HIST 2020

What was Dollar Diplomacy?

"Dollar diplomacy" was the term used to describe the efforts of the United States particularly under President William Howard Taft to further its foreign policy aims in Latin America and East Asia through use of its economic power. The term is based on the earlier but related "gunboat diplomacy the demonstration or implied threat of superior military power to influence terms of trade and colonialism. The term was originally coined by critics of Philander C. Knox (Taft's secretary of State) who worked aggressively to extend American investments into less-developed regions (especially Latin America and China). At the time, during the largely isolationist-pacifist sentiments in the U.S. showed disapproval for the Spanish-American War and the Philippine Insurrection, and those like Taft who sought to expand the United States' reach saw the use of money as a suitable compromise. The term has historically been used by Latin Americans as a characterization of their disapproval for the role of that the U.S. government through its support for U.S. corporations have played in using economic, diplomatic, and military power to invade their economies.

Who was Abner Doubleday?

"Mythic" American creator of baseball in a dirt field in Cooperstown, NY (1839). Baseball was actually adapted from the English game rounders.

Who was John L. Sullivan?

"The Boston Strong Boy," of Irish immigrant stock, he began boxing in 1877 at the age of nineteen. His first professional fight came in 1880 when he knocked out John Donaldson, "the Champion of the West," in a Cincinnati beer hall. With his massive physique, handlebar mustache, and arrogant swagger, Sullivan was enormously popular among immigrants. Barnstorming across the country, he vanquished a succession of local strongmen, invariably wearing his trademark green tights with an American flag wrapped around his middle. Yet, Sullivan refused to fight blacks, supposedly in deference to the wishes of his fans. This policy conveniently allowed him to avoid facing the finest boxer of the 1880s, an Australian black man named Peter Jackson.

Who was W. E. B. Du Bois?

(1868-1963) After earning a Ph.D. in history from Harvard in 1895, he taught at Ohio's Wilberforce College, the University of Pennsylvania, and Atlanta University. In The Souls of Black Folk (1903), he rejected Booker T. Washington's call for patience and his exclusive emphasis on manual skills. Instead he demanded full racial equality, including equal educational opportunities, and urged resistance to all forms of racism.

Who was Emma Goldman?

(June 27, 1869 - May 14, 1940) was a Lithuanian-born activist that crisscrossed the country lecturing on politics, feminism, and modern drama while co-editing a radical monthly, Mother Earth.

What were the fundamental assumptions that shaped the Victorian worldview?

1) Human nature was malleable: people could improve themselves. 2) Work had social value: working hard not only developed self-discipline but also helped advance the progress of the nation. 3) Good manners and the cultivation of literature and art ennobled society. Although these genteel assumptions were sometimes ignored, they were held up as universal standards.

Why did immigrants leave their homelands?

1) Overpopulation 2) crop failure 3) famine 4) religious persecution 5) violence 6) industrial depression

What issues did the rapid growth of cities cause?

1) Strained city services 2) Generated terrible housing and sanitation problems 3) Accentuated class differences.

How many African Americans lived in the North by 1920?

1.4 million. Here too racism worsened after 1890 as hard times and immigration heightened social tensions. Segregation was enforced by laws (like Baltimore's racial segregation ordinance of 1910), the use of restrictive covenants, the practices of real estate agents, and sometimes violence. Blacks were forced to live in rundown "colored districts," attend dilapidated schools, and work the lowest-paying jobs.

How many immigrants arrived between 1870 and 1900

11 Million

By 1900 how many YMCAs and YWCAs were there?

1500 serving 250,000 young people, but they were still only reaching a small segment of the urban youth.

Who was Henry Ward Beecher?

1813 - 1887 Theologically liberal American Congregationalist clergyman & reformer, & author. One of his elder sisters was Harriet Beecher Stowe, author of Uncle Tom's Cabin. An advocate of women's suffrage & for temperance, & a foe of slavery, he bought guns to support Bleeding Kansas. He also used Victorian morality to rationalize enjoyment of products of a consumer society.

When did Louisville's Kentucky Derby begin?

1876

When was baseball's National League formed?

1876

When did the Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts begin?

1910 and 1912

What was the Clayton Antitrust Act?

1914 law that strengthened the Sherman Antitrust Act

What was the immigration from 1860 to 1890 by immigrant country of origin?

3 million Germans, 2 million English, Scottish, and Welsh immigrants, and almost 1.5 million Irish. By 1900 more than eight hundred thousand French-Canadians had entered the New England mills, and close to a million Scandinavian newcomers had put down roots in the rich farmlands of Wisconsin and Minnesota. On the West Coast, despite the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 (see Chapter 18), more than eighty-one thousand Chinese remained in California and nearby states in 1900.

What was the difference in the percentage of colleges accepting women between 1880 and 1900?

30 to 71 %

In 1900 what percent of America lived in cities?

40%

What percentage of Italians that migrated to NYC before 1914 go back to Italy

50%

What percentage of black women held jobs by 1910?

54% mostly as domestic servants, seamstresses, or workers in laundries and tobacco factories.

What was the percentage of children 10-15 in the work force from 1880 to 1920?

6.8% in 1880, 18.1% in 1890, 18.2% in 1900, 15% in 1910, and 11.3% in 1920.

What was the average work hours a day for workers in 1900.

9 1/2 hours. Some southern textile mills required workdays of 12 or 13 hours a day.

What was the The Birth of a Nation?

A 1915 film by D.W. Griffith, it disparaged blacks and glorified the Ku Klux Klan.

Who was Henry Lee Higginson?

A Civil War veteran and Boston banker who gave Harvard "Soldiers' Field" stadium as a memorial to those who had died in battle.

Who was Washington Gladden?

A Congregational clergyman in Columbus, Ohio, launched the Social Gospel movement in the 1870s. Gladden insisted that true Christianity commits men and women to fight social injustice wherever it exists. Thus, in response to the wave of violent strikes in 1877, he urged church leaders to mediate the conflict between business and labor. Their attempt to do so was unsuccessful.

Who was Charles Eliot Norton?

A Harvard art history professor who helped codify the Victorian arts and literature.

Who were James K Vardaman and Ben Tillman?

A Mississippi governor and South Carolina senator to supported progressive reforms but were viciously racist.

Who was Charles Parkhurst

A New York Presbyterian minister who in 1892 targeted brothels, gambling dens, and saloons. Blaming the "slimy, oozy soil of Tammany Hall" (the Democratic organization that dominated New York City politics, discussed in the next chapter) and the New York City police—"the dirtiest, crookedest, and ugliest lot of men ever combined in semi-military array outside of Japan and Turkey"—for the city's rampant evils, he organized the City Vigilance League to clean up the city.

Who was Richard Watson Gilder?

A New York editor of The Century he helped codify the Victorian standards for arts and literature.

Who was Joseph Mayer Rice?

A New York pediatrician who toured thirty-six cities and interviewed twelve hundred teachers in 1892, scornfully criticized an educational establishment that stressed sing-song memorization and prisonlike discipline.

What was Muller v. Oregon?

A Supreme court case that limited the Oregon workday to a maximum of ten hours (for women not for men).

Who was Mary E. Lease?

A Wichita lawyer, burst on the scene in 1890 as a fiery alliance orator. Other women, veterans of the Granger or prohibition cause, founded the National Women's Alliance (NWA) in 1891. Farmers Alliances offered women the same membership rights and privileges as men. Thousands of women joined these organizations and many volunteered. Western and Midwestern Alliances even advocated for women's suffrage. By no coincidence, a strong feminist strain pervades Ignatius Donnelly's The Golden Bottle (1892), a novel portraying the agrarian reformers' social vision (see Going to the Source).

Who was Pancho Villa?

A bandit chieftain in northern Mexico who in January 1916 murdered sixteen U.S. mining engineers. Soon after, his gang burned the town of Columbus, NM and killed nineteen inhabitants.

What factors were behind the expansionist mood in the late 1890s?

A belief that we needed an empire like Great Britain, France, Belgium, Italy, Germany, and Japan. Many business leaders believed that continued domestic prosperity required overseas markets. As American industrial capacity expanded, foreign markets offered a safety valve for potentially explosive pressures in the U.S. economy. Advocates of a stronger navy further fueled the expansionist mood. In The Influence of Sea Power upon History (1890), Alfred Thayer Mahan equated sea power with national greatness and urged a U.S. naval buildup. Because a strong navy required bases abroad, Mahan and other naval advocates supported the movement to acquire foreign territories, especially Pacific islands with good harbors. Military strategy, in this case and others, often masked the desire for access to new markets. Religious leaders proclaimed America's mission to spread Christianity. This expansionist argument sometimes took on a racist tinge. A group of Republican expansionists, led by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts, diplomat John Hay, and Theodore Roosevelt of New York, preached imperial greatness and military might. "I should welcome almost any war," declared Roosevelt in 1897; "... this country needs one."

What led to the racial riots in Chicago in July 1919?

A black youth swimming at Lake Michigan drowned after whites pelted him with stones.

Who was Jake Kilrain?

A boxer that was awarded a heavy weight champion belt designed by the Police Gazette allegedly containing two hundred ounces of silver and encrusted with diamonds and pure gold. John L. Sullivan challenged him in 1889 to a match and defeated him in 75 rounds. Sullivan returned the belt to the editors after he had it appraised and it was only worth $175.

What was the Salvation Army? What services did the Salvation Army provide? To whom?

A church established along pseudomilitary lines in England in 1865 by Methodist minister "General" William Booth, the Salvation Army sent uniformed volunteers to the United States in 1880 to provide food, shelter, and temporary employment for families. Its members ran soup kitchens and day nurseries and dispatched its "slum brigades" to carry the message of morality to the immigrant poor. The army's strategy was simple: Attract the poor with marching bands and lively preaching; follow up with offers of food, assistance, and employment; and then teach them the solid middle-class virtues of temperance, hard work, and self-discipline.

Who was Walter Camp?

A famed Yale football coach

Who was Elizabeth Gurley Flynn?

A fiery Irish American orator, she helped the IWW win a victory in a bitter 1912 textile strike in Massachusetts.

What did Harrison do to the pensions?

A former Civil War general, Harrison swiftly rewarded his supporters. He appointed as commissioner of pensions a GAR official who, on taking office, declared "God help the surplus!" The pension rolls soon ballooned from 676,000 to nearly a million. This massive pension system (which was coupled with medical care in a network of veterans' hospitals) became America's first large-scale public welfare program. In 1890, the triumphant Republicans also enacted the McKinley Tariff, which pushed rates to an all-time high. The pension system for Union army veterans represented a major federal welfare program in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Because of corruption, the cost of pensions increased even though the actual number of veterans declined. Rarely has the federal government been so subservient to entrenched economic interests and so out of touch with the plight of the disadvantaged as during the 1880s. But inaction bred discontent. In the election of 1890, the Democrats gained sixty-six congressional seats and won control of the House of Representatives. Farmers, too, turned to politics and swung into action.

Who was Robert M. Hartley?

A former employee of the New York Temperance Society, organized the New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor to help poor families.

Who was Oswald Garrison Villard?

A grandson of abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison, he in 1909 joined his allies with Du Bois and other blacks from the Niagara Movement to for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). The new organization called for sustained activism including legal challenges, to achieve political equality for blacks, and full integration into American life. Attracting the urban black middle class, the NAACP by 1914 had 6,000 members in 50 branches.

Who were the Republic Insurgents

A group of congressmen including Senators La Follette and Albert Beveridge of Indiana and Congressman George Norris of Nebraska. In 1909 they and Taft fought the conservatives over the tariff. Taft eventually signed the bill inflating tariffs. In March 1910 they joined with Democrats to trim House Speaker Joseph G. Cannon of IL power by removing him from the pivotal Rules Committee.

What was the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU)?

A group of reformers that targeted drinking. They also decided urban prostitution was a major problem.

What is a growler?

A large tin pail of beer

What was the Social Gospel movement?

A liberal religious movement that advocated applying Christian principles to the problems of the new urban-industrial order.

Who was Walter Rauschenbusch?

A minister at a German Baptist church in New York's notorious "Hell's Kitchen" neighborhood, he rallied against what he regarded as the selfishness of capitalism and promoted a form of Christian Socialism that supported the creation of labor unions and cooperative economics. His appeal for Christian unity led to the formation of the Federal Council of Churches in 1908, but his other goals were never achieved.

Who was Ray Stannard Baker?

A muckraker who documented racism in Following the Color Line (1908).

What was the Committee of Seventy

A nonpartisan group that elected a new mayor who pressured city officials to enforce the laws against prostitution, gambling, and Sunday liquor sales.

Who was Lewis Hine?

A photographer who working for the National Child Labor Committee captured haunting images of child workers with stunted bodies and worn expressions.

Who was Jacob Riis?

A photojournalist who published, "How the Other Half Lives", a series of photos about the lives in the slums of New York. He and other first generation reformers believed that the unsanitary living conditions and lack of self-discipline were the causes.

Who were the Populists and what did they want?

A political party organized by farmers to fight for protection against industrialization Wanted more coinage of silver to give them more money (bimetallism). They aligned with the democrats during the 1890s to challenge corporate control of the economy.

What was the "Red Scare" of 1919-1920?

A rash of strikes in 1919 deepened fears of a communist takeover in America. People became suspicious of radicals. The Justice Department set up an antiradical division under a young J. Edgar Hoover. On January 2, 1920, a Justice Department dragnet raided the homes of suspected radicals and the headquarters of radical organizations without search warrants and arrested more than 4000 people.

Who was Thomas Eakins?

A realist painter who painted day-to-day living using realistic detail and precise lighting. His canvases of swimmers, boxers, and rowers (such as his well-known Champion Single Sculls, painted in 1871) similarly captured moments of vigorous physical exertion in everyday life.

What was Victorian morality?

A set of social ideas embraced by the privileged classes of England and America during the long reign (1837-1901) of Britain's Queen Victoria.

Who was Mary White Ovington?

A settlement-house worker who helped found the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and wrote Half a Man (1911) which discussed racism's psychological toll.

What was the Grand Army of the Republic?

A social and political lobbying organization of northern Civil War veterans.

What was the Zimmerman Telegram?

A telegram from the German foreign secretary to the ambassador in Mexico (intercepted by the British) that promised if Mexico declared war on the US, Germany would help restore Mexico's lost territories of Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico.

What was the League of Nations?

A treaty for a new international organization created after WWI out of Wilson's ideas. A group of 39 Republican senators including Henry Cabot Lodge rejected the League in its present form in February 1919. When Wilson sent the treaty to the Senate for ratification in July 1919, Lodge bottled it up in the Foreign Relations Committee. Wilson left Washington in September for a national speaking tour. Covering more than 9000 miles by train, he defended the League before large and friendly audiences. On September 25 he collapsed in Colorado. His trained headed back to Washington where he suffered a stroke on October 2. He spent the rest of his term mostly in bed or in a wheelchair. On September 10, 1919 the Foreign Relations Committee sent the treaty to the Senate, but with amendments. Wilson urged democrats to reject the version. On November 19, 1919 defeated the proposed measure.

Who was Charlotte Perkins Gilman?

