HIST 2220 Exam 2

Battle of Saipan

a. Most devastating engagement of the war for Japan b. Japan stationed 32,000 troops on this tiny island; > 1,000 survived -Defenders were tightly clustered c. This was a very ferocious battle -The Japanese were entrenched in caves in the mountains (beaches and cliffs on the island) d. First massive performance of what we increasingly see e. "Banzai cliffs" f. The U.S. had superior manpower and superior weaponry -Continual refreshment with seas around them g. Result: Japan lost Saipan, opening up the home islands to serious bombing h. → Kamikaze

CONCEPTS:

10/21/13 ->

Twenty-One Demands

a. 1915 b. Japan's 21 demands are an attempt to secure privileges that it already has and an attempt to take more privileges c. Significant: Japan wants to extend the lease of the KLT -25 -> 99 years (be returned in 1997) -KLT went back to Chinese sovereignties in the 50s d. China had no choice but to sign because there was no way to resist -Asked to keep the demands secret -Fearing Russia and Western powers would intervene on China's side -Japan getting too powerful -1915, Russia is trying/failing in war with Germany e. Provides Japan with more secure tenure of KLT f. Situation continues until 1927 when Internationalist Decade comes to an end with the ousting of Shidehara -Japan takes fatal turn toward conservatism

Internationalist Decade

a. 1920s b. Refers to Japan's stance of seeking positive and peaceful engagement with the outside world -We haven't seen this before -Prior to this, we have the era of Sakoku (or, policy of isolation) c. A time during which Japan sought peaceful and positive engagement with the outside world d. After 1931, Japan's decent into fascism was quite rapid -The roots of this fascist term were present during the Internationalist Decades as well -The 1920s appeared to be a fairly peaceful, liberal, and cooperative time in Japan's foreign relations e. Characteristics: -Cultural rule -Shidehara Diplomacy -Peaceful relations with China (China has been someway involved in all of Japan's imperialist wars f. Subject to contestation -This was a time during which many developments are laying the groundwork for the fascism that comes in the 1930s -Really only 1918-1927 g. Internationalist Decade comes to an end with the ousting of Shidehara in 1927

Tripartite Pact

a. 1940 b. In prosecuting war on China, Japan would like allies: Germany; Italy (commonly described as fascist) c. Weak alliance throughout -Allies, but in the sense that they will only come to each others aid if they are attacked by a party with whom they are not currently at war -Fundamentally an alliance against the U.S. d. Leads to a resolution of the waging conflict of where Japan should go next -Army wants to march into the Soviet Union -Navy wants to march into Pacific and Southeast Asia e. Japan feels a greater sense of security in expanding South -Mid-1941, conflict is temporarily resolved in favor of navy's expansion route -→ Needs more resources -Japan was still at war with China from 1937-1945 -China was fighting to save still-holding land and reclaim overtaken land by Japanese f. Advantage of South East Asia invasion: -By the 1940s, much of this area is under colonial role -Not well defended colonies -Easy conquest g. 1941, Dutch East Indies looked attractive with lots of oil -Process of disillusionment -Japan was not there as common Asian brothers to lead an Asian renaissance, but to overcome -United States meets Japan in the Dutch East Indies -Responds by embargoing its own petroleum exports to Japan -Shutting down Japan (dependent on this) in China and South East Asia h. → Next major turning point in WWII -United States want Japan to withdraw from China and Dutch East Indies -Can't do this without losing face, but can't sustain embargo on petroleum -Japan must invade the rest of South East Asia for oil -→ Pearl Harbor

