global trade, rather than traditionally dominant cultures - Paves the way for sea trade, including Arab merchant houses and the use of routes to carry goods on routes other than the Silk Road - Thickens the overland trade routes and creates the resource capacity for empires to begin to develop (see Mehmed II and Constantinople)

Zamindar

Context: Afro-Eurasian trade booming, Da Gama making trip around south tip of Africa going into India - involving the Europeans in their trade. Spanish and Portuguese also colonizing new world Who: tax collector in Mughal Empire What: possessed rights to claim a share of the harvest while earmarking part of their earnings for the emperor When: 16th century Where: Mughal Empire, India Significance: During this time the Mughal empire was under the rule of Akbar the Great, pushing the Mughal empire southward down India in order to conquer more land and becoming more easily accessible to water trade routes. The elongation of the empire led to the zamindars acting on their own volition, taking taxes for their own good and putting extra pressure on the peasants. This began the switch from the mughal dependency to european dependency from the mughal states. This search from Mughal areas to trade with European powers economically depleted the mughal empire and left them in shambles in the years to come, eventually when they fell under Shah Jahan

Pearl River

Context: Afro-Eurasian trade booming, and China's Ming Dynasty dominates. This coincides with the fall of the Mughals, creating a vacuum that the Chinese pick up during Ming Expansion Who: Chinese citizens What: river that connected several regions of the nation When: important during Ming Expansion in the 16th century Where: located in East China Significance: was one of the main reasons of expansion for the Chinese under the Ming Dynasty to acquire more land for agrarian development (euro demand for Chinese silk). The agrarian transformation in S China enabled access to new ports, new spices/resources, and encouraged southern movement for the Chinese population. Was a main place for population of settlement because it was easy land to farm and profit economically off of. Had reached a height of 12 mil people then after major economic downturn from weather and the single whip system only 10 mil people remained. This first led to economic prosperity in china under the ming until 1644, when the economic crisis happened and the qing dynasty took over in china. Chinese world expansion down south in early 1600s. Interconnected domestic trade.

Hangzhou

Context: Afro-Eurasian trade is booming; near the time of the Black Death. The Silk Road is the main form of trade, and its mostly over land Who: Chinese city controlled by the Song Dynasty at the height of its power; also inhabited by Arab traders What: See above When: Dominant and prosperous from 1200-1300 CE Where: East China Significance: Over the decades Hangzhou grew into a major commercial and cultural center of the Song dynasty, rising from being a middling city of no special importance to being one of the world's largest and most prosperous. Numerous philosophers, politicians, and men of literature, including some of the most celebrated poets in Chinese history lived here.

Tokugawa Shogunate

Context: Asian nations like China hold the market of many of the things that Europe wants, including spices. As Europe is expanding into Asia, they start to take over islands, and find a very appealing one in Japan, which is internally divided over feuding families. Who: Japanese people What: a government system developed in Japan during the 17th century to unify Japan against European invaders When: 17th century Where: Japan Significance: Japan would remain free of European invasion. This forced Europeans to focus more heavily on the other South Asian islands like the Philippines

Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz

Context: Baroque Era (mixing of races); Rise of Dutch East India Company; Flow of money from the Americas to China (silver); idea and process of slavery is becoming more prominent; Potato Famine in Ireland causes the spread of Irish to the new world Who: a Mexican woman, self-taught scholar and student of scientific thought, philosopher, musician composer, and poet of the Baroque school What: wrote poems about women's rights and their ability to follow their hearts; was of creole/European descent When: 1648 - 1695 Where: Mexico-Spanish Territory ('New Spain') Significance: her work during Mexico's colonial perio made her a contributor both to early Spanish literature as well as to the broader literature of the Spanish Golden Age. She demonstrated the global effect of Christianity, as well as new pushes for feminism

Manila

Context: China has just shut its doors by killing Pires. People need to trade with China, so Southeast Asian islands are militarizing. Spain also controls all the new world silver that China wants. Established trade route between Spanish and Asia. Spanish controlled Mexico and had a lot of silver. They wanted to sell it to the Chinese, so they took over the Philippines then they could sell the silver to the Chinese more easily. Called "china road" Who: Spanish colonizers and native Philipinos What: Spanish colony in the Philippines When: established 1571 Where: Philippines Significance: Global integration. Construction of the world economy. Connected the New World, Europe, and China. China gave Europe precious-cities, Europe in return gave them silver from America

Batavia

Context: Dutch East India company was just created' Afro-Eurasian trade still booming in Indian Ocean; mercantilist warfare is beginning to happen in the Indian Ocean Who: Malaysians and Dutchmen What: island choke point in the Indian Ocean, taken over by the Dutch and renamed When: early 17th century Where: Indian Ocean (more specifically, Malaysia) Significance: Dutch East Indian Company takes over, implementing Dutch rule and changed the idea of empire and markets forever. The implementation of mercantilist warfare began. The Dutch were also producing what they could not in their land- preciosities like spices. This changed the dynamics of what people would use in their daily lives and what their daily diets looked like. Monopolized spice industry, total integration

Banda Islands

Context: Dutch East India company was just created' Afro-Eurasian trade still booming in Indian Ocean; mercantilist warfare is beginning to happen in the Indian Ocean Who: Malaysians and Dutchmen What: nutmeg-producing islands in the Indian Ocean When: early 17th century Where: Indian Ocean (more specifically, Malaysia) Significance: Infamous case of the Dutch forcibly taking control of the spice trade; nearly the entire population of these nutmeg-producing islands was killed or enslaved and then replaced with Dutch planters

Act for the Better Government of India (1858)

Context: East India Company causes some discontentment because they are using pig grease to load rifles (which strongly upsets Muslim sepoys, since it's against Islam to touch or use anything from a pig). When they try to rebel, the British crush them and end the Mughal Regime once and for all. Who: British Parliament and the Mughal Empire (India) What: provisions called for the liquidation of the British East India Company (who had up to this point been ruling British India under the auspices of Parliament) and the transference of its functions to the British Crown When: Passed in 1858 Where: signed in Britain, effected in India Significance: Global pattern of the integration of hinterlands into the trade markets through railroad, and how it disrupts society and makes it more interdependent is displayed. Increasing wealth == increasing inequality. The British use Indian resources to dominate the nation, stripping Indians of their rights and exploiting monetary gains

Edmund Burke

Context: Enlightenment ideas making people question and want. Conquering of different areas as a part of enlightenment. Idea of total warfare beginning to appear Who: Anglo-Irish statesman and philosopher. Born in Dublin, Burke served as a member of parliament What: a proponent of underpinning virtues with manners in society and of the importance of religious institutions for the moral stability and good of the state; supported America in Revolution When: 1729 - 1797 Where: Britain Significance: In light of all the scientific advancement and questioning that was going on during this period came with it corruption and vices. He lead a trial against Warren Hastings - leader of East India Company. Hastings was using the ideas of science to exploit and dominate in other parts of the world, such as Bengal. With this trial it showed that these mercantilist companies could destroy the moral fiber of the political community and could completely change the practices of a nation in general. Changed the way empires operated in relation to science and exploration.