A writer, suffrage advocate, and speaker for women's rights, asserted that women would make an effective contribution to society only when they won economic independence from men through work outside the home. She wrote Women and Economics (1898) that explored the cultural roots of gender roles. Her utopian novel Herland (1915) wittily critiqued patriarchal assumptions by injecting three naive young men into an exclusively female society.

What were Wilson's 14 points?

Addressing Congress in January 1918, Wilson summed up U.S. War aims. Eight of these promised the subject peoples of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires the right of self-determination—that is, the freedom to choose their own political futures. A ninth point insisted that imperial disputes should consider the interests of the colonized peoples. The remaining five points offered Wilson's larger postwar vision: a world of free navigation, free trade, reduced armaments, openly negotiated treaties, and "a general association of nations" to resolve conflicts peacefully. In October 1918, facing defeat, Germany proposed an armistice based on Wilson's points. The British and French hesitated, but when Wilson threatened to negotiate a separate peace, they agreed. In Berlin, Kaiser William II had abdicated and a German republic had been proclaimed.

Why did many Americans believe that the US should go to war in the late 1890s?

Advocates of expansionism, like Roosevelt and Lodge, built upon the Social Darwinist rhetoric of the day and argued that war, as a vehicle for natural selection, would test and refurbish American manhood, restore chivalry and honor, and create a new generation of civic-minded Americans. This gendered appeal to renew American masculinity both counterbalanced concerns about women's political activism and helped forge the disparate arguments for expansionism into a simpler, more visceral plea for international engagement that had a broad appeal.

Who was Samuel M. Jones?

Also known as "Golden Rule" Jones, he led the reform crusade in Toledo, Ohio. He was a businessman converted to the Social Gospel. He introduced profit sharing in his factory and as mayor he established playgrounds, free kindergartens, and lodging houses for homeless transients.

How did the first generation reformers hurt instead of help the urban poor?

Although many reformers genuinely sympathized with the suffering of the lower classes, the humanitarians often turned their campaigns to help the destitute into missions to Americanize the immigrants and eliminate customs that they perceived as offensive and self-destructive.

What was the main source of urban growth in the early 20th century?

Although some new city-dwellers came from farms and small towns, immigration was the main source. More the 17 million immigrated between 1900 to 1917 (many passing through New York's immigration center, Ellis Island). The influx came mostly from southern and eastern Europe, but more the 200k Japanese arrived between 1900 and 1920 and 40k Chinese entered despite the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act (which remained in force until 1943). Thousands of Mexcians came as well, many seeking railroad work.

How did Americans react to Germans during WWI?

Americans lashed out at all things German. Libraries banned Germany books, towns with German names changed them. Some restaurants started calling hamburgers "liberty sandwiches". The Boston Symphony Orchestra dismissed a German-born conductor. The Philadelphia Orchestra banned Brahms. Anyone that was anti-war or suspected of German sympathies was harassed. In Bisbee, AZ in July 1917, 2000 armed vigilantes calling themselves the Citizens Protective League forced twelve hundred striking copper miners, some of whom belonged to the antiwar Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), onto a freight train that dumped them in the New Mexico desert without food, water, or shelter. Without doubt, declared Theodore Roosevelt, "the men deported from Bisbee were bent on destruction and murder." Some did oppose the war. Some had ancestral ties to Germany. Some were religious pacifists, including Quakers, Mennonites, and Jehovah's Witnesses. Montana Congresswoman Jeannette Rankin, a pacifist and the first woman elected to Congress, opposed the declaration of war. "I want to stand by my country," she declared, "but I cannot vote for war." Of some sixty-five thousand men who registered as conscientious objectors (COs), twenty-one thousand were drafted. Assigned to noncombat duty on military bases, these COs often experienced harsh treatment. Those who rejected this alternative went to prison. Woodrow Wilson scorned the pacifists. "[M]y heart is with them, but my mind has contempt for them," he declared. "I want peace, but I know how to get it, and they do not."

What was the Morrill Land Grant Act?

An Act (1862) donating Public Lands to the several States and Territories which may provide Colleges for the Benefit of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts.

Who was Frank Lloyd Wright?

An American architect in Chicago that created the "prarie" style. His designs, which featured broad, sheltering roofs and horizontal silhouettes, used interconnecting rooms to create a sense of spaciousness.

Who was Peter Jackson?

An Australian black man, considered to be the finest boxer of the 1880s.

Who was Eugene V. Debs?

An Indiana labor leader and popular orator, he ran for president five times between 1900 and 1920 as a Socialist.

Who was William S. Rainsford?

An Irish-born minister of New York City's Saint George's Episcopal Church, he led a group that pioneered the development of the so-called institutional church movement by insisting that large downtown churches in once-elite districts that had been overrun by immigrants provide their new neighbors with social services as well as a place to worship. With the financial help of J. Pierpont Morgan, a warden of his church, Rainsford organized a boys' club, built church recreational facilities for the destitute on the Lower East Side, and established an industrial training program.

What was the Boxer Rebellion?

An anti-foreign feeling had simmered in China, fanned by the aged Qing Dynasty empress. In 1899 an antiforeign secret society known as the Harmonious Righteous Fists (called "Boxers" by Western journalists) killed thousands of foreigners and Chinese Christians. In June 1900, the Boxers occupied Beijing (Peking), the Chinese capital, and beseiged the foreign legations. 2500 U.S. soldiers joined an international army that marched on Beijing, quashed the Boxers, and rescued threatened legations.

Who was Hiram Johnson?

An attorney in San Francisco that led the fight against the city's corrupt boss. He won convictions against the boss and rode his newly won fame to the California governorship and U.S. Senage.

What was the Social Gospel Movement?

An early reform program that preached salvation through service to the poor.

How many saloons did New York City have in 1900?

An estimated 10,000

What was the Political Machine?

An organized group that controlled the activities of a political party in a city. Typified by Tammany Hall, the Democratic organization that dominated New York City politics from the 1830s to the 1930s, machines emerged in Baltimore, Philadelphia, Atlanta, San Francisco, and a host of other cities after the Civil War. Working through the local ward captains to turn out voters, the machine rode herd on the tangle of municipal bureaucracies, controlling who was hired for the police and fire departments. It rewarded its friends and punished its enemies through its control of taxes, licenses, and inspections. The machine gave tax breaks to favored contractors in return for large payoffs and slipped them insider information about upcoming street and sewer projects. At the neighborhood level, the ward boss often acted as a welfare agent, helping the needy. To spend three dollars to pay a fine for a juvenile offense meant a lot to the poor, but it was small change to a boss who raked in millions from public-utility contracts and land deals. While the machine helped alleviate some suffering, it entangled urban social services with corrupt politics and often prevented city government from responding to the real problems of the city's neediest inhabitants. By the turn of the century, the bosses were facing well-organized assaults on their power, led by an urban elite whose members sought to restore "good government." In this atmosphere, the bosses increasingly forged alliances with civic organizations and reform leagues. The results, although never entirely satisfactory to anyone involved, paved the way for new sewage and transportation systems, expanded parklands, and improved public services—a record of considerable accomplishment, given the magnitude of the problems created by urban growth.

Who was Josiah Strong?

As Protestant minister who perceptively observed in 1898, the transition from muscle to mechanical power had "separated, as by an impassable gulf, the simple, homespun, individualistic world of the ... past, from the complex, closely associated life of the present."

What was the silver debate?

As prosperity returned and the Greenback party faded, the debate became focused on the controversy over the coinage of silver. In 1873, Congress instructed the U.S. mint to cease making silver coins. Silver had been "demonetized." But new discoveries in Nevada vastly increased the silver supply, and debtor groups, hoping to lower interest rates on borrowed money, now demanded that the government resume the coinage of silver. Backed by the silver-mine owners, silver forces won a partial victory in 1878, when Congress required the treasury to buy and mint up to $4 million worth of silver each month. But the treasury, dominated by monetary conservatives, sabotaged the law's intent by refusing to circulate the silver dollars that it minted.

Who were the presidential candidates in 1896?

At the 1896 Democratic convention in Chicago, western and southern delegates adopted a platform including a demand for the free and unlimited coinage of silver at the ratio to gold of sixteen to one, in effect repudiating the Cleveland administration. William Jennings Bryan of Nebraska, an ardent advocate of free silver, captured the nomination. Only thirty-six years old, the young lawyer had already served two terms in Congress championing western agrarian interests. Joining Christian imagery with economic analysis, Bryan delivered his major convention speech in the debate over the platform. With his booming voice carrying his words to the upper gallery of the convention hall, Bryan praised farmers as the nation's bedrock. The wildly cheering delegates had identified their candidate even before he reached his rousing conclusion—"You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns, you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold!" Populist leaders recognized that a separate Populist ticket would likely siphon votes from Bryan and ensure a Republican victory. Reluctantly, the Populists endorsed Bryan, while preserving a shred of independence (and confusing voters) by naming their own vice-presidential candidate, Tom Watson of Georgia. The Populists were learning the difficulty of organizing an independent political movement in a nation wedded to the two-party system. The Republicans, meanwhile, had nominated former governor William McKinley, who as an Ohio congressman had given his name to the McKinley Tariff of 1890. The Republican platform embraced the high protective tariff and endorsed the gold standard. McKinley's campaign was shrewdly managed by Mark Hanna, a Cleveland industrialist. Dignified and aloof, McKinley could not match Bryan's popular touch. Accordingly, Hanna built the campaign not around the candidate but around posters, pamphlets, and newspaper editorials. These publications warned of the dangers of free silver, caricatured Bryan as a rabid radical, and portrayed McKinley and the gold standard as twin pillars of prosperity. Drawing on an enormous war chest, Hanna spent lavishly. J. P. Morgan and John D. Rockefeller together contributed half a million dollars, far more than Bryan's total campaign contributions. Like Benjamin Harrison in 1888, McKinley stayed home in Canton, Ohio, emerging from time to time to read speeches to visiting delegations. Carefully orchestrated by Hanna, McKinley's deceptively bucolic "front-porch" campaign involved elaborate organization. All told, 750,000 people trekked to Canton that summer.

What type of electoral reforms were there in the early 20th century?

At the state level by 1910 all states had replaced the old system of voting, involving preprinted ballots with specific candidates with a secret ballot which made it harder to rig elections. The direct primary, introduced in Wisconsin 1903 allowed voters instead of party bosses to select their parties' candidates for public offic.

How long did the purity campaign in New York last?

Barely three years

What were the female colleges for Columbia, Brown and Harvard?

Barnard (1889), Pembroke (1891), and Radcliffe (1894)

What was the Keating-Owen Act (1916)?

Barred from interstate commerce products manufactured by child labor.

How did the south disenfranchise the black voters?

Because the Fifteenth Amendment (1870) guaranteed all male citizens' right to vote, white southerners used indirect means such as literacy tests (a test of the ability to read), poll taxes (a tax paid to vote), and property requirements (which restricted the right to vote to those who owned property) to disfranchise blacks. To protect illiterate whites, the so-called grandfather clause exempted from these electoral requirements anyone with an ancestor who had voted in 1860. Although black disfranchisement proceeded erratically over the South, by the early twentieth century it was essentially complete. Mississippi passed laws in 1890 to keep blacks from voting and many other states followed suit.

Who ran agains Cleveland in 1888?

Benjamin Harrison of Indiana. A corporation lawyer and former senator, Harrison was so aloof that some ridiculed him as the human iceberg. To avoid alienating voters, Harrison argued that a high tariff would ensure business prosperity, decent wages for workers, and a healthy home market for farmers. Despite voter fraud, Cleveland received almost a hundred thousand more votes than Harrison. But Harrison carried the key states of Indiana and New York and won the Electoral College vote. The Republicans held the Senate and regained the House.

Who was Samuel Langhorne Clemens?

Better known as Mark Twain, he declared that he was through with "literature and all that bosh." Attacking aristocratic literary conventions, Twain and other authors who shared his concerns explored new forms of fiction and worked to broaden its appeal to the general public.

What were the African American institutions that supported them in the early 20th century?

Black churches and neighbors helped working mothers with child care.

How did black organizations respond to racism?

Black churches provided emotional support, as did black fraternal lodges like the Knights of Pythias. Some African Americans started businesses to serve their community. Two black-owned banks, in Richmond and Washington, D.C., were chartered in 1888. The North Carolina Mutual Insurance Company, organized in 1898 by John Merrick, a prosperous Durham barber, evolved into a major enterprise. Bishop Henry M. Turner of the African Methodist Episcopal church urged blacks to return to Africa and build a great Christian nation. Meanwhile, African American protest never wholly died out. Frederick Douglass urged that blacks press for full equality. Blacks should meet violence with violence, insisted militant New York black leader T. Thomas Fortune. But for others, the solution was to leave the South. In 1879, several thousand moved to Kansas. Some ten thousand migrated to Chicago between 1870 and 1890. Blacks who moved north, however, soon found that public opinion sanctioned many forms of de facto discrimination.

What was life like in the urban black community?

Black communities included black-owned insurance companies and banks, and a small elite of entrepreneurs, teachers, and ministers. Although major-league baseball excluded blacks, a thriving Negro League attracted African American fans. Their votes usually cast as Republicans brought little political influence. The only black politicians tolerated by the Republican Party leaders were given low-level patronage jobs and kept silent. The army was also segregated and African-Americans faced hostility from white soldiers and from nearby civilians.

What was the convict lease system?

Blacks who went to prison—sometimes for minor offenses—faced the convict-lease system, which cotton planters, railroad builders, and other employers used to "lease" prison gangs and force them to work under slave-labor conditions. The convict-lease system enforced the racial hierarchy and played an important economic role as industrialization and agricultural change came to the South. The system brought income to hard-pressed state governments and provided factories, railroads, and large-scale farms with predictable, controllable, cheap labor. The system also intimidated free laborers and discouraged foreign immigrants from going South. Thousands died under this brutal convict-labor system, which continued into the early decades of the twentieth century.

What type of music was popular in the early 20th century?

Blues like W.C. Handy's St. Louis Blues (1914) and ragtime like Scott Joplin's Maple Leaf Rag (1899) and Irving Berlin's Alexander's Rag-Time Band (1911).

Who was the foremost black leader from 1890 - 1915?

Booker T. Washington. Born in slavery in Virginia in 1856, Washington attended a freedman's school in Hampton, Virginia, and in 1881 organized a black state vocational school in Alabama that eventually became Tuskegee University. Although Washington secretly contributed to lawyers who challenged segregation, he publicly urged accommodation to a racist society. In a widely publicized address in Atlanta in 1895, he insisted that the first task of America's blacks must be to acquire useful skills such as farming and carpentry. Once blacks proved their economic value, he predicted, racism would fade; meanwhile, they must patiently accept their lot. This was a position later challenged by W. E. B. Du Bois. Washington lectured widely, and his autobiography, Up from Slavery (1901), recounted his rise from poverty thanks to honesty, hard work, and kindly patrons—themes familiar to a generation reared on Horatio Alger's self-help books.

Who was Theodore Dreiser?

Born in Terre Haute, Indiana, in 1871 he worked as newspaper reporter and traveled widely as a young man. He learned from direct and sometimes bitter experience about the greed, speculation, and fraud that figured centrally in Gilded Age life. He wrote Sister Carrie and in his novel The Financier (1912) he featured a hard-driving business tycoon lacking a social conscience. He based it on the actual scandal-ridden career of a railway financier.

