Hist 102 exam 2

Francis Bacon

(1561-1626) English politician, writer. Formalized the empirical method. Novum Organum. Inductive reasoning. developed the scientific method

Scientific Method

A series of steps followed to solve problems including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions. A logical, systematic approach to the solution of a scientific problem a method of procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.

Nightingale

Founder of modern nursing Florence Nightingale is shown caring for wounded British soldiers in the military hospital at Scutari during the Crimean War. After a British journalist, W. H. Russell, issued a scathing denunciation of the quality of medical care afforded to wounded British soldiers, the British government allowed Nightingale to take a group of nurses to the Crimean warfront. Through her efforts in the Crimean War, Nightingale helped make nursing an admirable profession for middle-class women.

Realpolitik

"politics of reality"; politics based on practical concerns rather than theory or ethics. Political realism or practical politics, especially policy based on power rather than on ideals. realistic politics based on the needs of the state "realistic politics," practical politics, ends justified the means, power more important than principles

Montesquieu

(1689-1755) wrote 'Spirit of the Laws', said that no single set of political laws was applicable to all - depended on relationship and variables, supported division of government French political philosopher who advocated the separation of executive and legislative and judicial powers (1689-1755) separation of powers Charles de Secondat, the baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755), came from the French nobility. His most famous work, The Spirit of the Laws, was published in 1748. In this comparative study of governments, Montesquieu attempted to apply the scientific method to the social and political arena to ascertain the "natural laws" governing the social and political relationships of human beings. Montesquieu distinguished three basic kinds of governments: republic, monarchy, and despotism. Montesquieu used England as an example of monarchy, and it was his analysis of England's constitution that led to his most lasting contribution to political thought—the importance of checks and balances achieved by means of a separation of powers. He believed that England's system, with its separate executive, legislative, and judicial branches that served to limit and control each other, provided the greatest freedom and security for a state. The translation of his work into English two years after publication ensured that it would be read by American political leaders, who eventually incorporated its principles into the U.S. Constitution.

Voltaire

(1694-1778) French philosopher. He believed that freedom of speech was the best weapon against bad government. He also spoke out against the corruption of the French government, and the intolerance of the Catholic Church. French writer who was the embodiment of 18th century Enlightenment (1694-1778) French philosopher and writer whose works epitomize the Age of Enlightenment, often attacking injustice and intolerance. The greatest figure of the Enlightenment was François-Marie Arouet, known simply as Voltaire (1694-1778). Son of a prosperous middle-class family from Paris, he studied law, although he achieved his first success as a playwright. Voltaire was a prolific author and wrote an almost endless stream of pamphlets, novels, plays, letters, philosophical essays, and histories. Throughout his life, Voltaire championed not only religious tolerance but also deism, a religious outlook shared by most other philosophes. Deism was built on the Newtonian world-machine, which implied the existence of a mechanic (God) who had created the universe. To Voltaire and most other philosophes, the universe was like a clock, and God was the clockmaker who had created it, set it in motion, and allowed it to run according to its own natural laws.

Bismarck

(1815-1898) Prussian chancellor who engineered the unification of Germany under his rule. Delivers "blood and iron" speech. German statesman under whose leadership Germany was united (1815-1898) When the Prussian legislature refused to levy new taxes for the proposed military changes, William appointed a new prime minister, Count Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898). Bismarck ignored the legislative opposition to the military reforms, arguing instead that "Germany does not look to Prussia's liberalism but to her power.... Not by speeches and majorities will the great questions of the day be decided—that was the mistake of 1848-1849—but by iron and blood." Bismarck collected the taxes, reorganized the army anyway, and governed Prussia by simply ignoring parliament. In the meantime, opposition to his domestic policy determined Bismarck on an active foreign policy, which led to war and German unification. Bismarck has often been portrayed as the ultimate realist, the foremost nineteenth-century practitioner of Realpolitik—the "politics of reality."

Alexander II

(r. 1855-1881) Emperor of Russia; advocated moderate reforms for Russia; emancipated the serfs; he was assassinated. the son of Nicholas I who, as czar of Russia, introduced reforms that included limited emancipation of the serfs (1818-1881) A Russian Tsar who implemented rapid social change and general modernization of Russia. Tsar Alexander II (1855-1881) decided to make serious reforms. Serfdom was the most burdensome problem in tsarist Russia. On March 3, 1861, Alexander issued his emancipation edict (see "Emancipation: Serfs and Slaves,"). Peasants were now free to own property and marry as they chose. The lands given to the peasants, however, were purchased by the state from the landlords, who kept the best parcels, leaving the Russian peasants without enough arable land to support themselves. Peasants were also expected to repay the state in long-term installments. To ensure that the payments were made, peasants were subjected to the authority of their mir (MEER), or village commune, which was collectively responsible for the land payments to the government. And since the village communes were responsible for the payments, they were reluctant to allow peasants to leave their land. Emancipation, then, led not to a free, landowning peasantry along the Western model but to an unhappy, land-starved peasantry that largely followed the old ways of agricultural production. Alexander II attempted other reforms as well, but he soon found that he could please no one. Reformers wanted more and rapid change; conservatives thought that the tsar was attempting to undermine the basic institutions of Russian society. When one group of radicals assassinated Alexander II in 1881, his son and successor, Alexander III, turned against reform and returned to the traditional methods of repression.