Marquis de Pombal

Context: Enlightenment ideas spreading throughout the world. The conquering of territories for collection of information and study. Books being circulated at a cheaper rate, and knowledge is being disseminated far more widely. Who: Prime minister of Lisbon, Portugal What: notable for his swift and competent leadership in the aftermath of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. He implemented sweeping economic policies in Portugal to regulate commercial activity and standardize quality throughout the country, and was instrumental in weakening the grip of the Inquisition When: 1699 - 1782 Where: Portugal Significance: This is an instance where enlightenment ideas of science came full circle - these scientific ideas can destroy empires, but they can also be used to build them up and change them. He wanted to restructure the Portuguese empire from Gala all the way to Brazil. Now a different model of empire. Science attached to empire. Used trading vessels for rest of the world, deployed ships for scientific purposes. In addition, his economic policies helped reshape a country decimated by economic shortages

Otto von Bismarck

Context: Europe continued to traverse through a period of economic prosperity, further industrialization, and international relationships. Britain, led by Queen Victoria, had established an Empire in India; France had overcome her long-standing adversity with the English to ally with the goal of facilitating trade. Germany consisted of a multitude of principalities loosely bound together in the German Confederation, traditionally led by Austria and Prussia. Who: a conservative Prussian statesman who dominated European affairs from the 1860s until 1890. He was Minister President of Prussia (1862-1890) and Chancellor of the North German Confederation (1867-1871) then the German Empire (1871-1890) What: He provoked three short, decisive wars against Denmark, Austria, and France. Following the victory against Austria, he formed the North German Confederation as the first German national state, then in 1871 officially formed the German Empire When: 1815 - 1898; see dates above for specific leadership periods Where: Central Europe Significance: his annexation of Alsace-Lorraine gave new fuel to French nationalism and Germanophobia, which helped set the stage for the First World War. Bismarck's diplomacy of realpolitik and powerful rule at home gained him the nickname the "Iron Chancellor". German unification and its rapid economic growth was the foundation to his foreign policy. He disliked colonialism but reluctantly built an overseas empire when it was demanded by both elite and mass opinion. Juggling a very complex interlocking series of conferences, negotiations and alliances, he used his diplomatic skills to maintain Germany's position. A master of complex politics at home, Bismarck created the first welfare state in the modern world, with the goal of gaining working class support that might otherwise go to his Socialist enemies. A local hero if there has ever been one...

Franco-Prussian War

Context: Europe continued to traverse through a period of economic prosperity, further industrialization, and international relationships. Britain, led by Queen Victoria, had established an Empire in India; France had overcome her long-standing adversity with the English to ally with the goal of facilitating trade. Prussia, led by Bismark, held ambitions of unification, which the French feared would shift the European balance of power Who: France versus Prussia What: a conflict between the Second French Empire and German states of the North German Confederation led by the Kingdom of Prussia; dominating victory by the Prussians When: 1870 - 1871 Where: France, Prussia Significance: The German states proclaimed their union as the German Empire under the Prussian king Wilhelm I, finally uniting most of Germany as a nation-state (Austria was excluded). The German conquest of France and the unification of Germany upset the European balance of power that had existed since the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and Otto von Bismarck maintained great authority in international affairs for two decades. The tensions unfortunately created a continent ripe for conflict... i.e., World War I

Vasco Da Gama

Context: Europe is cut off from Asia and the Indian Ocean due to the Ottoman blockade. The Spanish have the New World, and they're riches attract the interest of the Portuguese, who want in on the spoils. Who: Portuguese explorer and first European to reach India by sea What: used brutality and force to extract pepper in Calicut, sailing back through monsoons and turning an enormous profit Where: around East Coast of Africa to Calicut, India When: initial voyage to India was 1497-1499 Significance: Da Gama's discovery of the sea route to India was significant and opened the way for an age of global imperialism and for the Portuguese to establish a long-lasting colonial empire in Asia. They maintained a near monopoly until English and Dutch challenged them a century later

Treaty of Westphalia

Context: Europe is embroiled in a long, bloody war called the 30 Years' War. It began as a religious feud, starting with Martin Luther's posting of the 95 Theses in 1517, which began the appeal of Protestantism and angered the Catholics Who: included 109 different European parties, who were all involved to some capacity; particularly HRE and Habsburg vs Sweden, Denmark, Dutch, etc What: a series of peace treaties ending the European wars of religion, including the Thirty Years' War. When: signed between May and October 1648 Where: Westphalian cities of Osnabruck and Munster Significance: The treaties of Westphalia brought to an end a calamitous period of European history which caused the deaths of approximately eight million people. Also pushed rivalries in Europe into the New World. This introduced the concept of sovereignty of states of Europe - choosing the faith of the states

Christopher Columbus

Context: Europe loves to trade with China for spices, but the 1453 fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans leaves them with no trade route. European countries turn to the sword and to the sea, and begin to sponsor voyages across bodies of water in search of riches and land Who: an Italian navigator and colonist who completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean under the auspices of the Catholic Monarchs of Castile and Aragon of Spain What: his voyages across the Atlantic created a brand new market for conquest and trade in South America, beginning with his 1492 landing in the Bahamas When: 1451-1506; most famous for finding the New World in 1492 Where: under the impression that he was en route to the East Indies, he stumbled upon the Bahamas, later returning to the northern coast of South America and the eastern coast of Central America Significance: helped lead the discovery of new navigational techniques and trade winds. His realization that he has found a massive landmass sets off a chain of events that will eventually make Europe the richest place on earth, and set off a wave of competition for influence in the New World. Essentially, he inaugurated a period of exploration, conquest, and colonization that lasted for centuries and helped create the modern Western world

Tomé Pires

Context: Following Vasco de Gama's recent return from Calicut with huge amounts of peppers, the Portuguese employed militarism as well as their Estado da India system to maintain trade order. Who: Portuguese apothecary who begins his career in Malacca and later heads to China What: his failed attempts to negotiate lead to disrespect from Chinese leaders and an unsuccessful career When: Malacca 1512, China 1516, either died 1524 or under Chinese control in 1540 Significance: the rejection of this ambassador by China means the Chinese will remain isolated. Hence, everyone is now fighting over the South Asian islands, which makes all of them highly contested and militarized

(Portuguese) Estado da India system

Context: Following Vasco de Gama's recent return from Calicut with huge amounts of peppers, the Portuguese knew they needed a system to maintain the spike in wealth that their new trade routes could give them. This entailed trade, navigation, and globalism. Who: Portuguese people What: private merchants will be protected on the Indian Ocean and pay revenue to the state in exchange for unchallenged trade When: early 16th century Where: protection in the Indian Ocean Significance: smelling an opportunity for wealth, the Portuguese enter the Indian Ocean hot. They legalize their own monopoly on the trading routes and the distribution of spices like pepper. In the process, they take several naval ports and other cities

Single Whip System

Context: Ming Empire was the major ruling power in the east - in typical Chinese fashion, they dominated trade when they chose to. Afro-Eurasian trade was booming, while the Spanish and Portuguese colonized the New World Who: Chinese citizens What: Ming Dynasty tax system, which simplified taxes and tributes into one single payment When: developed in the early 16th century and promulgated in 1580 Where: China Significance: coined silver as the currency in China. A land tax was forced upon anyone who owned land no matter how rich or poor to be paid in silver to the Ming Empire. Enforced the idea of the agrarian society in the Ming Empire. This led first to the consolidation of power- because of money flowing into the capital- then to a spread of the empire- peasants and others stretching outward to try and not pay the land tax. Silver became inflated within the society and the economy there depended on it. This eventually led to the decline of the ming empire- their reliance on silver. Eventually led to the peasant revolts.