Which party engaged in election fraud in the late 1800s?

Both parties, in the North and the South, practiced fraud by rigging elections, throwing out opposition votes, and paying for "floaters" who moved from precinct to precinct to vote. Each also expressed moral outrage at the other's illegal behavior.

What type of reforms did municipal reformers push?

Breaking up private monopolies that ran municipal water, gas, electricity, and transit system. They passed laws regulating the rates these utilities could charge and curbed their political influence. Some advocated for substitution professional city managers for mayors, and council chosen in citywide elections for aldermen elected in a ward-by-ward basis.

How did missionaries affect US expansionism?

By 1900, 5000 US missionaries were active in China, Africa, India, and elsewhere. While proclaiming their religious message, they also blazed the way for US economic expansion.

What type of improvements were seen during the progressive era?

By 1907 thirty states had outlawed child labor. A 1903 Oregon law limited women in industry to a ten-hour workday. By 1914, twenty-five states and made employers liable for job-related injuries or deaths.

How did women participate in the political process?

By linking economic policy to family values, both parties reinforced the appeal of their platforms and encouraged the participation of women in the political process. Although most women could not vote, they played an active role in politics. Frances Willard and her followers in the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), for example, helped create a Prohibition and Home Protection Party in the 1880s. A decade later, western women Populists won full suffrage in Colorado, Idaho, and Utah.

How did religion influence voting?

Catholics, especially Irish Catholics, and Americans of German ancestry tended to vote Democratic. Old-stock Protestant northerners, in contrast, voted Republican. Among immigrant groups, most British-born Protestants and 80 percent of Swedish and Norwegian Lutherans voted Republican, as did African Americans, North and South. Although intolerant of racial differences, the Democrats were generally more accepting of religious diversity than were the Republicans.

Who was Wilson's opponent in 1916?

Charles Evans Hughes was a Supreme Court justice and former New York governor. Wilson won the popular vote but the Electoral College outome remained in doubt for several weeks.

Who did Wilson oppose in the election of 1916?

Charles Evans Hughes. Wilson mainly won because of the campaign slogan "he kept us out of war."

How did Cleveland govern in his first term?

Cleveland embraced the belief that government must not meddle in the economy and opposed any public regulation of corporations. He also rejected providing any governmental help for those in need. Vetoing a bill that would have given seeds to drought-stricken farmers in Texas, he warned that people should not expect the government to solve their problems. Cleveland's call for lower tariffs arose from his concern that high tariffs created huge federal budget surpluses, which tempted legislators to distribute the money in the form of veterans' pensions or expensive public-works programs in their home districts, commonly called pork-barrel projects. With his horror of paternalistic government, Cleveland viewed the budget surplus as a corrupting influence. Although the Democratic campaign of 1888 gave little attention to the issue, Cleveland's talk of lowering the tariff angered many corporate leaders. Cleveland stirred up another hornet's nest by opposing the routine payment of veterans' disability pensions. No one opposed pensions for the deserving, but fraudulent claims had proliferated. Unlike his predecessors, Cleveland investigated these claims and rejected many of them. He also vetoed a bill that would have pensioned all disabled veterans whether or not their injuries occurred in military service. The pension list should be an honor roll, he stressed, not a refuge for fraud.

Who was Frances Willard?

Commanded nonviolent national army against alcohol and fought for woman's education and sufferage and homes for women. Resigning as dean of women and professor of English at Northwestern University in 1874, Willard devoted her energies full time to the temperance cause. Five years later she was elected president of the newly formed Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU).

Who was Andrew W. White?

Cornell's president who helped shift the focus of higher education in science and medicine.

What type of measures did reformers advocate for health and safety?

Decent housing, better garbage collection, street cleaning, school vaccination programs, safer water and sewer systems, and the regulation of food and milk suppliers.

Which regions leaned towards Democrats? Republicans?

Democrats ruled the south, southern sections of border states like Ohio and northern cities with large immigrant populations. Republicans ruled in rural and small-town New England, Pennsylvania, and the upper Midwest.

What type of urban amusement was there in the early 20th century?

Department stores, vaudeville, music halls, and amusement parks offered diversions. Some vaudeville owners sought respectability, but others had bawdy routines full of sexual innuendo. Coney Island, only a subway ride from the city attracted several million visitors by 1914.

Who was E. L. Godkin

Editor of The Nation who along with others argued that the financial success of the middle and upper classes arose from their superior talent, intelligence, morality, and self-control.

What was the Settlement House Movement?

Educated middle class members worked to help immigrants adapt to language & culture of America, over 400 settlement houses opened across nation. In 1895, there were 50 settlement houses.

Who led the "organized womanhood" campaigns?

Elite and middle-class women, mainly based in cities. Working-class and farm women played a small role, while African American, Mexican American, and Asian American women were almost totally excluded.

What was The American Social Hygiene Association (1914)?

Financed by John D. Rockefeller, Jr., it sponsored research on sexually transmitted diseases, paid for "vice investigations" in major cities, and drafted antiprostitution laws.

What were Nickelodeons?

Five-cent halls. Many were in immigrant neighborhoods in the early 20th century.

What was the corrupt spoils system?

For decades, successful candidates in national, state, and local elections had rewarded supporters with jobs ranging from cabinet seats to lowly municipal posts. Defenders claimed that this system was a democratic means of filling government positions. Critics called it a corrupt spoils system after the old expression, "To the victor belong the spoils."

What was the Anti-Imperialist League?

For the United States to rule other peoples, the anti-imperialists believed, was to violate the principles of the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. As one of them wrote, "Dewey took Manila with the loss of one man—and all our institutions." The military fever that accompanied expansionism also dismayed the anti-imperialists. Some labor leaders feared that imperial expansion would lead to competition from cheap foreign labor and products. In February 1899, the anti-imperialists failed by one vote to prevent Senate ratification of the peace treaty with Spain. McKinley's overwhelming reelection victory in 1900 and the defeat of expansionist critic William Jennings Bryan eroded the anti-imperialists' cause. Nevertheless, at a time of jingoistic rhetoric and militaristic posturing, they had upheld an older and more traditional vision of America. Carl Schurz and E. L. Godkin, were former Mugwumps and anti-imperalists. Other anti-imperialists included William Jennings Bryan, settlement-house founder Jane Addams, novelist Mark Twain, and Harvard philosopher William James. Steel king Andrew Carnegie gave thousands of dollars to the cause.

How did the professional civil service begin?

For years, a small but influential group of upper-class reformers, including Missouri senator Carl Schurz and editor E. L. Godkin of The Nation, had campaigned for a professional civil service based on merit. Well educated and wealthy, these reformers favored a civil service staffed by "gentlemen." The reformers had a point. A professional civil service was needed to remove corruption and manage complex government affairs. Elected through the compromise that ended Reconstruction, Republican president Rutherford B. Hayes cautiously embraced the civil-service cause. In 1877, he launched an investigation of the corruption-riddled New York City customs office and fired two high officials. One, Chester A. Arthur, had played a key role in passing out jobs.

What was the political system of the south in the late 1800s?

For years, the only meaningful election south of the Potomac was the Democratic primary. Only in the 1960s, in the wake of sweeping social and economic changes, would a genuine two-party system emerge there. The large bloc of southern Democrats selected to Congress each year, accumulating seniority and power, exerted a great and often reactionary influence on public policy. Finally, southern Democrats wielded enormous clout in the national party. No Democratic contender for national office who was unacceptable to them stood a chance.

What was the General Federation of Women's Clubs?

Formed in 1892 it was an umbrella of 495 affiliate clubs with over 100,000 members. Middle class black women were excluded from most of the clubs, so they formed the National Association of Colored Women's Clubs in 1900.

What was the Sierra Club?

Founded by John Muir in 1892, it urged wilderness preservation. He and Roosevelt spent a few days camping in Yosemite National Park iin 1903.

What was the New York Charity Organization Society (COS)?

Founded in 1882 by Josephine Shaw Lowell, to make aid to the poor more efficient, Lowell and the COS leaders divided New York City into districts, compiled files on all aid recipients, and sent "friendly visitors," who were trained, salaried women, into the tenements to counsel families on how to improve their lives. Convinced that moral deficiencies lay at the root of poverty and that the "promiscuous charity" of overlapping church welfare agencies undermined the desire to work, the COS tried to foster self-sufficiency in its charges.Unable to see slum problems from the vantage point of the poor, they failed, for the most part, in their underlying objective: to convert the poor to their own standards of morality and decorum.

What was the Consumers' League of New York?

Founded in 1891 by Josephine Shaw Lowell, it encouraged women to buy only from manufacturers who paid fair wages and maintained decent working conditions.

What was the Anti-Saloon League?

Founded in 1895, it called for a total ban on the sale of alcoholic beverages. Full-time professionals ran the organization with Protestant ministers staffing state committees. They offered statistics documenting alcohol's role in may social problems. As churches and temperance groups worked for prohibition at the municipal, county, and state levels, it worked to a larger goal: national prohibition. Although it did contribute to domestic violence, health problems, and workplace injuries, it became a symbolic battleground pitting native-born citizens against immigrants.

What was the Socialist Party of America (SPA)?

Founded in 1900 by democratic socialists, members included Victor Berger, leader of Milwaukee's German socialists, and Eugene V. Debs, an Indiana labor leader. Many Greenwich Village cultural rebels embraced socialism and support the radical magazine The Masses founded in 1911. By 1912 membership stood at 118,00 but Debs received more than 900,000 votes for president that year. The party published more than three hundred newspapers, including foreign-language papers targeting immigrants.

What was the International Ladies' Garmet Workers' Union (ILGWU)?

Founded in 1900 by immigrant workers in New York City's needle trades, they conducted successful strikes in 1909 and after the 1911 Triangle fire. The 1909 strike began when young Clara Lemlich jumped up as speechmaking droned on at a meeting and passionately called for a strike. Some picketers lost their jobs and endured police beatings, but the strikers did win higher wages and improved working conditions.

Who was Jane Addams?

Founded the Hull House in Chicago which were dedicated to helping the poor. The youngest daughter of a successful Illinois businessman, Jane Addams purchased a dilapidated mansion on Chicago's south side in 1889 and opened it as Hull House. She invited immigrants to plays; sponsored art projects; held classes in English, civics, cooking, and dressmaking; and encouraged them to preserve their traditional crafts. She set up a kindergarten, a laundry, an employment bureau, and a day nursery for working mothers. Hull House also sponsored recreational and athletic programs and dispensed legal aid and health care. In the hope of upgrading the filthy and overcrowded housing in its environs, Addams and her coworkers conducted surveys of city housing conditions and pressured politicians to enforce sanitation regulations. For a time, demonstrating her principle of direct engagement with the lives of the poor, Addams even served as garbage inspector for her local ward. In Democracy and Social Ethics (1902) she rejected the claim that unrestrained competition ensured social progress.

Who was Clara Barton?

Founder of the American Red Cross. When she visited Santiago, she found wounded soldiers lying in the rain, unable to eat the hardtack rations. Under her leadership, 1,000 trained nurses worked with the medical corps. Despite the efforts of these nurses and doctors, 379 American soldiers died in combat and more than 5,000 succumbed to food poisoning, yellow fever, malaria, and other diseases during and after the war.

Who was "General" William Booth

Founder of the Salvation Army in 1865 in England in a psuedo-military style.

What was the big economic issue in the mid 1890s?

Free silver. Cleveland's rigid defense of the gold standard forced his opponents into an equally exaggerated obsession with silver, obscuring the genuine issues that divided rich and poor, creditor and debtor, and farmer and city dweller. Conservatives tirelessly upheld the gold standard while agrarian radicals, urged on and sometimes financed by western silver-mine owners, extolled silver as a universal cure-all. Each side had a point. Gold advocates recognized that a nation's paper money must be based on more than a government's ability to run printing presses and that uncontrolled inflation could be catastrophic. The silver advocates knew from experience how tight-money policies depressed prices and devastated farmers. Unfortunately, these underlying realities were rarely expressed clearly.

How did Great Plains farmers fare in the late nineteenth century?

From 1865 to 1895, the prices that farmers received for their crops gradually declined. Even when they increased after 1895, farmers had difficulty making ends meet. As cycles of drought and debt battered Great Plains wheat growers, a Kansas farmer wrote, "At the age of 52, after a long life of toil, economy, and self-denial, I find myself and family virtually paupers." Great Plains farming had long been a risky venture. Between 1873 and 1877, terrible grasshopper infestations had consumed nearly half the Midwestern wheat crop. As production rose, prices fell. Wheat tumbled from $2.95 a bushel in 1866 to $1.06 in 1880 (see Figure 20.2). Farmers who had borrowed heavily to finance homesteads went bankrupt or barely survived. One struggling Minnesota farmer wrote the governor in 1874, "[W]e can see nothing but starvation in the future if relief does not come."

How did the US leave Cuba?

From 1898 to 1902, the U.S. army governed Cuba under the command of General Leonard Wood. Wood's administration improved public health, education, and sanitation but nevertheless violated the spirit of the 1898 Teller Amendment. The troops eventually withdrew, though under conditions that limited Cuban sovereignty. The 1901 Platt Amendment, attached to an army appropriations bill offered by a Connecticut senator at the request of the War Department, authorized American withdrawal only after Cuba agreed not to make any treaty with a foreign power limiting its independence and not to borrow beyond its means. The United States also reserved the right to intervene in Cuba when it saw fit and to maintain a naval base there, a policy resented by the Cubans. With U.S. troops still occupying the island, the Cuban constitutional convention of 1901 accepted the Platt Amendment, which remained in force until 1934. Under its terms the United States established a naval base at Guantánamo Bay, near Santiago de Cuba, which it still maintains. U.S. investments in Cuba, some $50 million in 1898, soared to half a billion dollars by 1920.

How did the public health and safety reforms improve lives?

From 1900 to 1920 US infant mortality, tuberculosis, typhoid fever, and other infectious or communicable diseases, all fell sharply.

Who was Carrie Chapman Catt?

From Iowa, in 1900 she succeeded Susan B. Anthony as president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA). Under her leadership, NAWSA adopted the so-called Winning Plan: grassroots organization with tight central coordination, focused on state-level campaigns. They ran newspaper ads, festooned posters and banners with catchy slogans, paraded in open cars, arranged photo opportunities for the media, and distributed fans and other items emblazoned with the suffrage message.

Who was Frank Norris?

From San Francisco, he portrayed the struggle between California railroad barons and the state's wheat growers in his novel The Octopus (1901). Though it was fiction, he accurately described the railroad owners' bribery, intimidation, rate manipulation, and other tatics.

What country's suffrage movement reverberated in America?

Great Britain

Who won the white house in 1884?

Grover Cleveland. In a meteoric rise from reform mayor of Buffalo to governor, Cleveland had fought the bosses and spoils men. The shrewdness of the Democrats' choice became apparent when Godkin, Carl Schurz, and other Republican reformers bolted to Cleveland. They were promptly nicknamed Mugwumps, an Algonquian term for a renegade chief. Unfortunately, Cleveland as a youth had fathered an illegitimate child. Although he admitted the indiscretion, Republicans still jeered at rallies: "Ma, Ma, where's my pa?" Cleveland also faced opposition from Tammany Hall, the New York City Democratic machine that he had fought as governor.