Women in the Industrial Revolution

-before marriage: sewing jobs in industries, teaching, nursing, domestic serving, -marriage: isolated women, love marriages -female independence, less children Women became to be associated with domestic duties (housekeeping, food preparation, child rearing and nurturing, household management, etc.). This paved the way for the new concept of gender roles in society. Unmarried women (young single/widows) became employed in factories, and often made up the majority of workers. Women often left jobs after they married. Women also took up jobs such as working the land, domestic service, and cottage industries. There was often sexual exploitation by factory workers. Moving to cities and entering the wage economy gave women more opportunities for marriage. Migrated to cities to work in factories

First Industrial Revolution

1750-1850; Changes in technology, agriculture, design, transportation had profound effects on social, economic and cultural conditions of the time. Introduction of interchangeable parts beginning in Great Britain in the 1780s, which gave rise to textiles, railroads, iron, and coal started in Great Britain in the late 18th century; centered around three new developments | coal-powered steam engine, textile machines (spinning thread and weaving cloth), and blast furnaces to produce iron; helped increase the growth of the early American economy. The Industrial Revolution triggered an enormous leap in industrial production. Coal and steam replaced wind and water as new sources of energy and power to drive laborsaving machines. In turn, these machines required new ways of organizing human labor as factories replaced workshops and home workrooms. During the Industrial Revolution, Europe shifted from an economy based on agriculture and handicrafts to an economy based on manufacturing by machines and automated factories. Although the Industrial Revolution took decades to spread, it was truly revolutionary in the way it fundamentally changed the world. Large numbers of people moved from the countryside to cities to work in the new factories. The creation of a wealthy industrial middle class and a huge industrial working class substantially transformed traditional social relationships. Finally, the Industrial Revolution altered how people related to nature, ultimately creating an environmental crisis that in the twentieth century was finally recognized as a danger to human existence itself.

John Locke

17th century English philosopher who opposed the Divine Right of Kings and who asserted that people have a natural right to life, liberty, and property. English philosopher who advocated the idea of a "social contract" in which government powers are derived from the consent of the governed and in which the government serves the people; also said people have natural rights to life, liberty and property. English philosopher who argued that people have natural rights Major sources of inspiration for the Enlightenment were Isaac Newton and his fellow Englishman John Locke (1632-1704). Newton had contended that the world and everything in it worked like a giant machine. Enchanted by the grand design of this world-machine, the intellectuals of the Enlightenment were convinced that by following Newton's rules of reasoning, they could discover the natural laws that governed politics, economics, justice, and religion. John Locke's theory of knowledge also made a great impact. In his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, written in 1690, Locke denied the existence of innate ideas and argued instead that every person was born with a tabula rasa, a blank mind By denying innate ideas, Locke's philosophy implied that people were molded by their environment, by whatever they perceived through their senses from their surrounding world. Thus, by altering the environment and subjecting people to proper influences, they could be changed and a new society created. And how should the environment be changed? Newton had paved the way: reason enabled enlightened people to discover the natural laws to which all institutions should conform.

Karl Marx

1818-1883. 19th century philosopher, political economist, sociologist, humanist, political theorist, and revolutionary. Often recognized as the father of communism. Analysis of history led to his belief that communism would replace capitalism as it replaced feudalism. Believed in a classless society. founder of modern communism, wrote the Communist Manifesto Father of Communism the political, economic, and social theories of Karl Marx, which included the idea that history is the story of class struggle and that ultimately the proletariat will overthrow the bourgeoisie and establish a dictatorship en route to a classless society. The desire to improve their working and living conditions led many industrial workers to form socialist political parties and socialist labor unions. These emerged after 1870, but the theory that made them possible had been developed more than two decades earlier in the work of Karl Marx. Marxism made its first appearance on the eve of the revolutions of 1848 with the publication of a short treatise titled The Communist Manifesto, written by two Germans, Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895). Marxist Theory Marx and Engels began their treatise with the statement that "the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles." Throughout history, then, oppressor and oppressed have "stood in constant opposition to one another."Footnote One group of people—the oppressors—owned the means of production and thus had the power to control government and society. Indeed, government itself was but an instrument of the ruling class. The other group, which depended on the owners of the means of production, were the oppressed.

Unification of Italy

1860, ally of Mazzini, recruited volunteers and won control of Sicily. Next, Garibaldi turned Naples and Sicily over to Victor Emmanuel. Last, Italy becomes a united nation, which it hadn't been since the fall of the Roman Empire. In 1830s, nationalist leader, Giuseppe Mazzini, founded Young Italy whose goal was to constitute Italy as one free independent, republican nation. In 1860, ally of Mazzini, Giuseppe Garibaldi recruited volunteers and won control of Sicily. Next, Garibaldi turned Naples and Sicily over to Victor Emmanuel. Successors of Count Camillo Cavour acquired Venetia and soon Rome was won back when France had to withdraw its troops during the Franco-Prussian War. Last, Italy becomes a united nation, which it hadn't been since the fall of the Roman Empire. Butt... Young Italy had many problems, too. North and South Italy had many disputes and there was hostility between church and state. When turmoil occurred, the government was forced to extend rights to more men and improve social conditions. However, by 1914, Italy was better off than it had been in 1861. Meanwhile, in southern Italy, Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882), a dedicated Italian patriot, raised an army of a thousand volunteers called the Red Shirts because of the color of their uniforms. Garibaldi's forces swept through Sicily and then crossed over to the mainland and began a victorious march up the Italian peninsula Naples, and with it the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, fell in early September 1860. Ever the patriot, Garibaldi chose to turn over his conquests to Cavour's Piedmontese forces. On March 17, 1861, the new kingdom of Italy was proclaimed under a centralized government subordinated to the control of Piedmont and King Victor Emmanuel II of the house of Savoy. The task of unification was not yet complete, however. Venetia in the north was still held by Austria, and Rome was under papal control, supported by French troops. In the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the new Italian state became an ally of Prussia. Although the Italian army was defeated by the Austrians, Prussia's victory left the Italians with Venetia. In 1870, the Franco-Prussian War resulted in the withdrawal of French troops from Rome. The Italian army then annexed the city on September 20, 1870, and Rome became the new capital of the united Italian state.