Congo

Context: Spain realized that slaves are profitable, whether for mining, building, or other purposes. Due to las Casas' work for Indian rights, they turn to Africa and create a thriving slave trade. There is a lot of unrest on the west coast, as Africans realize that they can sell slaves for money to fight with each other and take over Who: Africans and Europeans like the Spanish and Portuguese What: the development of a slave trade and slave-oriented culture in this west coast country When: beginning around 1580 and lasting through the 19th century Where: West Coast of Africa; began in this specific country Significance: this really ups the fighting in Africa in addition the exploitation of the continent by Europeans. Over the next 200 years, Europeans and Africans alike will go more and more inward to get slaves to sell. 80% of all people going to the new world become slaves. This industry will allow Europe to harvest the resources of the Americas cheaply, and rise to the top of the world economically

Tupac Amarú II

Context: Spanish exploitation of indigenous people in their colonized areas in South America. Enlightenment ideas spreading throughout the world forcing people to question the morality of this, and whether it can be allowed to continue in a modern, perhaps more just, society. Who: leader of a large Andean uprising against the Spanish in Peru, whose quelling resulted in his death What: a mythical figure in the Peruvian struggle for independence and indigenous rights When: 1738 - 1781 Where: Peru Significance: The enlightenment ideas were spreading to places all over the world, not just major empires. The indigenous people fought for their natural rights from the Spanish - were being subjected to the Bourbon reforms, reestablishing Spanish supremacy over the colonies hoping for economic profit. This rebellion was just one of many from the Spanish colonies. He was part of the reason why the Spanish later lost its dominions in South America

Taiping Rebellion

Context: a sense of decline begins in China - new moral orders beginning from prophets who were looking to spread new gospels and visions of Christianity into China. In the 1840's the Society of God Worshippers was to rise against the Chinese state. Who: massive conflict between the Qing Dynasty and the Taiping (a Christian army hoping to transform society) What: local officials launched a campaign of religious persecution against the God Worshipping Society, resulting in a total civil war; eventually repressed when the Qing receive backup from French and British forces When: 1850 - 1864 Where: China Significance: The Qing state becomes even more crippled than before (between 20-30 million people dead, economy is horrible after the devastation), foreigners were able to penetrate China even more -even though the Qing was never really "conquered", free trade was still able to happen freely in this agrarian society. Overall the Qing state could not defend sovereignty from outsiders or the people on the inside

Peter the Great

Context: a strong 17th century leads to increasing wealth in Europe, which improves the living standards of citizens and allows them to purchase more items that were formerly luxury goods. In China, the Ming Dynasty has fallen and been replaced by the Qing, who are not as globally outgoing. Who: Tsar of Russia and the Russian Empire What: as a successful military leader, he made Russia a major empire and strengthened the Russian navy after capturing ports at Azov and the Baltic Sea When: 1672 - 1725; ruled 1682 until his death Where: Russia Significance: He led a cultural revolution that replaced some of the traditionalist and medieval social and political systems with ones that were modern, scientific, Westernized and based on the Enlightenment. His reforms made a lasting impact on Russia, and many institutions of the Russian government trace their origins to his reign. He is also known for founding and developing the city of Saint Petersburg, which remained the capital of Russia until 1917

Swahili Coast

Context: after the Black Death era the Arabs gained dominance and priority in Middle Eastern trade. They eventually traveled to the East Coast of Africa, institutionalizing organized trade centered around gold and other exports to Asia and Europe Who: Swahili people, as well as Arab merchants What: East African coast that became a hub of language, trade, multiculturalism, and gold When: Peaked in the 14th and 15th centuries, until the Portuguese smashed it in 1505 Where: Southeast African coast; part of the Indian Ocean trade circle Significance: the interactions between Arabs, Africans, Asians, and Europeans officially introduces Africa to the rest of the world. Starts the practice of slave trade and gold mining, which leads to gold becoming the standard currency throughout much of the planet. With the extreme diversity in people and goods, it was a hub for synthesism until later Portuguese colonization

Charles Darwin, "On the Origin of Species"

Context: after the Enlightenment, man is thinking about the world in different ways. Wants to question everything and use science to explain things. Science and technology are booming, and there is no longer a strict reliance on the church or religious figures to explain phenomena that require deep research or experimentation; instead, these processes are undergone, and new discoveries are constant Who: English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution What: proposed that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors, a theory that is now widely accepted and considered a foundational concept in science When: 1809 - 1882; published "On the Origin of Species" in 1859 Where: Great Britain Significance: He is the first man to propose the Theory of Evolution. Talks about human evolution and sexual selection, saying that all humans are one species - from a common descent we get diversity. A huge and revolutionary blow to all theories about humanity and religion - naturally, he is strongly refuted by the Church. The idea of a universal human race is disagreed upon by pluralists, who support oppression and racism. With his scientific suggestion that all men are created (or descended) equal, he dramatically changes the long-standing social perception of a natural, God-given, caste-system. His theories fundamentally change evolutionary and biological science forever

Mary Wollstonecraft

Context: as Enlightenment ideas continue to spread across Europe, many mainstream ideas are being questioned. One of them is the role of women in the workforce, politics, and society, which for much of humanity has been relegated to predetermined duties. However, in the same way that Adam Smith expands the horizon of economics by pointing out the benefits of an efficient capitalist system, early feminists suggest that they have far more to offer to society than the opportunity they've been given. Who: English writer, philosopher, and advocate of women's rights What: best known for "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" (1792), in which she argues that women are not naturally inferior to men, but appear to be only because they lack education When: 1759 - 1797; important work published 1792 Where: Britain Significance: she becomes an influential figure for the future of women of the world. She dissects the wealth of nations and all the natural rights and freedoms that smith brings up and argues that "Women are reasonable creatures too". Proved that women had to be included or else the laws of nature would be wrong. This was the beginnings of the women's rights movement, or at least the ideas of it. Her ways of thinking spread and are the first words that speak for the women of the world.

Olaudah Equiano

Context: as Enlightenment thinkers pondered human rights, slavery was very naturally one of the first questions brought up, but it still remained fully active in the Africa-to-New-World arena despite all these new ideas about individual liberty and freedom. Who: a writer and abolitionist and former slave from Nigeria; purchased his freedom in 1766 by intelligent trading and careful savings What: part of the Sons of Africa, an abolitionist group composed of Africans living in Britain, and he was active among leaders of the anti-slave trade movement in the 1780s When: 1745 - 1797 Significance: Equiano wrote a memoir about the treatment of slaves during this time period. He alluded to how slavery and the treatment of slaves is a threat to the basic ideas of the enlightenment. This leads to the Slave Trade Act of 1807, which ended the slave trade to Britain and its colonies. This is the first actual movement to abolishing slavery around the world.

Tenochtitlan

Context: as the capital of the prosperous and dominant Aztec Empire, it was a huge city in the middle of Mexico. However, the city's divide between priestly and warrior classes as well as the general irritation of Aztec tribute states created rivalries that the Spanish would exploit with their journeys inland led by Hernan Cortez. The exploration took place as voyages into South and Central America were beginning to accelerate Who: Hernan Cortez and Spanish soldiers/explorers versus native Aztecs What: the capital of the Aztec civilization, and the graveyard of many Aztecs who died either by the sword or by disease as Cortez ran through the city in 1521 When: capital of the Aztecs in the 15th century until its conquering in 1521 Where: central Mexico Significance: the rush of wealth and conquest from the city gave the Spanish an inordinate amount of money and began an even bigger New World craze in Europe. It also de-unified the entire Central American society

The Encyclopédie

Context: as the globalization of the world took full effect, people gathered in cafe's across Europe to indulge in beverages reflecting the interconnectedness of the world. In these cafe's, people would discuss their ideas about other people's, and the production of books began Who: written by philosophe Denis Diderot What: Diderot wanted to incorporate all of the world's knowledge into the book and hoped that the text could disseminate all this information to the public and future generations When: published 1751-1772 Where: France Significance: was part of a larger shift toward the enlightenment. For the first time, people began to think seriously about other people in the public sphere (cafe). In the Enlightenment, Europeans wanted to study the world around them and how humanity contributes to that world, rather than mindlessly conquer