Pearl Harbor

a. 1941 b. Japan had to either persuade U.S. to remove embargo, or keep invading South East Asia -Any advance would upset balance of power in the region, make the Japanese too powerful, and threatens U.S.'s interest in the Philippines -Would be met with U.S. opposition c. The Japanese military was much larger than the U.S. military at this time -Superpower not based on military might -No interest in further wars -Military approximately the size of Sweden d. Officials choose Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, to attack -Annexation of Hawaii was on Japan's mind -Grounded in the idea that Hawaii should be Japan's -Japan exported surplus population to Hawaii, etc. -U.S. was in the process of colonizing it and needed laborers for sugar plantations e. Japan resolves that it's going to launch a strike to try and take the U.S. Navy out of the equation and groom Hawaii for invasion -Thought that if Japan could wipe out the navy as much as possible, the U.S. would consider treaty and resume petroleum exports f. December 7, 1941, Japan launched an invasion -Broke off diplomatic relations minutes before the strike -So it couldn't be considered a sneak attack -Much of U.S.'s aircraft careers survived and were decisive of the U.S. sustaining core of its navy -Not tactically brilliant for the Japanese -Most that was lost was pretty outdated -Incentive to replace it -400 aircrafts, 4,575 servicemen lost -Damage experienced at Pearl Harbor was heavy -"Fantasy plans" of Japan taking over even California g. Result: -Bring U.S. into WWII with public opinion in favor -FDR goes to Congress the next day and is granted declaration of war h. Japan seeks to capitalize on this period of U.S. weakness -→ Advances into more Asia countries -Minus Thailand (independent kingdom), invasions are presented as liberation of countries from Western domination -Japanese colonization of these countries does not get far -Japanese are in some context regarded as being instrumental in the independence struggles of South East Asia -Counter narratives that Japan was worse than West i. Japan loses colonies in South East Asia after the war

Resurgence of Militarism in the Post-War Period

a. 1945-present b. Lead by Mishima Yukio c. Efforts to separate contemporary Japan from post-war -Unsuccessful d. 1970s, national self-confidence expressed in the resurgence of militarism -Economic in nature e. Resurgence of a desire to play a larger role in world affairs -Gives rise to a tendency toward the resurge of militarism f. Endurance of the Imperial Institution -Exceedingly unpopular outside of Japan -Right uphold the Emperor as divine -Majority wants to see the Emperor gone -Today, only exercises symbolic authority

Dōka

a. 20th century Japan -By 1910, Japan has four colonies (of sorts): Okinawa, Taiwan, KLT, Korea -Imperialism is both a key feature and enabler -Imperialism is made possible through the military -Imperialism generates incentives for the population to give more support to the military -Colonial possessions are seen as a sense of glory -Self-perpetuating cycle through 1945 b. Colonial administration -Goals: Mission to civilize; assimilation c. Mission to civilize: -The West is bringing civilization and enlightenment to the rest -Functions as a key justification -Rhetoric that they were trying to uplift colonial subjects made imperialism look more altruistic -Even though many colonial rulers were exploitive and in it for themselves d. Assimilation: -Part of the Euro-American mission to civilize -Fundamentally the idea that somebody can be made to behave and resemble the European-American subject -Industrialize, etc. -Western powers did not believe this was achievable -Fundamental tension between what they wanted (assimilation) between what they thought was possible (a mild form of assimilation); racist time -Japan believes its colonial subjects could be assimilated, despite its racist beliefs -The Japanese sought to play up arguments and find evidence that they were related to Taiwan and Korea because it gave them justification for ruling them -Some right to administer them -It's ethnically related to colonial subjects - Japan's sense of this brings more optimism that they can be assimilated (Dōka) -Tension: If they are related, they should be equal (this logic functions to put imperialism out of business - capable of independence) e. Dōka: "Making the same"

Puppet State

a. A state (political government) in which the major policy decisions are made by a foreign government -In this case, the Japanese Kwantung Army over Manchukuo b. In contrast to the colonies where the Japanese government in Tokyo was expected to be consulted on major decisions being made there, in Manchukuo, theoretically the Japanese government does not have any say, only the Kwantung Army -Ensure that bureaucrats in Tokyo won't have any say of what goes on there -Fullest realization of military state -The army does not want to be seen as a dominant power, however c. Seeks recognition from other states -Failure