Robespierre

A French political leader of the eighteenth century. A Jacobin, he was one of the most radical leaders of the French Revolution. He was in charge of the government during the Reign of Terror, when thousands of persons were executed without trial. After a public reaction against his extreme policies, he was executed without trial. leader of the Committee of Public Safety; chief architect of the Reign of Terror By the summer of 1794, the French had been successful on the battlefield against their foreign foes, making the Reign of Terror less necessary. But the Terror continued because Robespierre, who had become a figure of power and authority, became obsessed with purifying the body politic of all the corrupt. Many deputies in the National Convention were fearful, however, that they were not safe while Robespierre was free to act and gathered enough votes to condemn him. Robespierre was sent to the guillotine on July 28, 1794. After the death of Robespierre, a reaction set in as more moderate middle-class leaders took control. The Reign of Terror came to a halt, and the National Convention reduced the power of the Committee of Public Safety. In addition, in August 1795 a new constitution was drafted that reflected the desire for a stability that did not sacrifice the ideals of 1789. Five directors—known as the Directory—acted as the executive authority.A French political leader of the eighteenth century. A Jacobin, he was one of the most radical leaders of the French Revolution. He was in charge of the government during the Reign of Terror, when thousands of persons were executed without trial. After a public reaction against his extreme policies, he was executed without trial.

Liberalism

A belief that government can and should achieve justice and equality of opportunity. A political ideology that emphasizes the civil rights of citizens, representative government, and the protection of private property. This ideology, derived from the Enlightenment, was especially popular among the property-owning middle classes. an ideology based on the belief that people should be as free from restraint as possible. Economic liberalism is the idea that the government should not interfere in the workings of the economy. Political liberalism is the idea that there should be restraints on the exercise of power so that people can enjoy basic civil rights in a constitutional state with a representative assembly.

Scientific Revolution

A major change in European thought, starting in the mid-1500s, in which the study of the natural world began to be characterized by careful observation and the questioning of accepted beliefs. The intellectual movement in Europe, initially associated with planetary motion and other aspects of physics, that by the seventeenth century had laid the groundwork for modern science. The series of events that led to the birth of modern science

Berlin Conference

A meeting from 1884-1885 at which representatives of European nations agreed on rules colonization of Africa Meeting at which Europeans agreed on rules for colonizing Africa Conference that German chancellor Otto von Bismarck called to set rules for the partition of Africa. It led to the creation of the Congo Free State under King Leopold II of Belgium.

Enlightenment

A movement in the 18th century that advocated the use of reason in the reappraisal of accepted ideas and social institutions. a movement that emphasized science and reason as guides to help see the world more clearly A philosophical movement which started in Europe in the 1700's and spread to the colonies. It emphasized reason and the scientific method. Writers of the enlightenment tended to focus on government, ethics, and science, rather than on imagination, emotions, or religion. Many members of the Enlightenment rejected traditional religious beliefs in favor of Deism, which holds that the world is run by natural laws without the direct intervention of God.

Suez Canal

A ship canal in northeastern Egypt linking the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Sea A human-made waterway, which was opened in 1869, connecting the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea Ship canal dug across the isthmus of Suez in Egypt, designed by Ferdinand de Lesseps. It opened to shipping in 1869 and shortened the sea voyage between Europe and Asia. Its strategic importance led to the British conquest of Egypt in 1882.

Communism

A theory or system of social organization based on the holding of all property in common, actual ownership being ascribed to the community as a whole or to the state. a political theory derived from Karl Marx, advocating class war and leading to a society in which all property is publicly owned and each person works and is paid according to their abilities and needs. a form of socialism that abolishes private ownership

Adam Smith

Adam Smith (1723-1790) has been viewed as one of the founders of the modern discipline of economics. Smith believed that individuals should be free to pursue their own economic self-interest. Through the actions of these individuals, all society would ultimately benefit. Consequently, the state should in no way interrupt the free play of natural economic forces by government regulations on the economy but should leave it alone, a doctrine that subsequently became known as laissez-faire (less-ay-FAYR) (French for "leave it alone"). Smith allotted government only three basic functions: to protect society from invasion (via an army), defend its citizens from injustice (by means of a police force), and keep up certain public works, such as roads and canals, that private individuals could not afford. Scottish economist who wrote the Wealth of Nations a precursor to modern Capitalism. Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economics. Seen today as the father of Capitalism. Wrote On the Wealth of Nations (1776) One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment.

Boers

Afrikaans-speaking farmers descended from the original Dutch settlers of the Cape Colony, began to migrate eastward. Dutch settlers in South Africa Also known as Afrikaners, the sector of the white population of South Africa that was descended from early Dutch settlers. Dutch settlers in South Africa, settled in Cape town in 1652, forced the people in Cape town to work on their farms

Estates General

An assembly of representatives from all three of the estates, or social classes, in France. France's traditional national assembly with representatives of the three estates, or classes, in French society: the clergy, nobility, and commoners. The calling of the Estates General in 1789 led to the French Revolution. An assembly that represented the entire French population through three groups, known as estates; King Louis XVI called this in May 1789 to discuss the financial crises.

Urbanization

An increase in the percentage and in the number of people living in urban settlements. the growth of cities Movement of people from rural areas to cities

Cavour

Architect of Italian unification in 1858; formed an alliance with France to attack Austrian control of northern Italy; resulted in creation of constitutional monarchy under Piedmonteste king. Prime minister of Sardinia who united northern Italy The prime minister of Piedmont-Sardinia during the movement toward Italian unification. He is considered the architect of the Italian Unification. Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861) prime minister in 1852. As prime minister, Cavour pursued a policy of economic expansion that increased government revenues and enabled Piedmont to equip a large army. Cavour, however, knew that Piedmont's army was not strong enough to beat the Austrians; consequently, he made an alliance with the French emperor Napoleon III and then provoked the Austrians into invading Piedmont in 1859. After French armies defeated the Austrians, a peace settlement gave the French the territories of Nice (NEES) and Savoy, which they had been promised for making the alliance, and Lombardy went to Piedmont. Cavour's success caused nationalists in some northern Italian states (Parma, Modena, and Tuscany) to overthrow their governments and join Piedmont.