Fall of Constantinople

Context: at this point in time, Europeans and Chinese were deeply involved in trade, particularly in the spice trade. As capital of the Christian Byzantine Empire, this city was a critical cultural and economic European frontier. The invasion of the city, conducted by the Muslims (Ottoman Empire), was premeditated by years of fighting between the two cultures, including the Crusades Who: Led by 21-year-old Sultan Mehmed II, who defeated an army commanded by Emperor Constantine XI and took control of the imperial capital What: capture of the capital city of the Byzantine Empire by an invading Ottoman army When: May 29, 1453 Where: city was located in modern-day Turkey, bridging the gap between Europe and Asia; among the straits that connected the Black Sea and Mediterranean Significance: terrible for Christendom and strongly damaged European dominance, while elevating Arabic and Muslim status. Contributed to Renaissance in Europe, and refugees fled to nations like Italy and Russia. By 1521, the Ottoman forces made their way to Vienna, putting Christendom on its heels and forcing Europeans to invent new ways to Asia. This is part of what sparks the discovery of the new world and eventually leads Europe to become the top dog in international relationships

Mehmet II

Context: at this point in time, Europeans and Chinese were deeply involved in trade, particularly in the spice trade. The Ottoman Empire and European Christians had been at each other's throat since the early Crusades, and this leader became determined to strengthen his military in order to establish dominance in the area Who: an Ottoman Sultan who defeated the crusade led by John Hunyadi and then proceeded to sack Constantinople What: at the age of 21, he conquered Constantinople and brought an end to the Byzantine Empire. At home he made many political and social reforms, encouraged the arts and sciences, and by the end of his reign, his rebuilding program had changed the city into a thriving imperial capital When: ruled from 1444 to 1446, and then later from 1451 to 1481; conquered Constantinople in 1453 Where: extended Ottoman rule as far as Bosnia in Southeast Europe. Held central power in modern-day Turkey Significance: Not only was this leader a strong conquerer, but he was a passionate support of political and social reforms, as well as the arts. He helped rejuvenate the Ottoman Empire and catapulted his people into the global conversation once more, from both a mercantilist and military perspective. His rule also forced Europeans to adopt different routes across the world, which led them to turn to the sea, and subsequently discover South America

Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations

Context: changing ideas of empire paired along with science and the enlightenment led to likewise-adapting ideas on economics, and how nations should develop their wealth in a more 'enlightened' and industrialized society. The American revolution just occurred, and many early American attributes were representative of the wave of capitalism that would later follow Who: Scottish economist and moral philosopher What: book offers one of the world's first collected descriptions of what builds nations' wealth, including division of labour, productivity, and free markets When: Smith is 1745 - 1797, W.o.N. is 1776 Where: Scotland, Britain, America Significance: Smith's work revolutionized contemporary and future economics, and were perhaps the most useful economics theories in history. His book lead to the division of labor which helped facilitate the industrial revolution in Britain. This idea of free trade is later implemented, but there was a rapid increase of commodities in the world, especially in Britain which allowed them to sell their goods at a much lower price and changing the world dynamic as they knew it. From his book the British became the most economically well versed and surpassed China

Neolithic Revolution

Context: climate change (warmer Earth) and the early development of nomadic into hunter-gatherer cultures Who: Early hunter-gatherer societies What: domestication of plants/animals When: 10,000 - 8,000 BCE Where: Fertile Crescent (Levant area) Significance: Hunter-gatherers gradually evolve into forming more complex societies through political and social hierarchies, greater settlement, increased population, and a more thorough emphasis on science and exploring human skills such as trade, specialization, and channeling wealth

Genghis Khan

Context: coincided with the rise of the Silk Road to international prominence between Asia and Europe. Chinese leaders dominated the area, and his family was poor and disconsolate; the Mongols were in no way united, and arranged marriages were used as means to secure temporary alliances Who: the founder and first Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death. He came to power by uniting many of the nomadic tribes of Northeast Asia What: he helped the Mongol people adopt a widespread writing system. He also practiced meritocracy and encouraged religious tolerance in the Mongol Empire, unifying the nomadic tribes of Northeast Asia When: 1162-1227 CE; became the sole ruler of the Mongols in 1206, and conquered until his death Where: began in Northeast Asia, and later expanded across substantial portions of Central Asia and China Significance: his conquest in 25 years utterly revolutionized the contemporary world. He successfully connected huge areas of diverse land, and perhaps should be regarded as having begun true globalization. His death created a massive vacuum that was temporarily filled by Khanates ruled by his descendants, but later generations and the onset of the Black Death led to opportunities for other cultures to advance this much more unified world

Daimyos

Context: despite the religious wars and other challenges facing nations across the world, Japan overcame internal conflict to re-stabilize because of their ability to avoid foreign intrusion through the Tokugawa Shogunate Who: Japanese regional ruling families What: commanded private armies of samurais; villagers paid taxes, and these families transferred resources to the seat of shogunate authority. When: 16th century Japan Where: Japan Significance: they often hired samurai to guard their land and they paid the samurai in land or food as relatively few could afford to pay samurai in money; this preserved a sense of integrity and safety within Japan that few European countries could match

Opium Wars

Context: due to the rise of free trade throughout the globe, mercantilism (maximize exports, minimize imports) is starting to fall because people no longer need it. Industrial revolution creates diversification. Europeans are now dominating the trade with China, who is lagging behind Who: Great Britain and Chinese Qing Dynasty What: two wars in the mid-19th century concerning British imposition of trade of opium upon China, thus compromising China's territorial sovereignty and economic power for almost a century When: 1839-1842 and 1856-1860 Where: China Significance: The wars and subsequently imposed treaties weakened the Qing dynasty and Chinese governments, and forced China to increase its imports from colonial and imperial powers. Where China was a superpower before the wars, within a decade after the end, China's share of global GDP had fallen by half, and its sovereignty over its territory was seriously compromised until the end of World War II

Treaty of Nanjing

Context: due to the rise of free trade throughout the globe, mercantilism (maximize exports, minimize imports) is starting to fall because people no longer need it. Industrial revolution creates diversification. Europeans then begin to dominate China with Opium Trade, leading to the First Opium War from 1839-1842. Who: British and Qing Dynasty What: treaty that ended the First Opium War between the Qing and British government When: 1842 Where: Nanjing, China Significance: the Qing were forced to sign this treaty which granted an indemnity and extraterritory to Britain, opened five to foreign merchants & ceded Hong Kong Island to the British. The failure of this treaty to satisfy Britain's goals of improved trading would lead to the Second Opium War. From the Qing's perspective, this treaty was seen as unfair.

Bartolomé de las Casas

Context: following the Spanish arrival in the New World in the early 1500s, raids and conquest was rampant, and the rights of native citizens were completely ignored. Civilizations like the Incan and Aztec Empires were demolished by disease and military might, and natives were essentially enslaved by processes like the mita system in Peru Who: Spanish colonist who acted as a historian and social reformer before becoming a Dominican friar. He was the first "Protector of the Indians" What: gave up his Indian slaves and encomienda, and advocated, before King Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, on behalf of rights for the natives When: 1484 - 1566; his active campaign began in 1815 and he helped pass the New Laws in 1842 Where: the West Indies Significance: his work as the first premier Spanish abolitionist leads the crown to forbid slavery of indigenous West Indies citizens. This raises questions about how the conquerors are to govern the conquered. It starts the ball rolling on human rights, the idea that all people are people in the eyes of God. First abolitionist. This unfortunately led the Spanish and Portuguese to take their slaves from Africa, which began a subsequent 300-year period of oppression

Tumbeiros

Context: following the Spanish arrival in the New World in the early 1500s, raids and conquest was rampant, and the rights of native citizens were completely ignored. Civilizations like the Incan and Aztec Empires were demolished by disease and military might, and natives were essentially enslaved by processes like the mita system in Peru; Bartolome de las Casas' work was in progress as well Who: European traffickers taking Africans to Brazil What: the name given to a type of small-port ship that trafficked slaves from Africa to Brazil; they were so named, because on the way, half of the travelers died, due to the bad conditions When: prominent in the 1550s Where: voyages began in Africa and finished in Brazil Significance: the Spanish imported so many slaves that they had to create a ship that specialized in importing slaves. The ideas of Las Casas spared the Indians, but this led to a massive increase in importations of 'unpure' Africans. These ships helped begin the Slave trade in Atlantic