Mukden Incident

a. Army officers travel to the city of Mukden and secretly plant bombs on the railway tracks -These are Japanese railways -Japan built railway lines through North East China to move goods around (soybeans) b. Following the explosion, Japan blames Chinese sedition and uses this as an excuse for the entire Kwantung Army to break out of KLT confines and conquer more land -Manchuria was not near the Chinese capital, however -Although China could have been expected to resist, most of Manchuria was taken over with very little resistance from the Chinese army (but, there was guerrilla resistance for local Chinese) -Japan never fully pacified this area c. This is remembered as 9/18, for the date in which it took place d. Today, this is seen as the starting point of the Fifteen Years' War -Idea that China and Japan were at war with each other from the time of the Mukden Incident to 1945 when the Japanese Empire was defeated -Not continuous with unbroken fighting e. Result: 6 months to pacify this area -March 1, 1932: Establishment of the state of Manchukuo

Victim Consciousness

a. Atomic Bomb -The U.S., like Germany and the Soviet Union, had an atomic program that was more swiftly successful in bringing about the possibilities of nuclear weapons b. Dropping of the atomic bomb: -August 6, 1945: Hiroshima - ~150,000 deaths; crew: Enola Gay -August 9, 1945: Nagasaki: ~75,000 deaths; preferred target was overcast c. First and only times in history that atomic weapons were used d. Historiographical issues: -Should the U.S. have dropped the bombs? - Favor: It would have been unpardonable for Truman to have these weapons and nonetheless sacrifice American lives -Could Nagasaki, at least, have been avoided? - Timing to an extent -Get Japan out of the war faster before U.S.S.R. got closer -Show for the Soviet Union -We couldn't bomb the Soviet Union -Demonstration of weaponry and willingness to use -How important were the atomic bombs to Japan's decision to surrender? -Since the Allies ultimately chose to retain the Emperor, what was the point of holding out for unconditional surrender? -How did the bombs give rise to a "victim consciousness" among the Japanese, and has that mentality affected postwar Japan? e. Historio-graphical points: -Ultimately, the Japanese did surrender unconditionally -But, the Emperor was not done away with -The Imperial Institution remained at the center of the Japanese polity -The legacy of victim consciousness f. Victim consciousness -Idea that Japan was the victim, not the aggressor, of World War II -Perspective is expressed through two atomic bomb attacks

Treaty of Portsmouth

a. August 1905 b. Negotiated by Theodore Roosevelt, ending this war c. Russia agrees not to meddle with Japan in Korea -Japan forms Protectorate over Korea in 1905 -Korea is made a colony in 1910 d. Japan gets the KLT with its principle city of Port Arthur as a leasehold -Japan is expecting this place for ~18 years, 1923 -Japan stations the Kwantung Army in KLT (military administration) e. Japan gets the Southern half of the Islands of Sakhalin f. Japan does not get an indemnity as a result of this war -Japan had to borrow heavily in foreign markets to afford this war g. Problematic: -Japan felt it did not get all it deserved -The Japanese public believes that its negotiating position is stronger than it actually is, and when the terms of the treaty are released, we have widespread public rioting breaking out (Hibiya Riot)

Pu Yi

a. Brought in to legitimize Japanese control in Manchukuo b. China's last emperor; Manchu -Ruled by dynasty until 1911 -Deposed and stripped of power -The Japanese kidnap him and raised under Japanese care as a kid because of fear c. Pu Yi has determination to restore his family to Chinese throne d. Regarded Manchukuo as his home -Japanese restore him to head of state of Manchukuo, while the Kwantung Army is pulling the strings -Enthroned as emperor -Drug addiction e. Cover of legitimacy that Japan uses to cloak the rule of the Kwantung Army

Hibiya Riot

a. Central, most intense, and longest sustained riot b. Hibiya is the government district in Tokyo -First modern Western-style park c. Tremendously destabilizing for Japan d. The people are simply inflamed -3 days of urban terror -Directed from above e. Constant speechifying: -17 people are killed; 311 are arrested; 15 trams are overturned (standstill); 70% of Tokyo police stations are destroyed; newspapers are attacked because they provide bad information during the conflict of the war; and there is violence throughout Japan in all of the major cities -Manifestation of democratic activism -Highlights the limitations of democracy or democratic conceptualization in late Meiji Japan -Violence is the only answer -Most families are touched by loss (i.e., family members, money, etc.) f. Russo-Japanese War is a disappointment compared to the Sino-Japanese War -Despite defeating a Western power -However, still enormous press coverage internationally -First well-recorded battle -Age of modern journalism (photo journalism; third party nations are interested) -Displays physical-style combat -Impact of Western world raising notoriety to Japan was tremendous -All of the colonized world was inspired that an Asian nation could rise up and defeat a white-Western power -Inspiring to these countries that had been placed under colonization by Western powers -Gave hope to the colonized world -Japan as the liberator of colonial societies