Metternich

Austrian foreign minister who basically controlled the Congress of Vienna. Wanted to promote peace, conservatism, and the repression of liberal nationalism throughout Europe Austrian foreign minister - designed Peace of Vienna Austrian foreign minister who promoted conservatism and Concert of Europe After the defeat of Napoleon, European rulers moved to restore much of the old order. This was the goal of the great powers—Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia—when they met at the Congress of Vienna in September 1814 to arrange a final peace settlement after the Napoleonic wars. The leader of the congress was the Austrian foreign minister, Prince Klemens von Metternich (1773-1859), who claimed that he was guided at Vienna by the principle of legitimacy. To reestablish peace and stability in Europe, he considered it necessary to restore the legitimate monarchs who would preserve traditional institutions. This had already been done in France with the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy and in a number of other states, but it did not stop the great powers from also grabbing land to add to their states.

India under the British

But many Indians paid a high price for the peace and stability brought by the British raj (from the Indian raja, or prince). Perhaps the most flagrant cost was economic. While British entrepreneurs and a small percentage of the Indian population attached to the imperial system reaped financial benefits from British rule, it brought hardship to millions of others in both the cities and the rural areas. The introduction of cheap British textiles, for example, put thousands of Bengali women out of work and severely damaged the cottage textile industry. In rural areas, the British introduced the zamindar system in the expectation that it would both facilitate the collection of agricultural taxes and create a new landed gentry, who could, as in Britain, become the conservative foundation of imperial rule. But many local gentry took advantage of this new authority to increase taxes and force the less fortunate peasants to become tenants or lose their land entirely. When rural unrest threatened, the government passed legislation protecting farmers against eviction and unreasonable rent increases, but this measure had little effect outside the southern provinces, where it had originally been enacted. In Great Britain, economic inequities were being addressed by introducing political reforms designed to provide the disadvantaged with the means of affecting legislation. British officials were dubious about the relevance of the British political system in a South Asian setting, however, and made few efforts during the nineteenth century to introduce democratic institutions or values to the Indian people. As one senior political figure remarked in Parliament in 1898, democratic institutions "can no more be carried to India by Englishmen ... than they can carry ice in their luggage."Footnote British colonialism was also remiss in bringing the benefits of modern science and technology to India. Some limited forms of industrialization took place, notably in the manufacturing of textiles and jute (used in making rope). The first textile mill opened in 1856. Seventy years later, there were eighty mills in the city of Bombay alone. Nevertheless, the lack of local capital and the advantages given to British imports prevented the emergence of other vital new commercial and manufacturing operations. Foreign rule also had a psychological effect on the Indian people. Although many British colonial officials sincerely tried to improve the lot of the people under their charge, British arrogance and contempt for local tradition cut deeply into the pride of many Indians, especially those of high caste, who were accustomed to a position of superior status in their own country. Educated Indians trained in the Anglo-Indian school system for a career in the civil service, as well as Eurasians born to mixed marriages, often imitated the behavior and dress of their rulers, speaking English, eating Western food, and taking up European leisure activities, but many rightfully wondered where their true cultural loyalties lay (see Comparative Illustration "Cultural Influences—East and West"). This cultural collision was poignantly described in the novel A Passage to India by the British writer E. M. Forster, which relates the story of a visiting Englishwoman who becomes interested in the Indian way of life, much to the dismay of the local European community.

Sun Yat-sen

Chinese nationalist revolutionary, founder and leader of the Guomindang until his death. He attempted to create a liberal democratic political movement in China but was thwarted by military leaders. this man was a radical Chinese reformer who sought to overthrow the government Chinese physician and political leader who aimed to transform China with patriotic, democratic, and economically progressive reforms.

Congress of Vienna

Convention of major European powers to redraw the boundaries of continental Europe after the defeat of Napoleonic France. Meeting to end the Napoleonic Wars. Conservative representatives from the coalition that defeated Napoleon wanted to undo the changes of the revolution. Representatives attempted to restore the balance of power in Europe and contain the danger of revolutionary or nationalistic upheavals in the future. Meeting of representatives of European monarchs called to reestablish the old order after the defeat of Napoleon I. (1814-1815 CE) Meeting of representatives of European monarchs called to reestablish the old order after the defeat of Napoleon. Following Napoleon's exile, this meeting of European rulers in Austria established a system by which the balance of power would be maintained, liberal revolutions would be repressed, as would imperial expansion, and the creation of new countries in Europe.

Revolutions of 1848

Democratic and nationalist revolutions that swept across Europe during a time after the Congress of Vienna when conservative monarchs were trying to maintain their power. The monarchy in France was overthrown. In Germany, Austria, Italy, and Hungary the revolutions failed. a series of political upheavals throughout the European continent. Described by some historians as a revolutionary wave, the period of unrest began in France and then, soon spread to the rest of Europe. Democratic and nationalistic revolutions, most of them unsuccessful, that swept through Europe Revolution in France was the spark for revolts in other countries. A severe industrial and agricultural depression beginning in 1846 brought hardship in France to the lower middle class, workers, and peasants, while the government's persistent refusal to extend the suffrage angered the disenfranchised members of the middle class. When the government of King Louis-Philippe refused to make changes, opposition grew and finally overthrew the monarchy on February 24, 1848. A group of moderate and radical republicans established a provisional government and called for the election by universal male suffrage of a "constituent assembly" that would draw up a new constitution. The new constitution, ratified on November 4, 1848, established the Second Republic, with a single legislature elected to three-year terms by universal male suffrage and a president, also elected by universal male suffrage to a four-year term. In the elections for the presidency held in December 1848, Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (1808-1873), the nephew of the famous ruler, won a resounding victory. Within four years, President Louis Napoleon would become Emperor Napoleon III and establish an authoritarian regime.