Who ran for the White House in 1892? Who won and why

Harrison and Cleveland again in a rematch of 1888. The Republicans renominated Harrison. The Democrats turned again to Grover Cleveland, who in four years out of office had made clear his growing conservatism and his opposition to the Populists. But this time Cleveland won by more than 360,000 votes, a decisive margin in this era of close elections. A public reaction against labor violence and the McKinley Tariff hurt Harrison, while Cleveland's support for the gold standard won business support. Meanwhile, a solid showing by Populist candidates sparked great hopes for the future. James B. Weaver got more than a million votes—8.5 percent of the total—and the Populists elected five senators, ten congressmen, and three governors.

Who was Charles W. Eliot?

Harvard's president who helped shift the focus of higher education in science and medicine.

What were the Open Door Notes?

Hay issued a series of notes in 1900 reaffirming the principle of open trade in China for all nations and announced America's determination to preserve China's territorial and administrative integrity. In the 1930s when Japanese expansionism menaced China, Hay's policy helped with the American response.

Who was William Torrey Harris?

He advocated an increase the number of years a student should spend in school. First as superintendent of the St. Louis public schools in the 1870s and later as the federal commissioner of education, he urged teachers to instill in their students a sense of order, decorum, self-discipline, and civic loyalty. Believing that modern industrial society depended on citizens' conforming to the timetables of the factory and the train, he envisioned the schools as models of punctuality and precise scheduling: "The pupil must have his lessons ready at the appointed time, must rise at the tap of the bell, move to the line, return; in short, go through all the evolutions with equal precision."

Who was Charles Guiteau?

He assassinated James A. Garfield, and used an early version of the insanity defense to avoid conviction. The jury rejected his insanity plea and he was hanged in 1882.

Who was William Dean Howells?

He became editor in chief of the Atlantic Monthly and wrote about ordinary people and controversial social themes. He was considered a realist.

Who was Joseph Pulitzer?

He bought the New York World in 1883.

Who was Charles Loring Brace?

He founded the New York Children's Aid Society in 1853. Brace admired "these little traders of the city ... battling for a hard living in the snow and mud of the street" but worried that they might join the city's "dangerous classes." Brace established dormitories, reading rooms, and workshops where the boys could learn practical skills; he also swept orphaned children off the streets, shipped them to the country, and placed them with families to work as farm hands.

What was Wilson's educational background?

He graduated from Princeton and earned a Ph.D. in political science from Johns Hopkins despite a learning disability. He joined Princeton's faculty and became it's president in 1902. His unwillingness to compromise cost him faculty support so in 1910 he resigned to enter politics.

What was a political "boss"

He listened to his urban constituents and lobbied on their behalf. He presided over the city's "machine"—an unofficial political organization designed to keep a particular party or faction in office. Whether officially serving as mayor or not, the boss, assisted by local ward or precinct captains, wielded enormous influence in city government. Often a former saloonkeeper or labor leader, the boss knew his constituents well.

What did Wilson say in reaction to his Republican predecessors' expansionist policies?

He said the US would "never again seek one additional foot of territory by conquest."

What was Theodore Roosevelt's start in politics?

He served as a state assemblyman, NYC police comissioner, and a US civil-service commissioner. In 1898, fresh from his Cuban exploits, he was elected governor of New York. Two years later, the state's Republican boss, eager to be rid of him, arranged for Roosevelt's nomination as vice president.

What was TR's Square Deal?

He wanted all Americans to be treated fairly and denounced special treatment for capitalists. He didn't want to destroy corporations, but wanted them to serve the public good. They filed more than forty antitrust lawsuits. In two key rulings in 1911 during the Taft administration, the Supreme Court ordered the breakup of the Standard Oil Company and the reorganization of the American Tobacco Company to make it less monopolistic.

What did TR call for in his 1902 State of the Union message?

He wanted to break up business monopolies or "trustbusting." In 1901 J.P. Morgan formed US Steel, the nation's first billion-dollar business. His attorney general soon sued the Northern Securities Company, a giant holding company recently created by Morgan and other tycoons to control railroading in the Northwest for violating the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. In 1904 a divided Supreme Court ordered the Northern Securities Company dissolved.

Who was Louis Brandeis?

He was a Boston attorney that argued for Muller v. Oregon. Brandeis was appointed to the Supreme Court despite protests from the ABA, Republican congressional leaders and Anti-Semites.

Who was John Spargo?

He was a British immigrant who researched his 1906 book about child labor, The Bitter Cry of the Children, by visiting mines in Pennsylvania and West Virginia and attempting the work the young boys performed for ten hours a day, picking out slate and other refuse from coal in cramped workspaces filled with choking coal dust.

Who was Karl Marx?

He was a German social theorist who won a few converts in the US, but most preferred the vision of democratic socialism.

Who was William James?

He was a Harvard philosopher who argued in Pragmatism (1907) that truth emerges not from abstract theorizing but from the experience of coping with life's realities through practical action.

Who was Robert La Follette?

He was a Wisconsin governor also known as "Fighting Bob" who took the lead in regulating railroads, mines and other businesses. As a republican congressman he had feuded with the state's conservative party leadership, and in 1900 he was the governorship as an independent. He adopted the direct-primary system, set up a railroad regulatory commission, increased corporate taxes, and limited campaign spending. He consulted reform-minded professors at the University of Wisconsin and set up a legislative reference library to help lawmakers draft bills. His reforms gained national attention as the "Wisconsin Idea."

Who was Lincoln Steffens?

He was a journalist who did an expose in 1902 with an article in McClure's documenting municipal corruption in St. Louis.

Who was Frederick Law Olmsted?

He was a landscape architect who designed NYC's Central Park and offered a solution for the Muddy River with the filling-in of Back Bay in Boston between 1857 - 1900.

Who was Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.?

He was a law professor who focused on changing judicial thinking. In The Common Law (1881), Holmes had criticized judges who interpreted the law rigidly to protect corporate interests and had insisted that law must evolve as society changes. Appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court in 1902, Holmes often dissented from the conservative Court majority. As the new social thinking took hold, the courts slowly grew more open to reform legislation.

Who was Jack Johnson?

He was an African American boxer and heavyweight champion that was convicted under the Mann Act in 1913 for crossing a state line with a white woman for "immoral purposes." He went abroad to escape imprisonment. The law was used to entrap many men.

Who was Leon Czolgosz?

He was an anarchist who in Buffalo on September 6, 1901 shot William McKinley. At first recovery seemed likely and Vice President Theodore Roosevelt continued a hiking trip in the Adirondack Mountains. But on September 14 McKinley died and at age 42 Theodore Roosevelt became president.

Who was John Dewey?

He was an educational reformer that saw schools as potent engines of social change. At the University of Chicago, he encouraged pupils to work collaboratively and to interact. He said the ideal school in Democracy and Education (1916) would be an "embryonic community" where children would learn to live as members of a social group.

Why did Guiteau shoot Garfield?

He was angry for not being appointed as ambassador. His mental state deteriorated and he viewed Garfield's death as a "political necessity". He believed he would become a hero.

Who were John Hope and Jane Hope Lyons?

He was president of Atlanta's Morehouse College in 1906 and assembled a distinguished faculty, championed African American education, and fought segregation. His sister was the dean of women at nearby Spelman College.

When was James Garfield shot? When did he die? What was the cause of death?

He was shot July 2, 1881 in a Washington DC train station. He died September 19, 1881 from blood poisoning. Doctors examined his gunshot wounds with their bare hands.

Who was Gifford Pinchot?

He was the first head of the US Forest Service appointed by TR in 1905. He stressed not only preservation but conservation.

Who was Winslow Homer?

He was the most famous and the greatest realist painter. He painted scenes of typical New England life. A magazine illustrator during the Civil War, he revealed nature as brutally tough and unsentimental.

What was Theodore Roosevelt's background?

He was the son of an aristocratic New York family of Dutch origins. He overcame a sickly childhood through bodybuilding exercises and summers in Wyoming to become a mode of physical fitness. When his mother and young wife died on the same day in 1884, he stoically carried on. Two years on a Dakota ranch deepened his enthusiasm for what he termed the "strenuous life."

Who was Dr. Walter Reed?

His drainage projects at the Panama Canal eradicated the yellow fever disease-baring mosquito.

What was Ellis Island? Angel Island?

Immigration processing centers - Ellis (NY 1892) - Angel (SF 1910)

Who was Anthony Comstock?

In 1872 he founded the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice. The organization demanded that municipal authorities close down gambling and lottery operations and censor obscene publications.

When was the Panama Canal built?

In 1879 a French company secured permission from Colombia to build a canal across Panama (then part Colombia). Mismanagement and yellow fever doomed the project, and by 1888 it was bankrupt. It offered the deal to the US for $109 million. In 1902, they lowered the price to $40 million. Congress authorized Roosevelt to accept the offer. Secretary of State Hay signed an agreement with Colombian diplomat, granting the US a 99 year lease for a down payment of $10 million and an annual fee of $250,000. The Colombian senate rejected the deal. Roosevelt found a collaborator in Phillippe Bunau-Varilla, an official of the bankrupt French company. He organized a "revolution" in Panama from a NY hotel room. While his wife stitched a flag, he wrote a declaration of independence and a constitution for the new nation. When the "revolution" occurred as scheduled on November 3, 1903, a US warship hovered offshore. Proclaiming Panama's independence, Banau-Varilla appointed himself the first ambassador to the US. Hay quickly recognized the new nation and signed a treaty granting the US an 10-mile wide strip in perpetuity on the terms earlier rejected by Colombia. Construction started in 1906 and 1914 the first ship sailed through. The US Senate voted to pay Colombia $25 million, but this deal would long shadow Latin American relations.

How did the divorce rate change from 1880 to 1900?

In 1880, one in every twenty-one marriages ended in divorce. By 1900, the rate had climbed to one in twelve. Women who brought suit for divorce increasingly cited their husbands' failure to act responsibly and to respect their autonomy. Accepting such arguments, courts frequently awarded the wife alimony, a monetary settlement payable by the ex-husband to support her and their children.

What was the Pendleton Civil Service Act?

In 1883, Congress enacted a civil-service law introduced by Senator George Pendleton of Ohio (Garfield's home state) and drafted by the Civil Service Reform League that had been created two years earlier. It set up a commission to prepare competitive examinations and establish standards of merit for a variety of federal jobs; it also forbade political candidates to solicit contributions from government workers. Although it initially covered only about 12 percent of federal employees, subsequent presidents gradually expanded the number of positions. By the 1890s, the act had opened up new positions for women, who now held nearly a third of the jobs as federal clerks in government agencies. The creation of a professional civil service thus helped bring the federal government in step with the modernizing trends transforming society. Arthur surprised most because he supported the act.

How did the Farmers Alliances gain political power?

In 1889, the Southern and Northwestern Alliances loosely merged and lined up candidates in the 1890 midterm elections. Alliance candidates focused on government action on behalf of farmers and workers, including tariff reduction, a graduated income tax, public ownership of the railroads, federal funding for irrigation research, a ban on landownership by foreigners, and "the free and unlimited coinage of silver." The 1890 elections revealed the strength of agrarian protest. Southern Democrats who endorsed alliance goals won four governorships and control of eight state legislatures. On the Great Plains, alliance-endorsed candidates controlled the Kansas and Nebraska legislatures and gained the balance of power in Minnesota and South Dakota. Three alliance-backed senators, together with some fifty congressmen (including Watson and Simpson), went to Washington as angry winds from the hinterlands buffeted the political system.

What was the Immigration Restriction League?

In 1894 prominent Bostonians formed the organization to curb immigration. Many thought it was the answer to improving urban slum conditions.

Who was Emilo Aguinaldo?

In 1896 he organized a Filipino independence movement. In 1898, with arms supplied by George Dewey, Aguinaldo's forces had captured most of Luzon, the Philippines' main island. When the Spanish surrendered, Aguinaldo proclaimed Filipino independence and drafted a democratic constitution. Feeling betrayed when the peace treaty ceded his country to the United States, Aguinaldo refused to accept American rule or disband his army. Tensions between the two sides flared in February 1899, resulting in a battle near Manila. Seventy thousand more U.S. troops were shipped to the Philippines; by the end of 1899, the initial Filipino resistance had been defeated. These hostilities became the opening phase of a long guerrilla conflict. Before it ended, more than 125,000 American men had served in the Philippines, and four thousand had been killed. As many as twenty thousand Filipino independence fighters died. As in the later Vietnam and Iraq wars, casualties and suffering ravaged the civilian population as well. Historians estimate that at least 200,000 civilians died in the conflict. Aguinaldo was captured in March 1901, but large-scale guerrilla fighting continued through the summer of 1902. To stabilize relations in the Philippines, congress passed the Philippine Government Act in 1902, which vested authority in a governor general to be appointed by the president. The act also provided for an elected Filipino assembly and promised eventual self-government. Progress toward this goal inched forward, with intervals of semi-military rule. In 1946, nearly half a century after Admiral Dewey's guns had boomed in Manila Bay, independence finally came to the Philippines.

How were the world powers getting into the Chinese market in the late 1890s?

In 1896, Russia won both the right to build a railway across the Chinese province of Manuchuria and a long-term lease on much of the region. In 1897, Germany secured a 99-year lease on a Chinese port as well as mining and railroad rights in the adjancent province. The British won concessions as well.

What were the events that led to the Spanish-American war?

In 1897, a new, more liberal Spanish government sought a peaceful resolution of the Cuban crisis. But Hearst and Pulitzer continued to inflame the public. On February 8, 1898, Hearst's Journal published a private letter by Spain's minister to the United States that described McKinley as "weak" and "a bidder for the admiration of the crowd." Irritation over this incident turned to outrage when on February 15 an explosion sank the U.S. battleship Maine in Havana harbor and killed 266 crewmen. Scholarly opinion about what caused the explosion is still divided, but a careful review of the evidence in 1998 concluded that a mine most likely set off the ammunition explosion that sank the ship. Newspaper headlines at the time blamed the same cause and war spirit flared high. Despite further Spanish concessions, McKinley sent a war message to Congress on April 11, and legislators enacted a joint resolution recognizing Cuba's independence and authorizing force to expel the Spanish. The Teller Amendment, introduced by Senator Henry M. Teller of Colorado, renounced any U.S. interest in "sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control" in Cuba and pledged that America would leave the island alone once independence was assured.

How did the geographic distributions of African Americans changed between 1900 - 1910?

In 1900 most of the nation's 10 million blacks lived mostly in rural South as sharecroppers and tenant farmers. As devastating floods and cotton boll weevil, which spread from Mexico in the 1890s, many southern blacks left. By 1910, more than 20% of blacks lived in cities, mostly in the South, but an increasing number in the North. Black men took jobs in factories, docks, and railroads or became carpenters, plasterers, or bricklayers.

What was the American Federation of Labor (AFL)?

In 1900-1920, it grew from 625,000 to 4 million members. This only represented about 20% of the industrial workforce. With recent immigrants hungry for jobs, union activities posed risks. The boss could always fire an "agitator" and hire a newcomer. Judicial hostility also kept unionization at bay.

What were other examples where Roosevelt & Taft asserted US power in Latin America and Asia?