Pacific War

a. Chronological Order: -1895-1945: Sino Japanese War - World War II -Fifteen Years War 1932-1937: Japan is not at war with an enemy -1937-1945: Pacific War -1941-945: World War II b. Marco Polo Bridge Incident c. Nanjing Massacre

Crimes Against Humanity

a. Crimes committed against civilians by anybody, but committed within a period of war b. Ex: In the context of the U.S. invasion of Okinawa, the Japanese army enforced a policy of suicide against natives

Banzai Cliffs

a. Death of approximately 10,000 civilians on the island b. Saipan had been a Japanese possession for a quarter of a century by the time this battle took place -Good place to develop sugar plantations -Employed native Okinawans -Small population of native Micronesians c. As the U.S. took over this island, the Japanese navy rounded up all of the civilians, marched them to the cliffs, and forced them to jump off -Element of propaganda -Some felt they were fulfilling their destiny as imperial citizens -Coercion to follow through on their obligation to kill themselves -Told them the U.S. would slaughter, rape, and pillage the citizens, but the U.S. made attempts to stop this suicide -Did not want to leave anyone behind when fighting to the death

Island-Hopping

a. Drafted by Chester A. Nimitz b. Attacking an island c. U.S. bases would be set up to keep possession of d. Serve as the basis for the next attack on the next island -Begin on the perimeter of the empire -Then, work your way inwards (toward Japan)

Kamikaze

a. During the Battle of Saipan b. "Divine wind" c. First used to refer to the typhoon the blew the Mongol invaders away -Viewed in a different way ~1945 d. "Suicide bombers" -The idea that you will give your life to protect the Japanese empire by crashing with your ammunition e. Seen as fierce by the U.S. f. Logical extension of military culture at the time -Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors told everyone who was conscripted that they were going to die -Being in the army was basically offering yourself to the state -Being a kamikaze is not much different g. The distinction between suicide and death is blurry h. These weren't the soldiers that people had no use for; these were shining examples (the best of the best) -Meant to be the brains and the elites of the society -Students (humanities majors, not science majors) infused with this idea that it was their job to defend the home islands -Because they're students, they're all friends with each other -Domino effect: when one friend goes, so does the other -Large economic reward paid to kamikaze families -Defend your individual family and national family (with the emperor as the head) -> 3% of kamikaze attacks ended up hitting the target -Unsuccessful from the U.S. perspective-Most attacks were done failure because your best resources were not used for a one-way trip to death -A lot of planes / ships would crash beforehand -Supplies was the limiting factor i. Taking the idea that Japan will defend itself to the death to another extreme -Moral exemplar used for show -No discrimination or strategy, just an example for the rest j. Genocidal war -Nothing was held back, and everything was thrown into the fight for victory -Average age was ~23 k. Because the Japanese couldn't afford to fuel Battleship Yamato, it was sent out on a kamikaze mission -Appealing target because it is so big -U.S. would not leave it alone -Keeping America away is the goal, and it has to be done now before the bombs fall on Tokyo

Nanjing Massacre

a. During the Pacific War b. By the end of 1937, Japan has 700,000 troops in China, and increasing -War of attrition; quicksand -Extremely frustrating for Japan -Expectation of inferiority -Reap the benefits of quick empire building, as they've done for the past 40 years -Powder keg that is unleashed upon the civilian population c. Nanjing Massacre -Rape of Nanjing d. Plot: -Japan had been locked in a stalemate with China for 6 months -Was not going as well -When Japanese troops broke through Chinese capital at Nanjing, the result was this massacre -Frustration was not solely responsible for this -Japan continued to advance West -Soon became a quagmire (attrition) -Faced great deal of resentment from: Chinese military; local peasants (burning the resources they left behind) -The rest of the Pacific War is predetermined by the sheer need for resources to win the war in which it was already engaged e. Outcome: -Tripartite Pact