Copernicus

Devised a model of the universe with the Sun at the center, and not earth. 1473-1543. Polish astronomer who was the first to formulate a scientifically based heliocentric cosmology that displaced the earth from the center of the universe. This theory is considered the epiphany that began the Scientific Revolution. Heliocentric theory

Catherine the Great

Empress of Russia who greatly increased the territory of the empire (1729-1796) ruled Russia from 1762 to 1796, added new lands to Russia, encouraged science, art, literature, Russia became one of Europe's most powerful nations This was the empress of Russia who continued Peter's goal to Westernizing Russia, created a new law code, and greatly expanded Russia Catherine II the Great (1762-1796) was an enlightened despot who was familiar with the works of the philosophes and seemed to favor enlightened reforms. She invited the French philosophe Diderot to Russia and, when he arrived, urged him to speak frankly "as man to man." He did, outlining a far-reaching program of political and financial reform. But Catherine was skeptical about impractical theories, which, she said, "would have turned everything in my kingdom upside down." She did consider the idea of a new law code that would recognize the principle of the equality of all people in the eyes of the law. But in the end she did nothing, knowing that her success depended on the support of the Russian nobility. In 1785, she gave the nobles a charter that exempted them from taxes. Catherine's policy of favoring the landed nobility led to even worse conditions for the Russian peasants and a rebellion. Incited by an illiterate Cossack, Emelyan Pugachev, the rebellion began in 1773 and spread across southern Russia. But the rebellion soon faltered. Pugachev was captured, tortured, and executed. The rebellion collapsed completely, and Catherine responded with even stronger measures against the peasantry. Above all, Catherine proved a worthy successor to Peter the Great in her policies of territorial expansion westward into Poland and southward to the Black Sea. Russia spread southward by defeating the Turks. Russian expansion westward occurred at the expense of neighboring Poland. In three partitions of Poland, Russia gained about 50 percent of Polish territory. Catherine was born Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalat-Zerbts. She was the daughter of a minor Prussian prince. In 1762 her husband Tsar Peter III was over throne and Catherine was made empress. In 1775 she was received into the Russian Orthodox Church and changed her name to Catherine. She was married to the grandson of Peter the Great, who was the heir to the Russian throne. She was a social reformer who continued the Westernization process that Peter the Great had started.

Mary Wollstonecraft

English writer and early feminist who denied male supremacy and advocated equal education for women British feminist of the eighteenth century who argued for women's equality with men, even in voting, in her 1792 "Vindication of the Rights of Women." A Vindication of the Rights of Women Female thinkers in the eighteenth century disagreed with this attitude and offered suggestions for improving conditions for women. The strongest statement for the rights of women was advanced by the English writer Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797), viewed by many as the founder of modern European feminism. In her Vindication of the Rights of Woman, written in 1792, Wollstonecraft pointed out two contradictions in the views of women held by such Enlightenment thinkers as Rousseau. To argue that women must obey men, she said, was contrary to the beliefs of the same individuals that a system based on the arbitrary power of monarchs over their subjects or slave owners over their slaves was wrong. The subjection of women to men was equally wrong. In addition, she argued, the Enlightenment was based on an ideal of reason innate in all human beings. If women have reason, then they should have the same rights as men to obtain an education and engage in economic and political life.

Women and family

In the nineteenth century, women remained legally inferior, economically dependent, and largely defined by family and household roles. Many women still aspire to the ideal of femininity popularized by writers and poets. This traditional characterization of the sexes, based on socially defined gender roles, was elevated to the status of universal male and female attributes in the nineteenth century, largely due to the impact of the Industrial Revolution on the Family. As the main family wage earners, men worked outside the home for pay, while women were left with the care of the family, for which they were paid nothing. For most of the nineteenth century, marriage was viewed as the only honorable career available to most women. Although the middle class glorified the ideal of domesticity, most women's marriage was a matter of economic necessity. The lack of meaningful work and lower wages paid to women for their work made it difficult for single women to earn a living. Most women chose to marry. The most significant development in the modern family was the decline in the number of offspring born to the average woman. Although some historians attribute the decline to more widespread use of coitus interruptus or male withdrawal before ejaculation, others have emphasized female control of family size through abortion and even infanticide or abandonment. That a change in attitude was apparent in the development of a movement to increase awareness of birth control methods. Europe's first birth control clinic, founded by Dr. Aletta Jacob, opened in Amsterdam in 1882. The family was the central institution of middle-class life. Men provided the family income while women focused on household and child care. The use of domestic servants in many middle-class homes, made possible by an abundant supply of cheap labor, reduced the amount of time middle-class women had to spend on household work. At the same time, by having fewer children, mothers could devote more time to child care and domestic leisure. The middle-class family fostered an ideal of togetherness. The Victorians created the Christmas family with their Yule log, Christmas tree, songs and exchange of gifts. In the United States, Fourth of July celebrations changed from drunken revels to family picnics by the 1850s. Women in working-class families were more accustomed to hard work. Daughters were expected to work until they married; even after marriage, they often did work at home to help support the family. For the children of the working classes, childhood was over by the age of nine or ten when they became apprentices or were employed in odd jobs.

Galileo

Italian astronomer and mathematician who was the first to use a telescope to study the stars He was the first person to use a telescope to observe objects in space. He discovered that planets and moons are physical bodies because of his studies of the night skies. (1564-1642) An Italian who provided more evidence for heliocentrism and questioned if the heavens really were perfect. He invented a new telescope, studied the sky, and published what he discovered. Because his work provided evidence that the Bible was wrong he was arrested and ended up on house arrest for the rest of his life.