Mita System

Context: following the Spanish arrival in the New World in the early 1500s, raids and conquest was rampant, but the Spanish were failing to take the full value of the South American resources such as the Incan Empire, conquered by Pizarro in 1532. Meanwhile, China possessed a high demand for silver due to the Ming Dynasty's transition to coinage, and the Europeans needed sliver to trade for spices in Asia Who: Spanish leaders forcing work upon Incan civilians What: a structured, mandatory indentured servant work system that included extensive road building, extracting silver, and military service When: it was expanded around 1570 under the leadership of Viceroy Francisco de Toledo Where: mainly used in modern-day Peru and Bolivia, two vital centers of the Incan Empire Significance: a huge percentage of the world's silver began to come from the Americas, and with the extraction of these raw resources, the Spanish doubloon became the first near-global currency. Spanish gained incredible wealth and later began to shift from conquest to colonization, creating the beginnings of modern fiscal military states and the process of indentured labor villages. Essentially, the ideas of silver and slaves were propagated on a massive scale

Zaibatsu

Context: following the arrival of Admiral Matthew C. Perry in Japan, Japan became far more open to western/modernized culture and sparked a new era of foreign influence (opened up trade with many other countries). The Meiji reformers overthrew the Tokugawa in 1868 and encouraged the adoption of Western influences & restored the grandeur of the Japanese state. They centralized the state, created new national business elites, and reconstructed the regime. Who: Japanese businessmen What: a Japanese term referring to business conglomerates in the Empire of Japan, whose influence and size allowed control over significant parts of the Japanese economy from the Meiji period until the end of World War II When: 1868 - 1945 Where: Japan Significance: These groups were the heart of economic and industrial activity within the Empire of Japan, and held great influence over Japanese national and foreign policies. They allowed Japan to expand outward and connect internationally in a manner unprecedented in Japanese society; however, internally, they caused some problems with suspicions of currency speculation

Khoikhoi

Context: great land grab ensuing across the shrinking frontiers of the world. The ideas of the enlightenment have taken full force, private corporations are selling land on frontiers to settlers for profit. Who: native tribes of people in South Africa What: as land was sold to Europeans moving inward, they increasingly pressed against the lands of these natives and forced them out When: 1750 - 1900 Where: South Africa Significance: As these people were forced out, Europeans displayed a general global pattern of land grabbing and disregard of native people. Instead of plundering the areas in Africa to obtain what they want they now transition to possessing the lands. Taking these lands allowed Neo-europes to produces these preciosities which changed into commodities- changing the Europeans diet and daily clothing.

Mexican-American War

Context: in the 1830s, Texas began a revolution against Mexico, led by General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna. After the Texans won the war, Santa Anna signed a treaty granting Texas independence. This was later disputed by the Mexican government when the United States officially attempted to annex the territory as a state. Who: United States (under James Polk) versus Mexico What: an armed conflict between the United States and Mexico from 1846 to 1848 that ended when the Mexican government signed a treaty ending the war and losing the northern territories of Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo México to the United States Where: Texas, Mexico, surrounding areas When: 1846 - 1848 Significance: The victory and territorial expansion Polk envisioned inspired great patriotism in the United States, but the war and treaty drew some criticism in the U.S. for their casualties, monetary cost, and heavy-handedness, particularly early on. The question of how to treat the new acquisitions also intensified the debate over slavery. Mexico's worsened domestic turmoil and losses of life, territory and national prestige left it in what prominent Mexicans called a "state of degradation and ruin"

Li Zicheng

Context: in the early 1600's, the Ming Dynasty is still in control of China. However, climate change is affecting the whole world. Global trade contracts, less silver and gold flow into China. The ability for Chinese peasants to pay single whip tax is harder, and Chinese peasants begin to starve to death due to climate change. China is reversing from expansion to contraction. On top of this Manchu are invading from the north Who: aka "Dashing King," he was a Chinese rebel leader who overthrew the Ming dynasty in 1644 What: he ruled over northern China briefly as the emperor of the short-lived Shun dynasty When: 1644-1645 Where: China Significance: he was the leader of the civil war movements in China. His strife within the empire, coupled along with the barbarian attackers from the north on the Ming Empire led to its downfall and the later rise of the Qing empire. Within the year he was killed and the Manchu took over Beijing turning the Shun Dynasty into the Qing dynasty.

(Admiral) Zhang He

Context: in the post-Black Death era, the dominant Ming Dynasty has taken over as the premier power in China. They possess one of the strongest navies in the world, which they use to explore, conquer, and trade Who: a Chinese mariner, explorer, diplomat, fleet admiral, and court eunuch. He was originally born as Ma He in a Muslim family, before being re-christened by the Yongle Emperor. What: commanded expeditionary treasure voyages to Southeast Asia, South Asia, Western Asia, and East Africa from 1405 to 1433. According to legend, his larger ships carried hundreds of sailors on four decks and were almost twice as long as any wooden ship ever recorded. When: served in the early portion of China's Ming dynasty - lived 1371-1433 Where: lived in Nanjing but explored South Asia (India), West Asia, and East Africa, as well as other islands Significance: He entered new harbors with gifts of trade and negotiation, demonstrating a Chinese commitment to liberalism and an openness to trade, a drastic contrast from the strict imperialism of Mongol rulers like Khan. After his death, Chinese leaders reneged on many of his international advances, and re-instituted isolationism in their regime once more

Melaka

Context: in the time near the Black Death, the main form of world trade was over land through camels on the Silk Road in trading hubs. However, ports began to arise, helping trade become sea-born Who: The Malaysian people, as well traders from Arabia, China and India What: A highly strategic state position for international trade routes; was once a well-known international trade center in the East. Where: In Malaysia, near the islands between India and China Significance: The island's massive success helps trade go sea-born, allows China to export massive goods at once and creating a maritime revolution. New navigational techniques arise, and there is a huge shift in business practices as international credit is both invented and established. More people also live near the coast.

Muhammad Ali (in Egypt)

Context: in the wake of Napoleon (who promised to restructure Egyptian society), reformist energies swept Egypt. In addition, a strong feeling of national identity emerged, as the Egyptians hoped to rebound from their embarrassment at the hands of Napoleon to once again form a stable, vivacious nation Who: the Ottoman governor of Egypt from 1805 to 1848 What: he controlled Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt, Sudan and, briefly, parts of Arabia and the Levant. Though not a modern nationalist, he is regarded as the founder of modern Egypt When: ruled from 1805-1848 Where: Egypt Significance: He strengthened the army to maintain his power & modernized the Egyptian army to become the most powerful fighting force in the Middle East. He also reformed edu (estb. Engineering school and 1st modern medical school in Cairo) and agriculture (Egypt became a leading cotton exporter), improved irrigation canals, etc. → Egypt emerged as a powerful state

Society of God Worshipers (in China)

Context: just as the Enlightenment encouraged the expansion of ideology from conquest-driven to humanity-driven, many explored the mythos of God, and his impact on humanity. This ranged from atheism, to driven Christianity, to Islam, to many religions in between. Who: Chinese civilians, led by Hong Xiuquan What: religious movement which drew on Xiuquan's own unique interpretation of Christianity and combined it with Chinese folk religion, faith in Shangdi, and other religious traditions Where: China When: Founded around 1843 Significance: In February 1850, local corps passed through a number of God Worshipping villages and threatened to kill the converts. In response, Feng Yunshan began to call for open revolt by the God Worshippers. In July 1850, the God Worshipper's leaders directed their followers to converge in Jintian and quickly amassed a force of 10,000-30,000 people