Banzai Charge

a. During the Russo-Japanese War b. "10,000 years" -Of the Emperor c. Rallying cry of long live the Emperor d. In order to produce this siege, General Nogi orders banzai charges -Japanese troops landing on the sea, drawing their bayonets, running up hill, yelling banzai

SDF (Self Defense Force)

a. End of the Occupation b. Success -False: Having the power to dictate choices in society will result in the right choices being made is -Successful in terms of fulfilling its own stated objectives c. Evaluation: -Legacies traced back to the occupation -But not a complete success -Japan was completely beaten -The old order was completely delegitimized -The fact that Japan was so completely anguished meant that there was no attachment to that order afterwards -People wanted change, because what they had needed to go -MacArthur and the U.S. approached the project as one of mutual benefit, rather than punishment -Not thought of to punish Japan -The misery the population was suffering was palpable -They suffered for whatever crimes they committed -Both sides had an interest in making it work: Pragmatic collaboration allowed for both change and continuity -Japan did not want to remain under the sovereignty of the U.S. forever -Similarly, the U.S. had a clearly defined agenda on how to use Japan in the emerging Cold War times d. Legacy of the Occupation in Terms of the Japanese Military and Militarism e. Post-war period: -Schism between the military and militarism -Military: Basically neutered -Militarism: Grows among the population (1970s) f. Military: -In 1950, Japan created a police force: Basis for the return of an army -National Police Reserve → -SDF: Self Defense Force -Japan, constitutionally, has no right to maintain a military -Acceptable loophole in the Constitution -Did not deploy abroad until the 2000s in Iraq -Not popular -Done under U.S. pressure -Impractical for any nation-state to not have a standing military -Fewer U.S. troops to stay in Japan to keep the peace as many troops were in Korea -By 2005, it has the 4th largest military budget in the world -Consists of: Land, air, and sea forces -Army is the largest -Technically, this military should not exist at all -So, what's the point? Non-combat operations; disaster rescues; infrastructure projects; occasionally deployed abroad for peacekeeping missions -Militarism in self-defense forces is low -Reform the Constitution and amend it to align with reality g. Militarism: -As Japan gets richer, nationalism grows -Not tied to the military

Zaibatsu

a. Fascist characteristic of corporatist economic ideology b. Businesses: zaibatsu (big monopolies) c. Horizontally/vertically integrated corporations -Horizontal: refers to a company that has a monopoly over all of the inputs of production at one level -Vertical: refers to a company that has a monopoly at every stage of the production process

U.S. - Japan Mutual Security Treaty (ANPO)

a. Full sovereignty to Japan will be restored in 1952 b. Japan will lose occupiers c. More or less business as usual, however d. Places Japan under nuclear umbrella of the U.S. -Japan will be independent, but won't go "red" (preventative) -Remain within first world, despite San Francisco Treaty -Bases become source of controversy -Particularly in Okinawa, which was not a part of ANPO -Remainaed under U.S. sovereignty -Originally independent, and then: -Taken over by Japan -Not liberated along with the rest of the colonies in 1945 -Kept as part of Japan occupied by the U.S. -In 1952 it remains under U.S. control -1972 it reverts to Japanese control e. Allow for the enactment of the Yoshida Doctrine -If Japan had to maintain its own military force, economic recovery would have been significantly slower

Nogi Maresuke

a. General during the Russo-Japanese War b. Looking for a chance to restore his honor c. He was a terrible general d. The fate of General Nogi: -Nogi and his wife committed the practice that was banned by the Tokugawa government in the 17th century (destabilizing; object of authority should be the Shōgenette), known as jūnshi -Jūnshi: Your lord died, and you have no object for your loyalty now, so you follow him into death -Nogi: Belly-slitting; wife: throat-slitting e. Why did he commit jūnshi? -Both of his sons were killed at Port Arthur -Suffered of his poor judgment -Idea that his lineage would no longer continue -He was never able to overcome the shame of his loss in Taiwan