In 1902, German, British, and Italian warships blockaded and bombarded the ports of Venezuela, which had defaulted on its debts to European investors. The standoff ended when President Theodore Roosevelt pressed all sides to settle the dispute through arbitration. In 1904 several European nations threatened to invade the Dominican Republic for defaulting on debt. Roosevelt reacted quickly saying if any power was going to intervene it should be the US. A US-backed revolution in mineral-rich Nicaragua in 1911 brought power to Adolfo Diaz, an officer of an American corporation that controlled several Nicaraguan gold mines. Worried that a Japanese victory in the Russo-Japanese war would disrupt the Asian balance of power and threaten America's position in the Philippines, Roosevelt invited the Japanese and Russians to a peace conference in Portsmouth, NH in September 1905. Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize. In 1906 the San Francisco school board assigned all Asian children to segregated schools. When Japan protested, Roosevelt summoned the school board to Washington and persuaded them to reverse this discriminatory policy. In return, in 1908 the administration negotiated a "gentlemen's agreement" with Japan by which Tokyo voluntarily halted Japanese emigration to America. Californians were warning of the "yellow peril", but Japanese journalists, warned of the "white peril". In 1907 Roosevelt ordered 16 US battleships to Japan on a "training operation."

What was the Niagara Movement?

In 1905, organized under Du Bois's leadership, it was a conference of blacks committed to battling racism at Niagara Falls. It meat annually for the next few years.

What was the Brownsville Incident?

In 1906, Theodore Roosevelt approved the dishonorable discharge of an entire regiment of black soldiers in Brownsville, TX because some members of the unit, goaded by racist taunts, had killed a local civilian. This incensed African Americans. In 1972 after most of the men were dead, Congress reversed the dishonorable discharges.

What was New Nationalism

In 1910 after TR saw Taft's policies, he coined the term to engage the federal government in reform. It was to regard the executive power as the steward of public welfare.

What type of arguments did the anti-immigration advocates try to use to document their case?

In 1911 a congressional report allegedly proved the new immigrants' innate degeneracy. One prominent sociologist described the newcomers as "low-browed, big-faced persons of obviously low mentality." Led by MA Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Congress passed literacy-test bills in 1896, 1913, and 1915 but all were vetoed. This would had excluded any immigrants over 16 years old that could not read in English or their native language, discriminating against those who lacked formal education. In 1917 the law became bill over Wilson's veto.

Who was Margaret Sanger?

In 1914 she began her crusade for birth control, a term she coined. She was from New York and her mother died after bearing eleven children. When her journal The Woman Rebel faced prosecution on obscenity charges, she fled to England. Returning in 1916, she opened the nation's first birth-control clinic in Brooklyn; launched The Birth Control Review; and founded the American Birth Control League, forerunner of today's Planned Parenthood Federation.

What was the Populist Party?

In February 1892, alliance leaders organized the People's Party of the United States, generally called the Populist Party. At the party convention in Omaha, Nebraska, that August, cheering delegates nominated for president former Civil War general and Greenback nominee James B. Weaver of Iowa. The Populist platform called for the direct popular election of senators and other electoral reforms. It also endorsed a subtreasury plan devised by alliance leader Charles Macune by which farmers could store their nonperishable commodities in government warehouses, receive low-interest loans using the crops as collateral, and then sell the stored commodities when market prices rose. Their model was the postal service, an efficient, centralized, large-scale organization that worked for the public good. Ignatius Donnelly's ringing preamble pronounced the nation on "the verge of moral, political, and material ruin" and called for a return of the government "to the hands of 'the plain people' with which class it originated."

Who won the election in 1912?

In February 1912 Roosevelt announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination but Taft wanted a second term. Even though TR won most of the primaries, at the Republican convention in Chicago, the party machine disqualified many of his delegates. TR's backers walked out and formed the Progressive Party. TR was the candidate and California senator Hiram Johnson as his running mate. TR said he felt fit as a bull moose which is how the Progressives got the nickname as the Bull Moose Party. In NJ in 1910 voters had elected a political novice, Woodrow Wilson, as governor. At the Democratic convention in Baltimore, he won the nomination. Socialist candidate Eugene Debs also ran. Wilson won 82% of the electoral votes and 42% of the popular vote. TR was second and Taft third.

When did American declare ware in WWI?

In February 1917, Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare. Wilson broke diplomatic relations on February 3. During Feb - Mar, U-boats sank five American ships. In March 1917 the Russian revolution began. On April 2, before a joint session of Congress, Wilson called for a declaration of war.

How did Theodore Roosevelt handle the United Mine Workers Union (UMW) strike in May 1902?

In October with winter looming, TR called both sides to the White House and threatening to seize the mines, he forced the mine owners to accept arbitration. The arbitration commission granted the miners a 10% wage increase and reduced their working day from 10 to 9 hours.

What was the shift that helped Cleveland win against Blaine?

In October, a New York City clergyman denounced the Democrats as the party of "Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion." Blaine failed to immediately repudiate the remark. The Cleveland campaign managers widely publicized this triple insult to Catholics, to patriotic Democrats, and to drinkers. This blunder and the Mugwumps' defection allowed Cleveland to carry New York State by twelve hundred votes, and with it the election.

What were warning flags in Europe for WWI?

In a short war in 1870-71, an alliance of German states handed France a humiliating defeat. Germany emerged as a powerful united nation ruled by Kaiser Wilhelm II. Berlin pursued modernization, expansion, and military power. Germany, Austri-Hungary, and Italy signed a military defense treaty in 1882. France, Great Britain, and Russia signed similar treaties in 1904 and 1907. The once powerful Ottoman Empire, centered in Turkey, was weakening, leaving in its wake such newly independent nations as Romania, Bulgaria, and Serbia. Serbian patriots wanted to expand their boundaries to include Serbs living in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Russia supported these ambitions. Austria-Hungary based in Vienna annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908. Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, the likely heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne was killed by a young Bosnian Serb while in Bosnia's capital, Sarajevo in June 1914. Austria declared war on Serbia. Russia, aligned with Serbia by a secret treaty, mobilized for war. Germany declared war on Russia and France. Great Britain declared war on Germany. This began the Great War, now known as WWI. The allies were Great Britain, Russia, and France (Italy joined in 1915). The Central Powers were Germany and Austria-Hungary.

How were leisure activities viewed before the Civil War?

In most areas, there was little time for leisure activities. Family picnics, horse races, county fairs, revival meetings, and Fourth of July and Christmas celebrations had provided occasional permissible diversions. But most Americans continued to view leisure activities skeptically.

Who was Frederick W. Taylor?

In the Principles of Scientific Management (1911) he explained how to increase output by standardizing job routines and rewarding faster workers. "Efficiency" became a popular catchword.

Who was Thorstein Veblen?

In the Theory of Leisure Class (1899) he criticized the wasteful consumption and materialism of the rich- which he called "conspicuous consumption" (ex. A diamond studded dog collar) A Norwegian American economist from Minnesota, he satirized America's newly rich capitalists in The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899). He argued that the flaunting of the wealth was to assert their claims of superiority.

What was the residential mobility like for tenement dwellers?

In the early 20th century, whites were able to move to other housing as they could afford it. Blacks were generally discriminated against and were not able to move out. The racially segregated neighborhoods became known as Ghettos.

How did Cleveland respond to the Panic of 1893?

In the face of suffering and turmoil, Cleveland refused to intervene. Boom-and-bust economic cycles were inevitable, he insisted. The government could do nothing. Missing the larger picture, Cleveland focused on a single issue: the gold standard. In August 1893 he persuaded Congress to repeal the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, which he blamed for the run on gold. Nevertheless, the gold drain continued. In early 1895, with the gold reserve down to $41 million, Cleveland turned to Wall Street. Bankers J. P. Morgan and August Belmont agreed to lend the government $62 million in exchange for U.S. bonds at a special discount. With this loan, the government purchased gold to replenish its reserve. Meanwhile, Morgan and Belmont resold the bonds for a substantial profit. This deal with the bankers did help restore confidence in the government's economic stability but it confirmed radicals' suspicions of an unholy alliance between Washington and Wall Street. Cleveland split the Democratic party which affected the elections of 1894 and 1896.

When did the Department store concept emerge in the U.S. and what kinds of things did they use to attract clients?

In the final quarter of the 19th century, Rowland H. Macy in New York, John Wanamaker in Philadelphia, and Marshall Field in Chicago built giant department stores that transformed the shopping experience for their middle- and upper-class patrons. The stores advertised "rock-bottom" prices and engaged in price wars. To avoid keeping their stock too long, they held giant end-of-the-season sales at drastically marked-down prices. They also create luxurious shopping experiences with stained-glass skylights, marble staircases, sparkling chandeliers, and plush carpets.

What were some of the skirmishes in the 1890s before the war?

In the mid-1880s, quarrels between the United States and Great Britain over fishing rights in the North Atlantic and in the Bering Sea off Alaska reawakened Americans' latent anti-British feelings as well as the old dream of acquiring Canada. The fishing-rights dispute was resolved in 1898, but by then attention had shifted to Latin America. In 1891, as civil war raged in Chile, U.S. officials seized a Chilean vessel that was attempting to buy guns in San Diego. Soon after, a mob in Valparaiso, Chile, killed two unarmed sailors on shore leave. President Harrison practically called for war. Only when Chile apologized and paid an indemnity was the incident closed. Another Latin American conflict arose from a boundary dispute between Venezuela and British Guiana in 1895.The disagreement worsened after gold was discovered in the contested territory. When the British rejected a U.S. arbitration offer and condescendingly insisted that America's revered Monroe Doctrine had no standing in international law, a livid Grover Cleveland asked Congress to set up a commission to settle the disputed boundary even without Britain's approval. As patriotic fervor pulsed through the nation, the British in 1897 accepted the commission's findings.

What is a pull factor? Give an example.

Induces people to move into a new location Ex: jobs, education, family, freedom

Who was Alice Paul

Influenced by the British suffragists' militant tactics, she rejected NAWSA's state-by-state approach. In 1913, she founded the Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage, renamed the National Woman's Party in 1917 to pressure Congress to enact a woman-suffrage constitutional amendment. Targeting the "party in power" (in this case Democrats) she and her followers in the 1916 election opposed President Woodrow Wilson and congressional Democrats who had failed to endorse a suffrage amendment. In 1917-1918 with the US at war, New York and Michigan passed suffrage laws.

Who led the municipal reforms?

It attracted different groups, depending on the issue. The native-born middle class, led by clergymen, editors, and other opinion molders, provided the initial impetus and core support. Business interests often pushed for citywide elections and the city-manager system because these changes reduced immigrants' political clout and increased the influence of the corporate elite. Reforms that promised improved services or better conditions for ordinary city-dwellers won support from immigrants and political bosses who realized that the old, informal system of patronage could no longer meet constituents' needs.

What was the Harrison Act (1914)?

It banned the distribution of heroin, morphine, cocaine, and other addictive drugs except by licensed physicians or pharmacists. This also had racist undertones. Antidrug crusaders luridly described Chinese "opium dens" and warned that "drug-crazed Negroes" imperiled white womanhood.

What was the Farmer's Alliance?

It began in Texas in the 1870s as small planters, trapped by the crop lien system, mortgaged future harvests to cover current expenses. Mired in debt, about a third of southern farmers gave up their land and became tenants or sharecroppers by 1900. In 1887, Texan Charles W. Macune, a self-trained lawyer and a physician, assumed leadership of the Alliance movement. By 1889, Macune had merged several regional organizations into the National Farmers' Alliance and Industrial Union, or Southern Alliance. A parallel black organization, the National Colored Farmers' Alliance, had meanwhile emerged in Arkansas and spread to other southern states. By 1890, the Southern Alliance claimed 3 million members. An additional 1.2 million joined the National Colored Farmers' Alliance. Alliance members at first tried to create a biracial movement. Southern Alliance leaders Tom Watson of Georgia and Leonidas Polk of North Carolina urged southern farmers, black and white, to act together. For a time, this message of racial cooperation in the interest of reform offered promise. But Alliance members also shared the "separate but equal" philosophy of their "New South".

What was the Currency Act of 1900?

It committed the US to the Gold Standard

What was the Federal Reserve Act (1913)?

It created twelve Federal Reserve banks under mixed public/private control. Each could issue U.S. dollars, called Federal Reserve notes, to the banks in its district to make loans to corporations and individual borrowers. Over control of the system was shared by the heads of the 12 banks and the Washington based Federal Reserve Board appointed by the president for 14 year terms.

What was the National Reclamation Act (1902)?

It designated the money from public-land sales for water management in arid western regions, and set up the Reclamation Service to construct dams and irrigation projects. It was also known as the Newlands Act for its sponsor, a Nevada congressman.

How much did the white-collar workforce change between 1900 to 1920.

It doubled from 5.1 million to 10.5 million.

How did the politically organized interest groups affect voter turnout during the progressive reform years?

It dropped steeply in these years.

What was the Federal Farm Loan Act and the Federal Warehouse Act (1916)?

It enabled farmers, using land or crops as collateral, to get low-interest federal loans.

What was the Adamson Act (1916)?

It established an eight-hour day for interstate railway workers.

What was the Sedition Amendment of 1918?

It imposed stiff penalties on anyone convicted of using "disloyal, profane ... or abusive language" about the government, the Constitution, the flag, or the military.

What is the Federal Trade Commission (FTC)?

It is a "watchdog" agency with the power to investigate violations of federal regulations, requires reports from corporations, and issue cease-and-desist orders when it finds unfair methods of competition.

What was the Wilson-Gorman Tariff of 1894?

It lowered tariffs but had so many special interests that Cleveland allowed it to go into law without his signature. A modest income tax of 2 percent on all income over $4,000 (over $100,000 in purchasing power today). But in Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. (1895), the Supreme Court narrowly ruled the law unconstitutional, arguing that the federal government could impose such a direct tax on personal property only if it were apportioned according to the population of each state. Whether one looked at the executive, the legislature, or the judiciary, Washington's subordination to financial interests seemed absolute.

What was The Mann Act (1910)?

It made it illegal to transport a woman across a state line "for Immoral purposes." Reformers shut down the red-light districts of New Orleans, Chicago, and other cities.

What was the Pure Food and Drug Act?

It passed along with the Meat Inspection Act in 1906. It required accurate ingredient labels.

What was the percentage of urban dwellers by 1920?

It passed the 50% mark. More than 68 cities had more than 100,000 people and the population of New York increased by 2.2 million and Chicago by 1 million between 1900 to 1920.

What was the Federal Highway Act (1916)?

It provided funds for highway programs.

What is the Workmen's Compensation Act (1916)?

It provides accident and injury protection to federal workers.

What was the Dingley Tariff of 1897?

It pushed tariffs to an all-time high

When did football become popular?

It started in the 1860s as an adaptation of American college students from English rugby. It rose in popularity around the turn of the century.

When did the move to suburbs happen

It started in the 1870s and 1880s.

What was the reform resulting from the 1913 Dayton flood?

It took more than 360 lives and left 65,000 people homeless and caused million in property damage, and it lead Dayton to adopt the city-manager form of government.

What was Theodore Roosevelt's racial record?