Garibaldi

Italian patriot whose conquest of Sicily and Naples led to the formation of the Italian state (1807-1882). leader of Red Shirts during Italian unification GIUSEPPE GARIBALDI was one of the more colorful figures involved in the unification of Italy. Accompanied by only a thousand of his famous Red Shirts, the Italian soldier of fortune left Genoa on the night of May 5, 1860, for an invasion of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The ragged band entered Palermo, the chief city on the island of Sicily, on May 31. This selection is taken from an account by a correspondent for the Times of London, the Hungarian-born Nandor Eber.

diet

Japanese parliament established as part of the new constitution of 1889; part of Meiji reforms; could pass laws and approve budgets; able to advise government, but not to control it.

Louis XVI of France

King of France during the French Revolution King of France during the French Revolution, is executed by the guillotine King of France who was overthrown with the French Revolution (killed by the guillotine) Wife was Marie Antoinette king of France-executed for treason by the National Convention-absolute monarch-husband of Marie Antoinette. (1774-1792), reinstated old parliaments, minister of finance attempted to impose a general tax on all landed property, attempted to dismiss the notables and establish new taxes by decree, calls a meeting of the Estates-General, forces the National Assembly to meet as a single body, forced to accept a constitutional monarchy, sentenced to death by the National Convention

Muhammad Ali

Leader of Egyptian modernization in the early nineteenth century. He ruled Egypt as an Ottoman governor, but had imperial ambitions. His descendants ruled Egypt until overthrown in 1952. Albanian soldier in the service of Turkey who was made a viceroy of Egypt and took control away from the Ottoman Empire and established Egypt as a modern state (1769-1849). Not a modern nationalist, but this leader of Egypt is seen as the father of modern Egypt and made modernizing reforms in the military, economic and cultural spheres during the 19th century.

Revolution of 1911 (China)

Monarchy abolished and republic established/ Sun Yat-Sen president/ democracy, notional and economic prosperity the revolution in China that began with the Wuchang Uprising on October 10, 1911 and ended with the abdication of Emperor Puyi on February 12, 1912. A spreading rebellion led by SunYat-sen that deposed the last emperor (Qing dynasty) of China over the resentment of western spheres of influence.

Japan opening to the West

On July 8, 1853, American Commodore Matthew Perry led his four ships into the harbor at Tokyo Bay, seeking to re-establish for the first time in over 200 years regular trade and discourse between Japan and the western world.

Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)

Pure; Manchus are founders Minority Manchu rule over China that incorporated new territories, experienced substantial population growth, and sustained significant economic growth. ethnically Manchu In 1800, the Qing or Manchu Dynasty appeared to be at the height of its power. China had experienced a long period of peace and prosperity under the rule of two great emperors, Kangxi and Qianlong . Its borders were secure, and its culture and intellectual achievements were the envy of the world. Its rulers, hidden behind the walls of the Forbidden City in Beijing, had every reason to describe their patrimony as the "Central Kingdom." But there was trouble under the surface, and a little over a century later, humiliated and harassed by the black ships and big guns of the Western powers, the Qing Dynasty, the last in a series that had endured for more than two thousand years, collapsed in the dust

Second Industrial Revolution

Steel, chemicals, electricity. This is the name for the new wave of more heavy industrialization starting around the 1860s. a period of rapid growth in U.S. manufacturing in the late 1800s (1871-1914) Involved development of chemical, electrical, oil, and steel industries. Mass production of consumer goods also developed at this time through the mechanization of the manufacture of food and clothing. It saw the popularization of cinema and radio. Provided widespread employment and increased production.

Crimean War (1853-1856)

The Crimean War was fought between Russia and an alliance that included the Ottoman Empire. France, Britain, and Sardinia in 1853-1856. This was, primarily, a war of religion concerned with the rights of Christains in the Holy Land, which was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. France promoted rights for Roman Catholics. Russia promoted the rights of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Although the churches came to an agreement, the die was cast and war began in the Balkans in July 1853. (1853-1856) Russian war against Ottomans for control of the Black Sea; intervention by Britain and France cause Russia to lose; Russians realize need to industrialize. war fought between the Russian Empire on one side and an alliance of the British Empire, French Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the Kingdom of Sardinia, and the Duchy of Nassau on the other. 19th century war between the Ottomans and Russia. France, Britain, and Italians helped the Ottomans to defeat Russia but it ultimately proved the growing weakness of the Ottoman Empire. Conflict between the Russian and Ottoman Empires fought primarily in the Crimean Peninsula. To prevent Russian expansion, Britain and France sent troops to support the Ottomans. A war in the 1850s between the Russians, British, and French over control of the Turkish peninsula and the Dardanelles. Conflict ostensibly waged to protect Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire, in actuality to gain a foothold in the Black Sea. Turks, Britain, and France forced Russia to sue for peace. The Treaty of Paris (1856) forfeited Russia's right to maintain a war fleet in the Black Sea. Russia also lost the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia.

Old Regime

The Political and Social system that existed in France before the French Revolution A combination of the absolute monarchy and feudalism in France; it included the three estates Political and social system of France prior to the French Revolution. Under the regime, everyone was a subject of the king of France as well as a member of an estate and province.