José Celestino Mutis

Context: just as the Enlightenment had affected European nations like Britain and France, it had also made its way to South America, as seen in the struggle of Tupac Amaru II. South Americans were tired of being long disrespected by their European counterparts, and were ready for ideological and physical independence. Who: a Spanish priest, botanist and mathematician What: a significant figure in the Spanish American Enlightenment; produced a beautiful collection of Columbian plants When: 1732 - 1808 Where: born in Cadiz, died in Columbia Significance: helped drive forward the Spanish-American Enlightenment with his work, and is remembered as a great promoter of science and knowledge. Emphasized reason, science, practicality, clarity rather than obscurantism, and secularism, were transmitted from France to the New World in the eighteenth century, following the establishment of the Bourbon monarchy in Spain

Candomblé

Context: religious war still going on between Christians and Muslims; massive amounts of slaves coming from Africa to New World; Spanish colonization of new world Who: taught by African priests What: the religion developed in Brazil, influenced by the knowledge of enslaved African priests who continued to teach their religion, their culture, and language When: 1549-1888 Where: developed in Brazil Significance: Spanish/Portuguese- i.e. the Catholic Religion - practiced the idea of converting everyone they saw, in this case to make the slaves more submissive/to cut the ties from their past. This was significant because there was a major religion war going on between Christianity and Islam, so this act of conversion increased the amount of people part of the faith.

Palmares

Context: slave trade and the influx of pathogens into the New World creates an entirely new dynamic of death, exploitation, and oppression, led by the Europeans. This is called the Columbian Exchange, and in addition to slave trade it creates a global labor market with cheaper production of global commodities Who: survivors of slavery and free-born African people What: escaped slave colony When: the colony began to form around 1602, when Portuguese settlers complained that slaves were running away; continued until its shutdown in 1694 Where: modern state of Alagoas, in Brazil; near the eastern tip of South America Significance: caused internal war in African tribes to gain more captives to sell into the slave trade, since the Portuguese were losing thousands of forced laborers. Revolting slaves affected the means of production of goods to Europe, and the government realized it could not deal with this and still retain a successful system. Ethical/moral issues raised for abolitionists

James Watt

Context: the Enlightenment changed the way that people thought about each other, and the world. Put more of a global focus on discovery and science, which led to an emphasis on industrialization, paving the way for entrepreneurs and inventors to harness their talents. The production of colonies is falling with things like revolutions and abolishment of slavery. Who: a Scottish inventor, mechanical engineer, and chemist What: improved on Newcomen's 1712 steam engine with his engine in 1776, setting the path for industrialization in GB and globally When: 1736 - 1819; steam engine 1776 Where: Great Britain Significance: before this invention, all energy output required equal input: you had to feed horses in order to have them pull you. By harnessing the energy stored in inorganic things like coal, there is a productivity revolution that precipitates the industrial revolution. Moreover, an entire branch of people was dedicated to the discovery of new energy sources, and people could get around without having to rely on winds - making travel easier.

Battle of the Pyramids

Context: the French, having just undergone a costly (both physical and mental) Revolution, found themselves in desperate need of funds and a morale boost. Having elected a Consulate to represent their interests, the French see Italy and Egypt as two opportunities to expand and renew their reputation as a global superpower. Who: Napoleon Bonaparte and his French forces versus the local Egyptian Mamluk rulers What: major engagement during the French Invasion of Egypt. The French scored a decisive victory against the forces of the local Mamluk rulers, wiping out almost the entire Egyptian army. It was the battle where Napoleon employed one of his significant contributions to military tactics, the divisional square When: fought in July 1798 Where: near Cairo, Ottoman Egypt Significance: the battle signaled a return to nationalism for France, Arabia, Turkey, and even Egypt. After empires (king centered) come nations (people centered). These nations inherit the rivalries their grandparent empires. In addition, the Battle of the Pyramids signaled the rise of France to the status of world leader once more, a status they would reinforce repeatedly over the next two decades of Napoleon's dominant rule

Atahualpa

Context: the Incas controlled a vast domain in what is now Chile to southern Colombia. The Incas were internally split thanks to a family-driven civil war & the empire was suffering repeated convulsions when the Spaniards arrived in 1532. Who: the Incan ruler at the arrival of the Spanish. The favorite son of the fierce ruler, Huayna Capac. What: Governed the province of current day Ecuador When: Ruled very shortly from 1532-1533 Where: Andes Mountains on the South American west coast Significance: With the utter wipeout of the Incas due to smallpox and machinery, the Incan Empire was in shambles at the wrong time. The Spanish, led by Pizarro, easily conquer the empire, taking their resources and furthering their drive for South American territory and power

Sino-Japanese War

Context: the Japanese policy of seclusion under the shōguns of the Edo period came to an end with the Meiji Restoration of 1868 and the fall of the shogunate, and the newly formed Meiji government embarked on reforms to centralize and modernize Japan. The Japanese had sent delegations and students around the world to learn and assimilate Western arts and sciences, with the intention of making Japan an equal to the Western powers. These reforms transformed Japan from a feudal society into a modern industrial state. Who: China (Qing) and Japan (Meiji) What: war fought between China and Japan, primarily over influence in Korea. Japan crushed it, and Qing government sued for peace in February 1895 When: July 1894 - April 1895 Where: Korea, Manchuria, Taiwan, Yellow Sea Significance: The war demonstrated the failure of the Qing dynasty's attempts to modernize its military and fend off threats to its sovereignty, especially when compared with Japan's successful Meiji Restoration. For the first time, regional dominance in East Asia shifted from China to Japan; the prestige of the Qing Dynasty, along with the classical tradition in China, suffered a major blow. The humiliating loss of Korea as a tributary state sparked an unprecedented public outcry, leading to the 1911 Xinhai Revolution

Black Death

Context: the Mongol Conquest had helped connect Eurasia and the Silk Road established unprecedented international relationships by running from East Asia through Europe. In addition, maritime trade had just begun to take off, truly connecting Africa, Asia, and Europe. Who: All peoples throughout Afro-Eurasia, particularly Europe, where 40-60% of people were killed What: One of the most devastating pandemics in human history, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 75 to 200 million people in Eurasia When: Peaked in Europe from 1347 to 1351; more generally, the mid-to-late 14th century Where: Afro-Eurasia, particularly Europe Significance: the disease used the interconnectedness of the world had to travel from Central Asia to Crimea, and then on to the Mediterranean and Europe. It obliterated European populations and led to revolutions and riots, creating a vacuum that the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal empires would fill, as well as the Ming Dynasty in China

Dutch East Indies Co.

Context: the Mughal Empire reaches its prime during Shah Jahan's rule, and afterwards suffers from over-expansion, losing territories in the "deccan wars." Eventually, as the Empire becomes to unstable to rule competitively, European trading companies begin to knock on the door of India Who: Dutch-operated private company What: agreed to give part of profits to government in exchange for protection of trade in Indian Ocean When: founded 1602; lasts several centuries Where: allows merchants to trade in Indies Significance: Starts to change European wars from religious to mercantilist (pirating). Starts the mercantile age where capitalists and monarchs have an agreement. Makes some people insanely rich. Started the idea of credit in Amsterdam! Promotes colonialism - predation to exploitation

Marathas

Context: the Mughal-Maratha Wars, also called the Maratha War of Independence, were fought between the Maratha Empire and the Mughal Empire from 1680 to 1707. The Deccan Wars started in 1680 with the Mughal invasion of the Maratha enclave. Marathas ended up defeating the Mughals in Delhi and Bhopal, and extended their empire till Peshawar by 1758 Who: Indians who inhabited the Deccan Peninsula What: faced opposition when Mughals tried to expand into Southern India When: 1680 - 1758 Where: Southern India Significance: After the death of Aurangzeb, the Marathas began an expansion northward. They crossed the Narmada, the traditional boundary between northern plains and peninsula, and later split in regional kingdoms