It was a bit better than other politicians of the age. He appointed an African American to head the Charleston customs house, despite white opposition, and closed a Mississippi post office rather than yield to demands to dismiss the black postmistress. In a symbolically important gesture, he dined with Booker T. Washington at the White House. In 1906, however he approved the dishonorable discharge of an entire regiment of black soldiers in Brownsville, TX because some members of the unit, goaded by racist taunts, had killed a local civilian.

What was progressivism?

It was a broad-based response to industrialization and its social by-products: immigration, urban growth, growing corporate power, and widening class divisions. In contrast to populism, it enlisted many more city-dwellers, journalists, academics, and social theorists. Most progressives were reformers, no radicals. They wished to make the new urban-industrial order more humane, not overturn it.

What was the 1911 Triangle fire?

It was a fire in the garment district in New York where many immigrant workers (mostly young women) were killed. After the fire, New York's politicians joined with the reformers and union officials to push for protective legislation.

What was the Federal Council of Churches?

It was created in 1908 by Walter Rauschenbusch to promote Christian unity and social justice.

When was the YMCA (Young Men's Christian Association) founded?

It was founded in England in 1841 and started in America in 1851. It provided housing and wholesome recreation for country boys who had migrated to the city. It subjected their members to curfews and expelled them for drinking and other forbidden behavior.

What was the eugenics movement?

It was fueled by anti-immigrant fears. Some people believed that human society could be improved by selective breeding. Leading eugenicists urged immigration restriction to protect America from "inferior" genetic stock. Inspired by the movement, many states legalized the sterilization of criminals, sex offenders, and persons adjudged mentally deficient. In the 1927 case Buck v. Bell, the Supreme Court upheld such laws.

Where were the new immigrants from?

Italians, Slavs, Greeks, and Jews from southern and eastern Europe, Armenians from the Middle East, and in Hawaii, Japanese from Asia

Who ran against Cleveland in 1884?

James G. Blaine, a gifted orator, Blaine spoke for the younger, more dynamic wing of the Republican Party eager to promote economic development and reinvigorate foreign policy. But Blaine had been stained by the revelation that he, as Speaker of the House, had offered political favors to a railroad company in exchange for stock.

What were Jim Crow laws?

Laws that segregated public facilities based on race. Most of the facilities for blacks were inferior. Most Southern cities imposed residential segregation by law until a Supreme Court ruling restricting it in 1917. Most labor unions excluded black workers. Most were disfranchised and trapped in a cycle of poverty, poor education, and discrimination, and faced bleak prospects.

What was the Committee on Public Information (CPI)?

Lead by journalist George Creel, it was the government's wartime propaganda agency. Even though they claimed to report facts, they publicized the government's version of events and discredited all who questioned that version. They created films, posters, newspaper articles, and ads to promote their cause. They also poured foreign-language pamphlets into immigrant neighborhoods.

What were some exposes that later became books for the muckrackers?

Lincoln Steffen's The Shame of the Cities (1904), Ida Tarbell's History of the Standard Oil Company (1904), and David Graham Phillip's The Treason of the Senate (1906).

How were immigrants accepted by Whites?

Many were considered "non-white" because of their immigrant status. Only gradually and with much effort were they accepted as white.

How did middle-class reformers feel about amusement parks, dance halls, and darkened nickelodeons?

Many were worried about immorality and disorder. Several states and cities set up film censorship boards, and the Supreme Court upheld such measure in 1915.

What was The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884)

Mark Twain's story of two runaways, the rebellious Huck and the slave Jim, drifting down the Mississippi in search of freedom. Their physical journey, which contrasts idyllic life on the raft with the tawdry, fraudulent world of small riverfront towns, is a journey of identity that brings with it a deeper understanding of contemporary American society.

How large a margin did McKinley have and why in 1896?

McKinley beat Bryan by more than six hundred thousand votes. He swept the Northeast and the Midwest and even carried three farm states beyond the Mississippi—Iowa, Minnesota, and North Dakota—as well as California and Oregon. Bryan's strength was limited to the South and the sparsely settled Great Plains and mountain states. The Republicans retained control of Congress. Republicans' cash reserves, influence on the East Coast press, and scare tactics played a role. But Bryan's candidacy carried its own liabilities. His core constituency, while passionately loyal, was limited. Seduced by free silver and Bryan's oratory, the Democrats had upheld a platform and a candidate with little appeal for factory workers, the urban middle class, or the settled family farmers of the Midwestern corn belt. Urban voters, realizing that higher farm prices, a major free-silver goal, also meant higher food prices, went heavily for McKinley. Bryan's weakness in urban America reflected cultural differences as well. To urban Catholics and Jews, this moralistic, teetotaling Nebraskan thundering like a Protestant revival preacher seemed utterly alien. Such cultural differences surely hurt Bryan in New York, where voters went against the wishes of Tammany Hall and voted for McKinley instead. McKinley beat Bryan again in 1900.

What was the Grange?

Midwestern farmers in 1867, under the leadership of Oliver H. Kelley, a Department of Agriculture clerk, formed the Grange, or "Patrons of Husbandry." In the next decade, membership soared to more than 1.5 million. Offering information, emotional support, and fellowship, the Grange urged farmers to "buy less and produce more, in order to make our farms more self-sustaining." They negotiated special discounts with farm-machinery dealers and set up "cash-only" cooperative stores and grain-storage elevators to cut out the "middlemen"—the bankers, grain brokers, and merchants who made money at the farmers' expense. Grangers focused their wrath on railroads, which routinely gave discounts to large shippers, bribed state legislators, and charged higher rates for short runs than for long hauls. Stung by these practices, Grangers in Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Iowa lobbied state legislatures in 1874 to pass laws fixing maximum rates for freight shipments. Despite promising beginnings, the Grange movement soon faltered. In 1878, the railroads, which had lost their battle on the national level, lobbied state legislatures and won repeal of most of the state-regulation laws. The railroads dealt another blow to the Grangers when they prevailed in the Supreme Court decision Wabash v. Illinois (1886), which partially reversed the Munn decision and prohibited states from regulating interstate railroad rates. Congress then passed the Interstate Commerce Act (1887), reaffirming the federal government's power to oversee railroad activities and establishing a new agency, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), to do just that. But the commission failed to curb the railroads' monopolistic practices.

Who was Phillips Brooks?

Minister at Boston's Trinity Church he along with others argued that the financial success of the middle and upper classes arose from their superior talent, intelligence, morality, and self-control.

How many new colleges were founded between 1880 and 1900

More than 150 and enrollment in colleges during this time period doubled

What was ragtime?

Music with lively, rhythmic sound which originated in the 1880s with black musicians in the saloons and brothels of the South and Midwest and was played strictly for entertainment. The "wild" and complex rhythms of ragtime were widely interpreted to be a freer and more "natural" expression of elemental feelings about love and sex.

How did the US acquire Hawaii?

New England trading vessels had visited Hawai'i as early as the 1790s, and Yankee missionaries had come in the 1820s. By the 1860s American-owned sugar plantations worked by Chinese and Japanese laborers dotted the islands. Under an 1887 treaty (negotiated after the planters had forcibly imposed a new constitution on Hawai'i's native ruler, Kala-kaua), the United States built a naval base at Pearl Harbor, near Honolulu. American economic dominance and the influx of foreigners angered Hawaiians. In 1891, they welcomed Liliuokalani, a strong-willed woman hostile to Americans, to the Hawaiian throne. Meanwhile, in 1890, the framers of the McKinley Tariff, pressured by domestic sugar growers, eliminated the duty-free status enjoyed by Hawaiian sugar. In January 1893, facing ruin as Hawai'i's wholesale sugar prices plunged 40 percent, the planters deposed Queen Liliuokalani, proclaimed the independent Republic of Hawai'i, and requested U.S. annexation. Cleveland questioned whether Hawaiians actually wanted annexation. When William McKinley succeeded Cleveland in 1897, the acquisition of Hawai'i was pushed forward by sugar companies that had similar investments in Cuba. In 1898, Congress proclaimed Hawai'i an American territory. Sixty-one years later, it joined the Union as the fiftieth state.

What state had a suffrage campaign in 1915?

New York State. Though it was unsuccessful, it underscored the new momentum.

Where did "new immigrants" settle?

New immigrants tended to settle in large, northern cities. The Irish were predominately in New England and the Germans in the Midwest. In 1890 New York had twice as many Irish as Dublin, as many Germans as Hamburg, half as many Italians as Naples and 2 1/2 times as many Jews as Warsaw.

What was the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW)?

Nicknamed the Wobblies and founded in Chicago in 1905, they targeted the most exploited workers. The leader was William "Big Bill" Haywood, a Utah-born miner who in 1905 was acquitted of complicity in the assassination of an antilabor former governor of Idaho. Membership peaked at around 30,000, mostly western miners, lumbermen, fruit pickers, and itinerant laborers. It did capture the imagination of young cultural rebels in NYC's Greenwich Village where Haywood, a compelling orator, often visited. It led strikes of Nevada gold miners, Minnesota iron miners, and timber workers in the Northwest. It faced government harassment, especially during WWI and by 1920 it's strength was broken.

When was the armistice signed?

November 11, 1918 at 11:00 a.m.

What was the first co-ed college?

Oberlin College in 1836

What was the percentage of blacks drafted during WWI? Whites?

Of southern blacks who registered, one-third were drafted, in contrast to only one-quarter of whites. White draft boards justified this by arguing that black families could more easily spare a male breadwinner.

What type of transportation advances were made in the early 1900s?

Orville and Wilbur Wright had the first successful airplane flight in 1903 and Henry Ford introduced the Model T in 1908 becoming more affordable to the masses.

What happened to Palestine after WWI?

Palestine, a part of the Ottoman Empire, went to Great Britain under a mandate arrangement. In 1917, after gaining military control of Palestine, the British had issued the Balfour Declaration supporting a Jewish "national home" in the region while also acknowledging the rights of the non-Jewish Palestinians.

What was the Espionage Act of 1917?

Passed by Congress in 1917 after the United States entered World War I; set a $10,000 fine and 20 years imprisonment for interfering with the recruiting of troops or the disclosure of information dealing with national defense. In three 1919 decisions, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the Espionage Act convictions of war critics despite the First Amendment guarantee of free speech. In Schenck v. United States, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., writing for a unanimous court, justified such repression in cases where a person's speech posed a "clear and present danger" to the nation. When the war ended, Wilson vetoed a bill repealing the Espionage Act, increasing the likelihood that the miasma of conformity and suspicion would linger into the postwar era.

What was the Mann-Elkins Act?

Passed in 1910, it beefed the Interstate Commerce Commission's regulatory authority and extended it to telephone and telegraph companies. The Taft administration prosecuted more antitrust cases than Roosevelt's.

What type of environmental reforms were passed during the progressive era?

Physicians had linked factory smoke to respiratory problems and civil engineers formed the Smoke Prevention Association in 1906. The University of Pittsburgh, one of the nations's smokiest cities with its steel mills documented the hazards and costs of air pollution. Many cities passed smoke-abatement laws. However with coal still providing 70% of the nation's energy in late 1920 most cities remained smoky.

How were drugs distributed in the early 1900s?

Physicians, patent-medicine peddlers, and legitimate drug companies freely prescribed or sold opium (derived from poppies) and its derivatives morphine and heroin. Cocaine, extracted for coca leaves, was an ingredient of Coca-Cola until about 1900.

What were the new nations created after WWI?

Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania

What cultural difference influenced voting?

Political battles often centered on cultural differences, most notably, prohibition. Irish whiskey drinkers, German beer drinkers, and Italian wine drinkers were equally outraged by antiliquor legislation. State and local prohibition proposals always aroused passionate voter interest.

What was Vaudeville?

Popular form of mass entertainment, comedy, short acts, dance, song, magic etc that evolved from antebellum minstrel shows. It sometimes featured white performers dressed up in blackface.

What is a muckraker?

President Theodore Roosevelt coined the term to mean journalist that show the worst in American life, but it became a badge of courage for mass magazines like McClure's. and Collier's.

What was a "white slave"

Prostitution - it came to symbolize urban America's larger moral dangers. Novels, films, and magazine articles warned of kidnapped farm girls forced into urban brothels.

What was Woodrow Wilson's racial record?

Racism became rampant in Washington when he was president. He was a southerner and at best displayed a patronizing attitude towards black. He praised Birth of A Nation and allowed southerners in his cabinet and in congress to impose rigid segregation on all levels of the government.

What fueled the antiprostitution crusade?

Racism, anti-immigrant prejudice, and anxieties about changing sexual mores.

What was the Sixteenth Amendment?

Ratified in 1913 it empowered Congress to tax incomes.

What was the Seventeenth Amendment?

Ratified in 1913 it provided for the direct election of U.S. senators by voters rather than by state legislatures.

What was the Eighteenth Amendment?

Ratified in 1919 it prohibited the manufacture, sale, or importation of "intoxicating liquors."

What was the Nineteenth Amendment?

Ratified in 1920, it granted women the vote.

What were the Chicago White Stockings famous for in 1887

Refusing to play a team with a black player, George Stovey, a star pitcher. Although 55 blacks played on integrated teams from 1883 to 1898, in 1887 negro clubs started.

What was Wilson's stance at the beginning of the war?

Remain neutral - most agreed.

What were the republican and democratic stance on tariffs?

Republicans justified their support for the tariff and defended their commitment to Union widows' pensions as a protection for the family home. Democrats countered, labeling Republican programs as classic examples of the perils of using excessive government force. High tariffs, they claimed, imperiled the family and threatened economic disaster.

What was the Ballinger-Pinchot controversy?

Richard Ballinger was Taft's interior secretary who favored unregulated private development of natural resources. In 1909 he approved the sale of several million acres of coal-rich public lands in Alaska to a Seattle business consortium that resold it to J.P. Morgan. When an Interior Department official and Gifford Pinchot of the Forest Service objected, they were both fired.

Who was Josephine Shaw Lowell?

She founded the New York Charity Organization Society (COS)

Who was Ida Wells-Barnett?

She moved from Chicago to Memphis in 1892 after a white mob destroyed her offices. She mounted a national antilynching campaign. Documenting the grim facts in A Red Record (1895), she toured the United States and Great Britain lecturing against lynching and other racial abuses.

Who was Mary Cassatt?

She painted sensitive portraits of women and children such as The Bath (1891). After studying at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, she moved to Paris in 1874, where she worked closely with French Impressionist painters such as Monet and Degas.

Who was Kate Chopin?

She pushed feminism by having Edna Pontellier, the married heroine of her controversial 1899 novel The Awakening, violate social conventions. First Edna falls in love with another man; then she takes her own life when his ideas about women prove as narrow and traditional as those of her husband.

Who was Katherine Bement Davis?

She served as New York City's commissioner of corrections in the early 20th century.

Who was Ellen Richards?

She was a chemist from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the early 20th century.

Who was Florence Kelley?

She was an advocate for improving the lives of women and children. A former Hull House employee, sh became the chief factory inspector for Illinois in 1893

Who was Mary Ware Dennett?

She was an advocate of birth control and sex education. Unlike Sanger that championed direct action and insisted only physicians should supply contraceptives, she urged lobbying efforts to change the law and argued for widespread distribution. Her frank 1919 informational pamphlet for youth, The Sex Side of Life, was long banned as obscene. It wasn't until 1965 that the Supreme Court fully legalized the dissemination of contraceptive materials and information.