Reign or Terror

The period from mid 1793 to mid 1794 when Robespierre ruled France nearly as a dictator & thousands of political figures & ordinary citizens were executed. Reign of Terror 1793-1794 The Committee of Public Safety took control of the government to defend France from domestic threats. Revolutionary courts were set up to prosecute Counter revolutionaries and traitors. 40,000 people were killed 16,000 by guillotine Lyons- 1,800 citizens of the city were executed. Clergy and Nobles made up 15% of the victims, while The rest were from the 3rd. the period, from mid-1793 to mid-1794, when Maximilian Robespierre ruled France nearly as a dictator and thousands of political figures and ordinary citizens were executed

French Revolution (1789)

The revolution that began in 1789, overthrew the absolute monarchy of the Bourbons and the system of aristocratic privileges, and ended with Napoleon's overthrow of the Directory and seizure of power in 1799. a rebellion of French people against their king in 1789 Period of radical social and political change throughout Europe that began with an uprising against the king of France. Reacting to the oppressive aristocracy, the French middle and lower classes overthrew the king and asserted power for themselves in a violent and bloody revolution. This uprising was inspired by America's independence from England and the Enlightenment ideas. In September 1792, the newly elected National Convention began its sessions. Dominated by lawyers and other professionals, two-thirds of its deputies were under the age of forty-five, and almost all had gained political experience as a result of the Revolution. Almost all distrusted the king. As a result, the convention's first step on September 21 was to abolish the monarchy and establish a republic. On January 21, 1793, the king was executed, and the destruction of the old regime was complete. But the execution of the king created new enemies for the Revolution both at home and abroad. In Paris, the local government, known as the Commune, whose leaders came from the working classes, favored radical change and put constant pressure on the convention, pushing it to ever more radical positions. Meanwhile, peasants in the west and inhabitants of the major provincial cities refused to accept the authority of the convention. A foreign crisis also loomed large. By the beginning of 1793, after the king had been put to death, most of Europe—an informal coalition of Austria, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Britain, the Dutch Republic, and even Russia—aligned militarily against France. Grossly overextended, the French armies began to experience reverses, and by late spring, France was threatened with invasion

Opium Wars (1839-1842 1856-1860)

The wars between China and Britain. Britain faced an imbalance of trade with China over silk and tea, so Britain sold opium to the Chinese. The Chinese foreign minister Lin Xezu closed the ports. This led to Britain attacking the Chinese fleet for access. The result was the Treaty of Nanking, in which Britain got access to Chinese ports Wars between Great Britain and China, which began as a conflict over the opium trade and ended with the Chinese treaty to the British, the opening of five Chinese ports to foreign merchants, and the grant of other commercial and diplomatic privileges. They were designed to "open" China to European free trade. In defeat, China gave European traders and missionaries increased protection and concessions. Between China and Britain. Britain had the short end of trade with China so they sold opium to China. Lin Xezu closed ports to foreginers which led to Britain to attack Chinese fleet for access. result was Treaty of Nanking

Marie Curie

These views were first seriously questioned at the end of the nineteenth century. The French scientist Marie Curie (1867-1934) and her husband, Pierre Curie (1859-1906), discovered that an element called radium gave off rays of radiation that apparently came from within the atom itself. Atoms were not simply hard, material bodies but small worlds containing such subatomic particles as electrons and protons, which behaved in seemingly random and inexplicable fashion. Notable female Polish/French chemist and physicist around the turn of the 20th century. Won two nobel prizes. Did pioneering work in radioactivity. A Polish physicist who, with French husband Pierre, discovered radium emits subatomic particles

Prussia

a strong military state in central Europe that emerged in the late 1600s After the failure of the Frankfurt Assembly to achieve German unification in 1848-1849, more and more Germans looked to Prussia for leadership in the cause of German unification. Prussia had become a strong, prosperous, and authoritarian state, with the Prussian king in firm control of both the government and the army. In the 1860s, King William I (1861-1888) attempted to enlarge and strengthen the Prussian army. When the Prussian legislature refused to levy new taxes for the proposed military changes, William appointed a new prime minister, Count Otto von Bismarck

Indirect Rule

a colonial policy of foreign rule in cooperation with local political elites. Though implemented in much of India and Malaya and in parts of Africa, it was not feasible where resistance was greater. Colonial government in which local rulers are allowed to maintain their positions of authority and status a system of government of one nation by another in which the governed people retain certain administrative, legal, and other powers.

Direct Rule

a concept devised by European colonial governments to rule their colonial subjects without the participation of local authorities. It was most often applied in colonial societies in Africa. a system of government in which a province is controlled by a central government. system of colonial government in which the imperialist power controlled all levels of government and appointed its own officials to govern the colony. Colonial government in which local elites are removed from power and replaced by a new set of officials brought from the mother country

Nationalism

a sense of national consciousness based on awareness of being part of a community—a "nation"—that has common institutions, traditions, language, and customs and that becomes the focus of the individual's primary political loyalty. A strong feeling of pride in and devotion to one's country Loyalty and devotion to a particular nationality

Concert of Europe

a series of alliances among European nations in the 19th century, devised by Prince Klemens von Metternich to prevent the outbreak of revolutions a system in which Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Great Britain met periodically to discuss any problems affecting the peace in Europe; resulted from the post-Napoleon era Quadruple Alliance Series of alliances to help prevent revolution One method used by the great powers to maintain the new status quo they had constructed was the Concert of Europe, according to which Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria (and later France) agreed to meet periodically in conferences to take steps that would maintain the peace in Europe. Eventually, the great powers adopted a principle of intervention, asserting the right to send armies into countries where there were revolutions to restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones.

Open Door Notes

a series of letters sent in 1899 by U.S. Secretary of State John Hay to Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and Russia, calling for equal economic access to the China market for all states and for the maintenance of the territorial and administrative integrity of the Chinese Empire. message send by secretary of state John Hay in 1899 to Germany, Russia, Great Britain, France, Italy & Japan asking the countries not to interfere with US trading rights in China. Message sent by John Hay to other countries to protect U.S. trading rights in China

mass society

a society in which the concerns of the majority—the lower classes—play a prominent role; characterized by extension of voting rights, an improved standard of living for the lower classes, and mass education. a society in which prosperity and bureaucracy have weakened traditional social ties

Enlighten absolutism

an absolute monarchy in which the ruler follows the principles of the Enlightenment by introducing reforms for the improvement of society, allowing freedom of speech and the press, permitting religious toleration, expanding education, and ruling in accordance with the laws. Rulers tried to govern by Enlightenment principles while maintaining their royal powers. Many historians once assumed that a new type of monarchy emerged in the later eighteenth century, which they called enlightened despotism or enlightened absolutism. Monarchs such as Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, and Joseph II of Austria supposedly followed the advice of the philosophes and ruled by enlightened principles. Recently, however, scholars have questioned the usefulness of the concept of enlightened absolutism. We can determine the extent to which it can be applied by examining the major "enlightened absolutists" of the late eighteenth century.