Choros Erdiin Galdan

Context: the Qing is the new dynasty of China, having overthrown the Ming and established control in 1644. They are trying to figure out how, as Manchu's, they can effectively rule a primarily Han population. They have the idea to give people more land, so they expand inward but the native tribes there are resisting. Who: leader of the last Buddhist state in Mongolian area What: he is resistant to Qing power, tries to run away from their invasion and then harass their supply lines. Doesn't work, he is captured and killed When: 1644-1697 Where: China Significance: the Qing assert themselves as the leader of unified China, and rule mainly unchallenged until 1911, when the Republic of China takes over. At their peak, they had the fifth-largest empire in world history

Doña Marina

Context: the Spanish had the island of Hispaniola but rumors about the wealth inland were growing. So Cortez took his group of 500 Spanish soldiers went inward. One of the first major groups he met were the Tlaxacans, a neighboring and longtime rival tribe of the Aztecs. This woman proved integral in the alliance of the Aztecs and Tlaxacans, and later bore the first mixed-race child to Hernan Cortez Who: a Tlaxacan woman who was the daughter of a local noble family & later Cortez's lover What: translated for Cortez as he sought to conquer the Aztec Empire; helped reveal several Aztec plots When: translated from 1519-1522, and later bore his son Where: central and eastern Mexico Significance: without the help of the woman later known as 'La Malinche' for her supposed treachery to indigenous Mexican citizens, Cortes could not have allied with the Tlaxcalans to take out the Aztecs. Her alliance with Cortez soon proved to be more than symbolic, as she bore the first mixed-race child in the New World. By helping Cortez and beginning a 'new' race, she accelerated the European drive for territory in South and Central America

Tlaxcalans

Context: the Spanish had the island of Hispaniola but rumors about the wealth inland were growing. So Cortez took his group of 500 Spanish soldiers went inward. One of the first major groups he met were these people, a neighboring and longtime rival tribe of the Aztecs. Having disliked Aztec oppression for years, this group allied with the Spanish, leading to the downfall of the Empire Who: citizens of a rival group who allied with Cortez's Spanish coalition What: they waged war on the Aztecs to preserve their independence and to resist incorporation into the Aztecs tributary empire When: allied with Cortez from 1519-1522 Where: located in Mexico east of the Aztec capital Significance: with their contribution of 100,000 troops to the Spanish cause, they were integral in the combined conquest of the Aztec Empire and its subsequent disintegration. As a reward, the Tlaxcans were allowed to remain autonomous while the Spanish dominated the rest of Mexico

Father Antonio Vieira

Context: the Treaty of Westphalia has just occurred, and European nations like Portugal continue to turn their attention outwards; for example, the Portuguese put their sights on Brazil Who: Portuguese preacher of Catholicism in Brazil What: diplomat, orator, preacher, philosopher, writer, and member of the Royal Council to the King of Portugal When: 1608 - 1697 Where: Brazil Significance: he did something similar to Las Casas - he made the enslavement of indigenous people illegal in Brazil. This was one of the first movements that set in motion something that would come much later - the abolitionist movements. This was also significant for the Catholic Church because he tried to convert many African slaves that were being enslaved there. Although the divide in Europe was over for the time being over religion, it was press outwards which turned into wide spread of the Catholic religion.

Bahadur Shah II - Zafar

Context: the railroad system has begun to penetrate a decentralized India. India is a huge cotton exporter to Europe. India is starting to defect slowly from the Mughal Empire one by one and the British East India Company gets more powerful. In 1857, however, the Sepoys, Indian soldiers working for the British, defect and ask him to be their last ruler to drive the British from India. Who: the last Mughal Emperor What: Starts the the Indian Mutiny, a jihadist revolution against the Christian British. Britain retaliates by annihilating Indian forces When: 1775 - 1862 (war ends 1857) Where: India Significance: The British respond by crushing the Indian forces. Delhi is not in good shape, the Mughal Empire is over. Their leader is exiled. It leaves a simmering of dislike for the British and among the different religious groups in India. After the mughal empire falls, the british are in charge of a colonized india. Britain penetrates fully the indian hinterlands. India becomes half modernized half peasant.

Louisiana Purchase

Context: the world is developing into nation states with different national identities. Global division of labor is increasing. With the invention of the Steam Engine by Watt, there is a huge demand for cotton in Europe because they can now manufacture it at an exponentially higher rate. Who: Thomas Jefferson and Napoleon Bonaparte (United States and France) What: Jefferson purchases Louisiana and its surrounding territories from the French for a sum of $15 million When: 1803 Where: Louisiana and southeast United States Significance: Helped facilitate the American land grabbing phenomenon. Attracted immigrants to the land of opportunity, American farmer increase at an exponential rate and America becomes the breadbasket of the world after the invention of steam increases the demand for agrarian staples.

Caste War (Mexico)

Context: the world is in a type of massive upheaval in the 19th century as the people who are colonized and minorities begin to recognize their humanity on a global scale. Taiping rebellion, War of 1812 etc. Who: nativa Mayans of Yucatan vs Europeans called Yucatecos What: revolt of native Mayans against Yucatecos, who had dominated the region When: 1846 - 1901 Where: Yucatan, Mexico Significance: Represented a larger global movement of upheaval and rebellion against oppressive powers. Haitian Revolution, American Revolution, etc; all inspired movements that drew on Enlightenment ideas that liberty is worth risking everything

Simón Bolívar

Context: the world is in revolution and is experiencing the effects of global imperial crises. Following the lead of the colonists in North America, political upheaval began to arise in the rest of the Americas from subordinated peoples. Internal instability in Spain and ineffective/corrupt rule encouraged S American independence. Other revolutions were taking place nearby in the Caribbean and Mexico and the demand for universal rights/principles of the American and French Revolutions motivated change. Debate over rights, representation, and who got them → widespread warfare. Who: 'The Liberator' - Venezuelan military and political leader What: led wars of independence against Spanish armies in Venezuela w desire to build a modern republic (Latin American Confederation) with constitutional proclamations When: 1783 - 1830; Venezuela became independent in 1821 Where: South America, particularly Venezuela Significance: the wars for independence also led to internal social/political struggles within Latin America. Local identities prevailed which gave way to unstable national republics. The wars resulted in the triumph of wealthy elites at the expense of the poorer, nonwhite, and mixed populations. *Age of rev → new concepts of pol community and the nation itself- nation and people within in had more expansive possibilities → birth of new concepts of liberty and citizenship → discussion about modern pol and inclusion in new nations → questions of exclusion

Commodore Matthew C. Perry

Context: under the Tokugawa Shogunate (hereditary military administration that ruled from 1603- 1868) Japan was in a long state of relative isolation and closed many/all of its ports to foreigners. Who: a Commodore of the United States Navy who commanded ships in several wars, including the War of 1812 and the Mexican-American War What: arrived in Edo Bay (Japan) in 1853 with a fleet of steam-powered ships Whe: 1853 Where: Edo Bay, Japan Significance: Perry's arrival opened Japan's eyes to western/modernized culture and sparked a new era of foreign influence (opened up trade with many other countries). The Meiji reformers overthrew the Tokugawa in 1868 and encouraged the adoption of Western influences & restored the grandeur of the Japanese state. They centralized the state, created new national business elites, and reconstructed the regime.

Meiji Restoration

Context: under the Tokugawa Shogunate (hereditary military administration that ruled from 1603- 1868) Japan was in a long state of relative isolation and closed many/all of its ports to foreigners. However, the arrival of Matthew C. Perry opened Japan's eyes to western/modernized culture and sparked a new era of foreign influence Who: Japanese reformers What: overthrew the Tokugawa in 1868 and encouraged the adoption of Western influences & restored the grandeur of the Japanese state. They centralized the state, created new national business elites, and reconstructed the regime When: 1868 Where: Japan Significance: The Meiji reformers' overthrow of the Tokugawa in 1868 and subsequent embracing of Western culture and business ideas helped sparked a period of strong economic growth and diversification in Japan, which had previously been locked in isolationism and protectionism for centuries.

Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar (Akbar the Great)

Context: war is raging within both Islamic and Christian religions. Renaissance flourishing in Europe. Trade shifts from preciosity to necessity i.e. tea and sugar. China is growing strong. India is still an agrarian empire; wealth held by land owners called zamindars Who: Mughal Emperor who moved the Mughal dynasty south towards flourishing trade ports What: consolidated India and located to near major cities and trade opportunities When: 1556-1605 Where: India Significance: Consolidated India by conquering his way south. Made the empire multi-denominational/multi-cultural through marriage with wives of different religion. The empire is still an agrarian society, however

Sepoys (in India)

Dutch East India company has become involved with conquering areas as well as being a profitable company - it profits off of the colonization of areas. Enlightenment is in full effect for the world, people are viewing other people differently as before and this idea of knowledge and power arise. 7 Years' War going on - rivalry between French and British continues in India Who: paid professional soldiers (indigenous troops) What: fought in place of the British troops on behalf of the E Indies Company against the French When: 1757 Where: Battle of Plassey (Bengal) Significance: close to ninety-six percent of the British East India Company's army of 300,000 men were native to India and these sepoys played a crucial role in securing the subcontinent for the company. This forms an interesting irony, as these indigenous troops sacrificed themselves for a cause in which they would have no say; i.e., the British would become sole rulers and dominators of India, and the sepoys' efforts were for no avail

Battle of Plassey

Dutch East India company has become involved with conquering areas as well as being a profitable company - it profits off of the colonization of areas. Enlightenment is in full effect for the world, people are viewing other people differently as before and this idea of knowledge and power arise. 7 Years' War going on - rivalry between French and British in West and East Indies. Who: Robert Clive and the British East India Company (using Sepoys) versus the Nawab of Bengal and French Allies What: decisive British victory that consolidated the Company's presence in Bengal, which later expanded to cover much of India over the next hundred years When: June 1757 Where: Palashi, north of Calcutta and part of India Significance: there is a blurring of this line of collecting and conquest here with the Dutch East India company. VOC devoted to science and enlightenment ideas, but also now conquest with Robert Clive. Private power of a company man now becomes the governor of richest state in India. There exists a clash here between the potential for money and resources versus the rights of Indian leaders. These enlightenment ideas of questioning and interest in knowledge is now leading to companies like the dutch east india company to turn to violence and warfare to obtain this different knowledge.

Karl Marx

Europe and the U.S. were experiencing mass movements against the oppressive systems that were the global order in the 1840's. This ranged from slavery to forcibly taking land to other systems that populations deemed morally wrong; some of these ideas ranged into sociopolitical theories that strongly disputed the Western idea of capitalism Who: German philosopher, economist, historian, sociologist, & journalist What: believed that human societies develop through class struggle (this manifests itself in the conflict between the ruling classes that control the means of production and the working classes). Believed upheavals would take capitalism down When: 1818 - 1883; published Communist Manifesto in 1848 Where: generally stateless Significance: Showing the effects that the Industrial Revolution was having in transforming new divisions of labor. He thought that he was representing the proletariat, the working class, by suggesting that all people are better off with a government that represents each individual person equally; many argued that he was just representing the people who refused to adapt in change. However, his argument became extremely influential over time, particularly in Eastern Europe and Asia, as communism was later adopted by nations such as China, Russia, Cuba, and many others

Cherokee Indian 1827 Constitution

States were emerging throughout the world to defend the rights of its citizens. In North America, USA declared their state to be on the lands that Cherokee traditionally occupied. Cherokee and other Native Americans were furious that their rights were being marginalized in comparison with other nations in the world. Who: Cherokee Indian writers What: a constitution written by the Cherokee to defend their legitimacy as a state so that they would not be kicked off their lands When: 1827 Where: Southeast United States Significance: displayed a global pattern that the rights of individuals would only be protected by states with stronger militaries. This would be reinforced by the American Civil War, in which constitutional rights would be challenged by the bigger, stronger military

Shah Jahan

The Treaty of Westphalia is signed halfway through his rule; the Mughal empire is rising on the world and global stage as European countries fight among themselves, and later in the New World Who: fifth Mughal Emperor What: although an able military commander, he is perhaps best remembered for his architectural achievements (Taj Mahal) When: 1628-1658 Where: Mughal territory, India Significance: The Mughal Empire reaches its prime during this man's rule, and afterwards suffers from over-expansion, losing territories in the "deccan wars." Eventually, the Empire becomes to unstable to rule competitively, and European trading companies begin to make business deals with these family powers in cities across the shoreline, which slowly decentralizes the Mughal Empire and starts to put Europeans, especially the British, in power throughout India

Tecumseh

The War of 1812 also brought up uprisings in the back countries of the United States. Across the globe, people who are in "inferior" social positions are rising up against their respective governments. Human rights. Who: A Shawnee leader in the Ohio Country region What: unsuccessful in getting the U.S. government to rescind land-cession treaties, and formed an alliance with the Great Britain during the War of 1812. His death in the Battle of Thames in 1813 caused the pan-Indian alliance to collapse When: 1768-1813 Where: Ohio Country, United States Significance: the expansion of new frontiers in the United States caused minority groups such as Native Americans and Mexicans to be pushed off of their lands because they were not able/allowed to integrate in the majority white expansionist groups. Visions of prophetic delivery from the bondages of European powers on behalf of the United States.

Casta Paintings

The colonies represent a baroque culture, where people of different races and religions mixed together. In the enlightenment, Europeans became obsessed with classifying, systemizing, and quantifying the world around them for study, i.e. the encyclopedia. Who: Spanish painters What: paintings depicting different races in Spanish culture, including creoles in Mexico When: 17th and 18th century Where: Spain and Mexico Significance: just as academia was being quantified and systemized, so were people. This is the first time that the idea of race changes meaning. Before the 18th century race referred to origin and faith, but now it is reliant on your biological parents and color of skin. These casta paintings are systemizing people and putting them into different categories such as the Mestizo. This is one of the first demonstrations of the enlightenment taking effect on the world- having people question and change what they previously saw as face and creating new categories and new ways of thought.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

The enlightenment era has led to ideas about freedom that facilitate a wave of revolutions, starting in America and proceeding to the French Revolution. Who: French general and best-known leader of the Haitian Revolution What: his military and political acumen saved the gains of the first black insurrection in November 1791, and later fought on behalf of Saint-Domingue in the era of Napoleonic France When: 1743 - 1803 Where: Haiti Significance: Equiano Memoirs were also published during this time period which started the abolishment of slavery. The ideas of both the memoir and enlightenment spread to this area and inspired Toussaint to lead a revolution against the French. This was an addition to the abolitionist movement which will later come, but it helped put an end to the slave trade in the atlantic between Africa and Europe. He is another figure that embraces the ideals of the enlightenment era and puts them to work.

George Washington

The enlightenment has brought the idea that people should be able to choose who rules them and how they live (democracy). With this, colonies are rebelling and America is the first to start this global pattern. Who: First president of the united states What: Led the Revolutionary War against the British and stood as a fantastic representation of the ideal 'American' virtues When: 1732 - 1799 Where: United States of America Significance: America breaking away starts a global chain of events of revolutions. Also, Washington said that "any person who neglects the present opportunity of hunting out good lands and in some measure, marking them out for himself, in order to keep others from settling them, will never regain it". Land grabbing phenomenon, people racing to claim lands before anyone else does.