Who was Lillian Wald?

She was the director of a New York City settlement house that protested racial injustice.

Who was Marion Talbot?

She was the first dean of women at the University of Chicago in the early 20th century.

Who was Frances Willard?

She was the president of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU).

Who was Florence Kelley

She worked for the Hull House and was the daughter of a conservative Republican congressman. In 1893 after investigating conditions in factories and sweatshops, Kelley persuaded the Illinois legislature to outlaw child labor and limit working hours for women. In 1899, she became the head of the National Consumers' League, which mobilized consumer pressure for improved factory conditions.

Who was Catherine Beecher?

She wrote a popular advice book, The American Woman's Home (1869) about proper Victorian manners. She was also the sister of Henry Ward Beecher.

Who was Sarah Orne Jewett?

She wrote in The Country of the Pointed Firs (1896) of the New England village life that she knew in South Berwick, Maine.

Who was Mary Wilkins Freeman?

She wrote short stories where a women's expanding role is implicitly compared to the frontier ideal of freedom.

What was the monetary debate after the civil war?

Should the Civil War paper "greenbacks" currently in circulation be retained or eliminated, leaving only a currency backed by gold? The hard times associated with the Panic of 1873 sharpened this dispute.

Who drove the progressive era's underlying ideas?

Socialist Lester Word, utopian novelist Edward Bellamy and Social Gospel advocates were attacking the harsh version of Social Darwinism. Other intellectuals contributing to the views were economist Thorstein Velben, Harvard philosopher William James, Herbert Croly, Jane Addams, John Dewey, and Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.

What types of activities were involved in the physical fitness craze at the turn of the century?

Some used health products such as cod liver oil and sarsaparilla for "weak blood." Others played basketball, invented in 1891 by a physical education instructor at Springfield College in Massachusetts to keep students in shape during the winter months. But bicycling, which could be done individually or in groups, quickly became the most popular sport for those who wished to combine exercise with recreation.

How did progressives and racism mix?

Some were champions for racial injustice, but most progressives viewed African Americans, like immigrants not as potential allies, but as part of the problem. They generally supported or tolerated segregated schools and housing, restrictions on black voting rights, moral oversight of black communities, and, at best, paternalistic efforts to "uplift" this supposedly childlike people.

What was the initiative, referendum, and recall?

Some western state incorporated this hoping to trim political power of corporate interests. By an initiative, voters can instruct legislature to consider a specific bill. In a referendum, the citizens can actually enact a law or express views on a proposed measure. By a recall petition, voters can remove from public office, an official if they muster enough signatures to trigger a special election.

What specific problems were progressives trying to fix?

Sometimes the causes overlapped and sometimes they diverged. Many wanted stricter business regulation, others focused on protecting workers and the urban poor. Others wanted reform of municipal government. Some favored immigration restriction or social-control strategies to regulate city-dwellers' behavior.

Who managed campaigns?

State and local party leaders managed campaigns. They chose the candidates, raised money, organized rallies, and—if their candidate won—distributed public jobs to party workers. Bosses like the former saloonkeepers "Big Jim" Pendergast of Kansas City, a Democrat, and George B. Cox of Cincinnati, a Republican, turned out the vote by taking care of constituents, handing out municipal jobs, and financing campaigns with "contributions" extracted from city employees.

What was Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (1892)?

Stephen Crane's bleak story of an innocent girl's exploitation and ultimate suicide in an urban slum, is generally considered the first naturalistic American novel.

How was Taft nominated?

TR didn't want to seek a third term, so they nominated his choice, Secretary of War William Howard Taft, but selected a conservative vice-presidential nominee and a deeply conservative platform. The Democrats nominated WIlliam Jennings Bryan for a third time.

How was the National Park Service created?

TR set aside 200 million acres of public land (85 million of them in Alaska) as national forests, mineral reserves, and waterpower sites, but in 1907 Congress revoked the president's authority to create national forests in six timber rich western states. Before signing the bill TR designated 16 million more acres in the six states as national forests. He also create 53 wildlife reserves, sixteen national monuments, and five new national parks. The organization was created in 1916 to manage them.

How was Taft different from Roosevelt?

Taft, from a prominent Ohio political family was obese where TR was very fit. TR had installed a boxing ring, but Taft preferred golf. Taft disliked controversy where TR embraced it. He enjoyed being chief justice much more.

What were tenements? Where were they located?

Tall, dirty, crowded "apartments" located in cities where the unskilled jobs were located. Usually immigrant or minority groups had not choice but to rent there because they were locked out of more desirable housing.

Who was John Donaldson

The "Champion of the West" professional boxer knocked out in 1880 by John L. Sullivan.

What type of new professional group arose in the teens?

The American Association of Advertising Agencies (1917) and the American Association of University Professors (1915). Ambitious, well education middle class people joined professional societies to make their influence felt.

Which baseball team gained fame in 1869 by touring the country with 57 wins and no loses?

The Cincinnati Red Stockings (also the first team to put players under contract for an entire season).

Who ran against Garfield in 1880?

The Democrats nominated a career army officer from Pennsylvania, Winfield Scott Hancock, and the Greenbackers gave the nod to Congressman James B. Weaver of Iowa. Garfield's managers stressed his Civil War record and his log-cabin birth. By a razor-thin margin, Garfield edged out Hancock; Weaver trailed far behind.

What was the Greenback Party?

The Greenback Party (Greenback-Labor Party) was an American political party that was active between 1874 and 1884. Its name referred to paper money, or "greenbacks," that had been issued during the American Civil War and afterward. The party advocated issuing large amounts of money, believing this would help people, especially farmers by raising prices and making debts easier to pay. It was established as a political party whose members were primarily farmers financially hurt by the Panic of 1873. The Greenback Party was founded at a meeting in Indianapolis, Indiana, on November 25, 1874. It was originally called the Independent National Party. In 1878, 14 members of the party were elected to the United States Congress. In 1880 the Greenback Party broadened its platform to include support for an income tax, an eight hour day, and allowing women the right to vote. The party's influence declined quickly, and after 1884 it was no longer a force in American politics.

What was the first organized baseball team?

The New York Knickerbockers in 1845.

Who was William M. Tweed?

The New York city "boss" of the Tammany Hall political machine. Between 1869 and 1871, "Boss" Tweed gave $50,000 to the poor and $2,250,000 to schools, orphanages, and hospitals. In these same years, his machine dispensed sixty thousand patronage positions and pumped up the city's debt by $70 million through graft.

What precipitated the Panic of 1893 and the Depression of 1893 - 1897?

The Philadelphia and Reading Railroad failed. This bankruptcy came at a time of weakened confidence in the gold standard, the government's pledge to redeem paper money for gold on demand. Confidence had ebbed when, in response to the collapse of a leading London investment bank in 1890, British investors had sold millions of dollars' worth of stock in American railroads and converted their dollars to gold, draining U.S. gold reserves. Moreover, Congress's lavish veterans' benefits during the Harrison administration had reduced government resources just as tariff revenues were dropping because of the high McKinley Tariff. Finally, the 1890 Sherman Silver Purchase Act's requirement that the government pay for its monthly silver purchases with treasury certificates redeemable for either silver or gold had further drained gold reserves.

What were the roots of progressivism?

The Populist Party were the roots of the progressivism that would emerge in the early 20th century.

What was the 1908 Danbury Hatters case?

The Supreme Court ruled that boycotts in support of strikes were a "conspiracy in restraint of trade," and a violation of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. The AFL's strength remained in the traditional skilled trades and not in factories, mills, or sweatshops.

How did the US acquire part of Samoa?

The U.S. navy focused sought access to the port of Pago Pago as a refueling station. Britain and Germany had ambitions in Samoa as well, and in March 1889 the United States and Germany narrowly avoided a naval clash when a hurricane wrecked both fleets. Secretary of State Blaine's wife wrote to one of their children, "Your father is now looking up Samoa on the map." Once he found it, negotiations began, and the United States, Great Britain, and Germany established a three-way "protectorate" over the islands.

What was the Credit Mobilier Scandal?

The Union Pacific Railroad set up a construction company "Credit Mobilier" who charged american tax payers $23 million more than needed and gave stock to members of congress. Garfield was tainted by this while in Congress.

What was Manifest Destiny?

The belief that it was America's destiny to expand to the Pacific Ocean

What is the doctrine of laissez-faire?

The belief that unregulated competition represented the best path to progress. According to this view, the federal government should promote economic development but not regulate industry. Neither republicans or democrats courted the union vote.

Who was Daniel Burnham?

The chief architect of the 1893 Chicago World's Fair. He led a successful 1906 effort to revive a plan for Washington, D.C. first proposed in 1791. His 1909 Plan of Chicago offered a vision of a city both more efficient and more beautiful. He recommended wide boulevards, lakefront parks and museum, statuary and fountains, and a majestic domed city hall and vast civic plaza. Chicago spent more than $300 million on projects reflecting his ideas. Many urban planners shared his ideals. They felt beautification would produce orderly, law-abiding citizens.

Who was William Monroe Trotter?

The editor of the Boston Guardian, a black newpaper, in 1902 he called Booker T. Washington's go-slow policy "a fatal blow ... to the Negro's political rights and liberty."

What did TR consider America's most vital internal question?

The environment.

What was the significance of Plessy v. Ferguson?

The justices upheld a Louisiana law requiring segregated railroad cars. Racial segregation was constitutional, the Court held, if equal facilities were made available to each race. With the Supreme Court's blessing, the South segregated its public school system, ignoring the caveat that such separate facilities must be equal. White children studied in nicer buildings, used newer equipment, and were taught by better-paid teachers. Not until 1954 did the Court overturn the "separate but equal" doctrine. Rounding out their dismal record, in 1898 the justices upheld the poll tax and literacy tests by which southern states had disfranchised blacks.

What was the Hepburn Act?

The law passed during TR's second term empowered the Interstate Commerce Commission to set maximum railroad rates and to examine railroads' financial records. It also curtailed the railroads' practice of distributing free passes to ministers and other shapers of public opinion. He compromised with Senator Aldrich and other conservatives to delay the tariff reform.

Who was Scott Joplin?

The most famous composer of ragtime music. African-american, settled in St. Louis, Missouri, the center of ragtime music. Most famous composition "Maple Leaf Rag".

What was Coney Island?

The most successful large - scale amusement area. Consisted of three main amusement parks, as well as a boardwalk, vaudeville theaters, and other assorted attractions. It was located in Brooklyn, New York's oceanfront.

What was Munn v Illinois (1877)?

The railroads appealed these "Granger laws" to the Supreme Court, but in Munn v. Illinois (1877) the Court rejected the railroads' appeal and upheld an Illinois law setting maximum grain storage rates. The regulation of grain elevators, declared the Court's majority, was legitimate under the federal Constitution's acknowledgment of the right of states to exercise police powers.

What was the relationship of Southern agrarian protest and racism?

The relationship between southern agrarian protest and white racism was complex. African American farm organizations had developed independently from their white counterparts. Some Populists, like Georgia's Tom Watson, sought to build an interracial movement with them. Watson denounced lynching and the convict-lease system. When a black Populist leader pursued by a lynch mob took refuge in his house during the 1892 campaign, Watson summoned two thousand armed white Populists to defend him. But most white Populists clung to racism. The white ruling elite, eager to drive a wedge in the protest movement, inflamed lower-class white racism. On balance, the rise of southern agrarian protest deepened racial hatred and ultimately worsened blacks' situation. Meanwhile, the federal government stood aside. A generation of northern politicians paid lip service to egalitarian principles but failed to apply them to African Americans.

What led to Garfield getting elected?

The republicans were split between the half-breeds and the stalwarts.

Who was Herbert Croly?

The son of reform-minded New York journalists, he called for an activist government of the kind advocated by Alexander Hamilton in The Promise of American Life (1909). He argued that the government should promote the welfare of all. In 1914 he founded the New Republic magazine.

Who were the initial reformers in the early 20th century?

The urban middle class.. Sometimes issues affecting factory workers and slum-dwellers found allies in the immigrant political machines and workers themselves.

How long did the Spanish-American War last?

The war with Spain involved only a few days of actual combat. The first action came on May 1, 1898, when a U.S. fleet commanded by George Dewey steamed into Manila Bay in the Philippines and destroyed or captured all ten Spanish ships anchored there, at the cost of one American and 381 Spanish lives. In mid-August, U.S. troops occupied the capital, Manila. In Cuba, the fighting centered on the military stronghold of Santiago on the southeastern coast. On May 19, a Spanish battle fleet of seven aging vessels sailed into the Santiago harbor, where five U.S. battleships and two cruisers blockaded them. On July 1, in the war's only significant land action, American troops seized three strongly defended Spanish garrisons overlooking Santiago on El Caney Hill, Kettleman's Hill, and San Juan Hill. Theodore Roosevelt led the volunteer "Rough Riders" unit in the capture of San Juan Hill and became a war hero. Emphasizing his toughness and sense of honor, Roosevelt would later use his war experience to reaffirm the aptitude of men like himself for political leadership. On July 3, the Spanish attempted to break through the American blockade to the open sea. The U.S. navy fired and sank their archaic vessels. Spain lost 474 men in this gallant but doomed defense. Americans might have found a cautionary lesson in this sorry end to four hundred years of Spanish rule in the New World, but few had time for somber musings. The Washington Post observed, "A new consciousness seems to have come upon us—the consciousness of strength—and with it a new appetite, the yearning to show our strength." Secretary of State John Hay was more succinct. It had been, he wrote Roosevelt, "a splendid little war." The Spanish sought an armistice on July 17. In the peace treaty signed that December in Paris, Spain recognized Cuba's independence and, after a U.S. payment of $20 million, ceded the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and the Pacific island of Guam to the United States. Americans now possessed an island empire stretching from the Caribbean to the Pacific.

What was Sister Carrie (1900)?

Theodore Dreiser's story of a journey. In this case, the main character, Carrie Meeber, an innocent girl on her way from her Wisconsin farm home to Chicago, is seduced by a traveling salesman and then moves in with the married proprietor of a fancy saloon. Driven by her desire for expensive department-store clothes and lavish entertainment, Carrie is an opportunist incapable of feeling guilt. She follows her married lover to New York, knowing that he has stolen the receipts from his saloon, abandons him when his money runs out, and pursues her own career in the theater.

How did progressives approach the issues?

They believed most social problems could be solved through study and organized effort. They respected science and experts. Progressive marshaled research data, surveys, and statistics to support their various causes.

What were the Democrats platform in the late 1800s?

They campaigned for minimal government expenditures, opposed tariff increases, and generally attacked what they considered to be "governmental interference in the economy." On the state and local levels, they fiercely opposed prohibition, supported parochial schools, and rejected requirements that immigrant children attend only those schools that taught in English.

Who were Leland Stanford and his wife, Jane Lathrop Stanford?

They launched Stanford University in 1885 with a bequest of 24 million

What were the Republicans platform in the late 1800s?

They often "waved the bloody shirt," reminding voters that their party had led the nation during the Civil War. To emphasize their patriotism, the Republicans ran a series of former Union army generals for president and voted generous veterans' benefits.

How did the consolidation of large companies change workers' average annual wages from 1900 to 1915

They rose from $487 in 1900 to $687 in 1915. In railroading and other unionized industries they were even higher. However, it was barely enough for most workers to support a family and provided little for emergencies.