Conservatism

an ideology based on tradition and social stability that favored the maintenance of established institutions, organized religion, and obedience to authority and resisted change, especially abrupt change. A political or theological orientation advocating the preservation of the best in society and opposing radical changes. a political philosophy based on tradition and social stability, favoring obedience to political authority and organized religion A belief that limited government insures order competitive markets and personal opportunity.

Socialism

an ideology that calls for collective or government ownership of the means of production and the distribution of goods. A system in which society, usually in the form of the government, owns and controls the means of production. a political and economic theory of social organization that advocates that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole. a political theory advocating state ownership of industry

genro

elder statesmen, the leaders of the Meiji restoration that ruled in the emperor's name The ruling clique of aristocrats in Meiji Japan

Realism

in medieval Europe, the school of thought that, following Plato, held that the individual objects we perceive are not real but merely manifestations of universal ideas existing in the mind of God. In the nineteenth century, a school of painting that emphasized the everyday life of ordinary people, depicted with photographic realism. A 19th century artistic movement in which writers and painters sought to show life as it is rather than life as it should be artistic representation that aims for visual accuracy the attribute of accepting the facts of life and favoring practicality and literal truth

Sepoys

local troops who formed the basis of the British Indian Army; hired by the East India Company to protect British interests in South Asia. Indian troops who served in the British army Indian soldiers in the British army

Assimilation

the concept, originating in France, that the colonial peoples should be assimilated into the parent French culture. interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas the social process of absorbing one cultural group into harmony with another

Dowager Cixi

most powerful person in China, stopped reforms made by Chinese emperor (changed civil service examinations, built modern army.) Chinese empress, aunt to Guang Xu (the emperor), opposed to his reforms. She used the imperial army to imprison him ost important, the new program was opposed by the emperor's aunt, the Empress Dowager Cixi (1835-1908), the real power at court. Cixi had begun her political career as a concubine to an earlier emperor. After his death, she became a dominant force at court and in 1878 placed her infant nephew, the future Emperor Guangxu, on the throne. For two decades, she ruled in his name as regent. Although Cixi had been receptive to modest reforms over the past few years, and had apparently supported Zhang Zhidong's program of self-strengthening, she interpreted Guangxu's action as a British-supported effort to reduce her influence at court and promote radical changes in Chinese society. With the aid of conservatives in the army, she arrested and executed several of the reformers and had the emperor incarcerated in the palace. Kang Youwei succeeded in fleeing abroad. With Cixi's palace coup, the so-called One Hundred Days of reform came to an end.

Unification of Germany

started by Otto von Bismarck and the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 that expelled Austria from German politics and resulted in North German Confederation and legalization of Bismarck's previous spending; concluded with war with France Bismarck used his policy of "blood and iron" to unite the German states under Prussian rule 1871, unified under Bismarck uses spirit of nationalism provoked by the Napoleonic wars; nationalist based on language and religion and culture (not civic nationalism like the French); what we get is "the worship of the state"; state not just agency that regulates relationships but a spiritual corporation; nationalism was an integrative force; Bismarck able to use reactionary nationalism to create modern nation-state; Huge German power in the center of Europe cause imbalance of power; threatened the system

Social Darwinism

the application of Darwin's principle of organic evolution to the social order; led to the belief that progress comes from the struggle for survival as the fittest advance and the weak decline. The belief that only the fittest survive in human political and economic struggle. The application of ideas about evolution and "survival of the fittest" to human societies - particularly as a justification for their imperialist expansion. survival of the fittest

Legitimacy

the idea that after the Napoleonic wars, peace could best be reestablished in Europe by restoring legitimate monarchs who would preserve traditional institutions; guided Metternich at the Congress of Vienna. Political authority conferred by law or by a state or national constitution A characterization of elections by political scientists meaning that they are almost universally accepted as a fair and free method of selecting political leaders. the hereditary right of a monarch to rule

Zaibatsu

the oustanding examples of large-scale businesses were the great combines known as zaibatsu, each headed by a family holding company Large conglomerate corporations through which key elite families exerted a great deal of political and economic power in Imperial Japan. By WWII, four of them controlled most of the economy of Japan. Powerful banking industrial families in Japan during the Meiji Restoration The large family-controlled banking and industrial groups that owned many companies in Japan before World War II.

Meiji Restoration

the period during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries when fundamental economic and cultural changes occurred in Japan, transforming it from a feudal and agrarian society to an industrial and technological one. The political program that followed the destruction of the Tokugawa Shogunate in 1868, in which a collection of young leaders set Japan on the path of centralization, industrialization, and imperialism. the modernization and industrialization of Japan in the 1800's In 1868, a Japanese state-sposored industrialization and westernization effort that also involved the elimination of the Shogunate and power being handed over to the Japanese Emperor, who had previously existed as mere spiritual/symbolic figure.

Imperialism

the policy of extending one nation's power either by conquest or by establishing direct or indirect economic or cultural authority over another. Generally driven by economic self-interest, it can also be motivated by a sincere (if often misguided) sense of moral obligation. A policy of extending a country's power and influence through diplomacy or military force. A policy in which a strong nation seeks to dominate other countries poitically, socially, and economically. domination by one country of the political, economic, or cultural life of another country or region

Suffrage

the right to vote in political elections those who advocate the extension of the right to vote (suffrage), especially to women.

Napoleon Buonaparte

was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the Revolutionary Wars. He was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814, and again in 1815. Crowned himself emperor of the french, responsible for many french revolution reforms as well as conquering most of Europe. He was defeated at Waterloo and died several years later in exile.