How did urban populations spend leisure time in the late nineteenth century?

They thronged the streets, patronized saloons and dance halls, cheered at boxing matches and baseball games, and organized group picnics and holiday celebrations. As amusement parks, vaudeville theaters, sporting clubs, and racetracks provided further outlets for workers' need for entertainment, leisure became a big business catering to a mass public rather than to a wealthy elite.

Where did people look for improvements in labor?

They turned to local or state authorities. Cities often could not change their system of government, alter their tax structure, or regulate municipal utilities without state approval.

How did TR's approach to labor disputes differ from his predecessors?

They typically sided with management, sometimes using troops as strikebreakers. Though not consistently prolabor, he defended workers' right to organize. With his elite background, he neither feared nor much liked business tycoons. He did believe that corporations contributed to national greatness, but he also embraced the progressive conviction that they must be regulated. He was a strict moralist and he held corporations, like individuals to a high standard.

What was the immigration process when arriving at the port of entry (usually New York or San Francisco).

They were examined for disease. After 1892 those with "loathsome" disease such as leprosy, STDs, or trachoma were deported. Many names were anglicized is the immigration officer could not understand the passenger's name.

How did the US feel about the revolt of 1895 in Cuba?

This revolt, organized by Cuban writer José Martí and other Cuban exiles in New York City, won little support from U.S. business, which had $50 million invested in Cuba and annually imported $100 million worth of sugar and other products from the island. Nor did the rebels initially secure the backing of Washington, which urged Spain to grant Cuba a degree of autonomy. But the rebels' cause aroused popular sympathy in the United States. This support increased with revelations that the Spanish commander in Cuba, Valeriano Weyler, was herding vast numbers of Cubans into squalid camps. Malnutrition and disease turned these camps into hellholes in which perhaps two hundred thousand Cubans died. Fueling American anger was the sensationalized reporting of two competing New York City newspapers, William Randolph Hearst's Journal and Joseph Pulitzer's World. The Journal's color comic strip, "The Yellow Kid," provided a name for Hearst's debased editorial approach: yellow journalism. The Hungarian immigrant Pulitzer normally had higher standards, but in the cutthroat battle for readers, Pulitzer's World matched the Journal's sensationalism. Both editors exploited the Cuban crisis. Headlines turned rumor into fact, and feature stories detailed "Butcher" Weyler's atrocities. When a young Cuban woman was jailed for resisting a rape attempt by a Spanish officer, a Hearst reporter helped the woman escape and brought her triumphantly to New York.

How did the US pay for WWI?

Through Liberty Bonds and taxes.

What was lynching?

Through the 1880s and 1890s, about a hundred blacks were lynched annually in the United States, mainly in the South. The stated reasons, often the rape of a white woman, frequently arose from rumor and unsubstantiated accusations. The charge of "attempted rape," as the black journalist Ida B. Wells pointed out to a national audience, could cover a wide range of behaviors unacceptable to whites, such as questioning authority or talking back. The lynch mob demonstrated whites' absolute power. In the South, more than 80 percent of the lynchings involved black victims. Lynchings most commonly occurred in the Cotton Belt, and they tended to rise at times of economic distress. By no coincidence, lynching peaked in 1892 as many poor blacks embraced the Colored Farmers' Alliance and rallied to the Populist Party banner. Fifteen black Populists were killed in Georgia alone, it has been estimated, during that year's bitter campaign. Ironically, the photographs that reinforced racial terror and flaunted the disregard for law became the basis for reformers' proof of the brutality of the tactic. From 1900 to 1920 an average of about 75 lynchings occurred yearly. Blacks whose assertive behavior or economic aspirations angered whites were especially vulnerable. Some involved brutal sadism, with large crowds on hand, mutilated bodies and graphic postcards sold later. Authorities rarely intervened.

How was WWI advertised?

Treasury Secretary William McAdoo orchestrated bond drives called Liberty Loans, that finance about 2/3 of the wars $35.5 billion cost. Charlie Chaplin and other movie stars promoted the cause. Schoolchildren purchase "thrift stamps" convertible into war bonds. Patriotic war songs reached millions though phonograph recording.

Who was Mary Mallon?

Typhoid Mary, chronic carrier of typhoid fever, despite having no symptoms of the disease, responsible for more than 53 cases.

What was Hay's Open Door Policy?

US Secretary of State John Hay in 1899 asked the major European powers to ensure American trading rights in China by opening the ports in their spheres of influences.

What was the Roosevelt Corollary?

US would intervene in any Latin American affair to maintain stability in western hemisphere - it was the opposite of the 1823 Monroe Doctrine. His approach was from an old African proverb, "Speak softly and carry a big stick."

What university did John D. Rockefeller donate more than 80 million to in his lifetime?

University of Chicago

What was the research university?

Unlike the best of the mid-nineteenth-century colleges, which focused on teaching Latin and Greek, theology, logic, and mathematics, the new research universities offered courses in a wide variety of subject areas, established professional schools, and encouraged faculty members to pursue basic research.

How did the medical education field change in the 1880s and 1890s?

Using the experimental method developed by German scientists, they insisted that all medical students be trained in biology, chemistry, and physics, including working in a laboratory.

What was the voter turnout in the late 1800s?

Usually 80% of white males voted and in close elections it went as high as 95%.

How did Chester A. Arthur become Garfield's running mate?

When Congressman James A. Garfield won the 1880 Republican presidential nomination, the delegates, to appease the opposing New York faction, chose Chester A. Arthur, the loyalist Hayes had recently fired, as Garfield's running mate. Because Garfield enjoyed excellent health, the choice of the totally unqualified Arthur seemed safe.

What caused the US to go to war in WWI in 1917?

Wilson believed a peaceful, democratic, and capitalist world order would not be possible if Germany won the war. He believed that the US need to have a role in the postwar settlement which meant America must fight in the war. When the war began Britain declared the North Sea a war zone and planted it with explosive mines. However it was in February in 1915 when Germany declared the waters around Great Britain a war zone that Wilson responded. He said Germany would be accountable for any loss of US vessels or lives. In May 1915, a German U-boat sunk a British liner, the Lusitania off Ireland, killing 1,198 people including 128 Americans. Many Americans were now ready for war. By late 1915, Wilson himself called for military buildup. US Banks support for the Allies eroded the principle of neutrality. By April 1917 US banks had lent the Allies 2.3 billion in contrast to $27 million in Germany. Some still wanted peace. Henry Ford chartered a vessel to take a group of pacifists to Scandinavia. Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan resigned in June 1915.

How did Wilson react to the Pancho Villa uprising?

Wilson dispatched a punitive expedition under General John J. Pershing. When Villa eluded Pershing and brazenly staged another cross-border raid into Texas, Wilson ordered 150,000 National Guardsmen to the border—a massive response that stirred anti-American feelings among Mexico's poor, for whom Villa was a folk hero. Villa ended his raids in 1920 when the Mexican government gave him a large land grant, but he was soon assassinated.

What did Wilson do in response to upheavals in Haiti and the Dominican Republic in 1915?

Wilson sent in U.S. marines, who brutally suppressed Haitians who resisted. A Haitian constitution favorable to U.S. commercial interests was overwhelmingly ratified in a 1918 vote supervised by the marines. The marines occupied the Dominican Republic until 1924 and Haiti until 1934.

What was the Underwood-Simmons Tarriff?

Wilson's bill to lower tarriffs. When the senate didn't want to pass the bill, Wilson denounced all of the lobbyists flooding into Washington. This censure hurt the Senate's publicity and they ended slashing the tarriffs even more than the House.

How did Wilson conceal his stroke from the public?

Wilson's first wife had died in 1914. His strong-willed second wife, Edith Galt, played a crucial behind-the-scenes role during this crisis. She concealed Wilson's condition from the public, controlled his access to information, and decided who could see him, barring cabinet members, diplomats, and congressional leaders. When one leader seeking a meeting urged Mrs. Wilson to consider "the welfare of the country," she snapped, "I am not thinking of the country now, I am thinking of my husband." (The Twenty-fifth Amendment, addressing issues of presidential disability, was not adopted until 1967.)

How did Wilson respond to the murder of democratic reformer Francisco Madero by Mexican troops loyal to General Victoriano Huerta, a full-blooded Indian?

Wilson's response focused on protecting the forty thousand U.S. citizens who had settled in Mexico under Díaz's regime and safeguarding the U.S. investors who had poured some $2 billion into Mexican oil wells and other ventures. Reversing the long-standing U.S. practice of recognizing all governments, Wilson refused to recognize Huerta's "government of butchers." Authorizing arms sales to General Venustiano Carranza, Huerta's rival, Wilson ordered the port of Veracruz blockaded to prevent a shipment of German arms from reaching Huerta. Announced Wilson: "I am going to teach the South American republics to elect good men." In April 1914, seven thousand U.S. troops occupied Veracruz and battled Huerta's forces. Sixty-five Americans and approximately five hundred Mexicans were killed or wounded. Bowing to U.S. might, Huerta abdicated; Carranza took power; and the troops withdrew.

How did the Victorian code impact the class structure?

With its emphasis on morals, manners, and proper behavior it heightened the sense of class differences and created visible distinctions among social groups. Victorian Americans made bold claims about their interest in helping others improve themselves. More often than not, however, their self-righteous, intensely moralistic outlook simply widened the gap that income disparities had already opened.

How was the "Woman's Sphere" enlarged in the early 20th century?

Women promoted an array of reforms from campaigns to bring playgrounds and day nurseries to slums, abolish child labor, and ban unsafe foods and quack remedies. Some reformers challenged laws banning the distribution of contraceptives and birth control Birth-control and sex-education movements stand as important legacies of progressivism, but at the time conservatives and religious leaders bitterly opposed them. Women also began working in different industries.

What were the gender roles during the Victorian era?

Women were the driving force for moral improvement. While men were expected to engage in self-disciplined, "manly" dedication to the new industrial order, women would provide the gentle, elevating influence that would lead society in its upward march. A network of institutions, from elegant department stores and hotels to elite colleges and universities, reinforced the privileged position of these groups.

When and how did California approve woman suffrage?

Women's clubs shifted their earlier cultural and domestic focus to reform, especially on city-government and public-school issues. In the process many women activists concluded that full citizenship meant the right to vote. In 1911 California voters approved woman suffrage.

What was the Versailles Peace Conference?

Woodrow Wilson (the first sitting President to go abroad), Italy's Vittorio Orlando, France's Georges Clemenceau, and England's David Lloyd George were among those attending. The French and British were determined to punish Germany for their nations' wartime losses. Germany was disarmed, stripped of its colonies, forced to admit sole blame for the war, and saddled with staggering reparation payments. France regained border provinces lost to Germany in 1871 and took control of the coal-rich Saar Basin for 15 years. The treaty demilitarized Germany's western border and transferred a slice of eastern Germany to Poland. These provisions cost Germany one-tenth of its population and one-eighth of its territory. The treaty gave Italy a slice of Austria that contained two hundred thousand German-speaking inhabitants. These harsh terms, bitterly resented in Germany, planted the seeds of World War II.

What was The Passing of the Great Race (1916)?

Written by Madison Grant, a prominent progressive and eugenics advocate, he used bogus data to denounce immigrants from southern and eastern Europe, especially Jews. He also viewed African Americans as inferior. Anticipating the program of Adolf Hitler in the 1930s, Grant called for racial segregation, immigration restriction, and the forced sterilization of the "unfit," including "worthless race types." The vogue of eugenics gave "scientific" respectability to racism and anti-immigrant sentiment.

What was The Jungle?

Written in 1906 by Upton Sinclair, it graphically described conditions in some meatpacking plats.

In which states could women vote in 1910?

Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, and Idaho.

Did Theodore Roosevelt enjoy the presidency?

Yes, he enjoyed public life and loved the limelight. With his toothy grin, machine-gun speech, and amazing energy, he dominated the political landscape. When he refused to shoot a bear cub on a hunting trip, a shrewd toy maker marketed a cuddly new product, the Teddy Bear.

Who led the migration from farms to cities in the late 19th to early 20th century and why?

Young farm women because of the growing mechanization of farming in the late nineteenth century, farming was increasingly male work. Rising sales of factory-produced goods through nationally distributed mail-order catalogs reduced the need for rural women's labor

How did middle-class women fare in the cities in the early 1900s?

Young unmarried women became schoolteachers, secretaries, typists, clerks, and telephone operators. The number of women in white color jobs and college educated women tripled from 1900 to 1920. Middle-class married women often experienced stress and loneliness. The divorce rate rose from 1 in 12 to 1 in 9 between 1900 and 1916. Many of the women from both groups joined into a revived women's movement.

What was the cult of domesticity?

a widespread cultural creed that glorified the customary functions of the homemaker

What is a push factor?

condition that drives people from their homeland

What was the involvement of black troops in Cuba?

everal thousand black troops fought in Cuba. Some, such as the Twenty-fourth Infantry and Tenth Cavalry, were seasoned regular army "buffalo soldiers" transferred from bases in the West. Others were volunteers from various states. At assembly points in Georgia, and then at the embarkation port of Tampa, Florida, these troops encountered the racism of a Jim Crow society. Tampa restaurants and bars refused them service; Tampa whites disparaged them. On June 6, after weeks of racist treatment, some black troops exploded in riotous rage, storming into restaurants, bars, and other establishments that had barred them. White troops from Georgia restored order. Although white and black troops sailed to Cuba on the same transport ships (actually, hastily converted freighters), the ships themselves were segregated, with black troops often confined to the lowest quarters in the stifling heat, denied permission to mingle on deck with the other units, and in other ways discriminated against. Despite the racism, African Americans served with distinction once they reached Cuba. Black troops played key roles in the taking of both San Juan Hill and El Caney Hill. Of the total U.S. troops involved in the latter action, some 15 percent were black.

How did the Depression of 1893 - 1897 affect the country?

he crisis took a heavy human toll. Industrial unemployment soared into the 20-25 percent range, leaving millions of factory workers with no money to feed their families and heat their homes. Recent immigrants faced disaster. Jobless men tramped the streets and rode freight trains from city to city seeking work. The unusually harsh winters of 1893 and 1894 made matters worse. In New York City, where the crisis quickly swamped local relief agencies, a minister reported actual starvation. Rural America, already hard-hit by declining agricultural prices, faced ruin. Farm prices dropped by more than 20 percent between 1890 and 1896. Corn plummeted from fifty cents to twenty-one cents a bushel; wheat, from eighty-four cents to fifty-one cents. Cotton sold for five cents a pound in 1894. Many protests started such as the Pullman strike in Chicago and a march on Washington by self-taught monetary expert Jacob Coxey. The depression also helped reorient social thought. Middle-class charitable workers, long convinced that individual character flaws caused poverty, now realized—as socialists proclaimed and as the poor well knew—that even sober and hardworking people could succumb to economic forces beyond their control. Laissez-faire ideology weakened too, as many depression-worn Americans adopted a broadened view of the government's role in dealing with the social consequences of industrialization. The depression, in short, not only brought suffering, it also taught lessons.

What were the three major symbolic and economic issues that preoccupied lawmakers nationally in the late 1800s?

the tariff, the money supply, and civil-service reform