Midway Island

a. High point of Japan's empire (of imperialism): -Spring of 1942, takes over islands all the way to Aleutian Islands and within 1,000 miles of Hawaii - Midway Island -Japan wants this island as springboard for Hawaiian invasion -Japan is crushed here b. First major battle lost in WWII -May 1942 c. Japan loses supremacy on the high seas -Steady trend toward isolation -Different parts of the empire, military branches unable to communicate -Supplies not reaching destinations d. Extent: -Largest the Japanese empire had reached -East and South East Asia -Japan's supremacy on the high seas ended with the battle of Midway -Mid-1942 and on → Japan lost more than it won -Japan is more or less in a defensive position -See an impact of the war in a negative sense on the home islands -Point at which wartime shortages begin to make themselves felt -Most commodities were under a system of rationing -Heightened levels of censorship -What people could say -What people could publish e. Engagements: -United States outlined a plan for how they would defeat Japan -Battling on the islands (mostly) -Admiral Chester A. Nimitz: Drafted the idea of island hopping Themes of post-war Japanese literature: Cannibalism -Tragedy of Japanese forces that people wanted to come to terms with after the war -Dominant theme that came out of island hopping -Most prevalent example of cannibalism -As the U.S. became increasingly sure of victory nearing the end of the war, there were convincing efforts of the Japanese to not fight to the death -Wasted sacrifice -In order to conserve its energy while island hopping, the U.S. focused on the most strategic islands within each chain -One that would give the U.S. ability to control the whole chain -Within 2 years of establishing control of the whole seas, the U.S. is in striking distance of Japan -→ Battle of Saipan (1944)

Kishi Nobusuke

a. In charge of the economic policy of Manchukuo b. Arrested as a war criminal, but released without trial c. Following which, he entered politics d. Became the Japanese Prime Minister e. Became staunch ally of the U.S. f. Remained a conservative his whole life

Unit 731

a. Issue of medical experiments on soldiers / civilians on 15 Years War -Unit 731 b. Army unit of the Kwantung Army -Medical unit -Mission to cure cholera (water born disease that affects gastro-intestinal) -Interest with death in the name of science -Stationed in Manchuria -Answers only to the emperor -Civilian politicians able to claim they didn't know -Funded by the Imperial House -In addition to drug-trafficking money c. Chinese subjects were involved because they were inferior (Japanese lives were respected) -Widespread phenomenon of Japanese military d. Studies were published as experimented on animals -Not written up as studies performed on humans because it would not be internationally accepted -Illustrates the doctors knew what they were doing was ethically wrong e. Dehumanizing strategy: Regarding subjects as "logs" f. Suggested ~3,000 people died g. As the Russians invaded from the North in WWII, the facility was blown up to cover-up their actions -The entire Japanese medical establishment was colluding in this (published in top Japanese scientific peer reviews) h. Corollary: When these doctors fell into the hands of the U.S. in the post WWII period, they were offered immunity for their data -Fear they would turn information to Soviets -Result: No possible use of this data i. Explanations: -Context of early 20th century medical practice -Medical ethics was a less developed field than it is today -Doctors were seen as a very elite class -Provide service to the public -Underdeveloped concept of patient permission -Idea that the individuals needs could be subordinated to society's needs -Neo-Confucianism: doing work for the good of society; acceptable sacrifice -Limits: Fed by racism -Operates outside the Japanese home island -Manchuria is full of medical violations -Tomb raiding j. Within the context of the Japanese empire, Unit 731 was extreme; not all doctors participated in atrocities -Bolster legitimacy of imperial rule -Cure cholera, the plague; etc. k. Outcome: -Unit 731 was blown up by the Japanese as Soviets approached -There were buried corpses, so it was advised to destroy evidence -It is now a designated memorial site

Kwantung Leased Territory

a. Japan in China -Japan took over KLT in 1905 -Leasehold -Reacquired after Russo-Japanese War b. The KLT was somewhat thought as not very profitable -Making the KLT port profitable, it will be expensive for Japan -Japan gives it up in 25 years -But you can't abandon it because it has been consecrated in battle twice -Japan makes the best of this situation and builds up territory as the base for the Kwantung Army (who are responsible for the siege of Port Arthur) c. Colonialism in the KLT -Net result is that there is no real discourse of Dōka for Chinese living in KLT -Efforts to build up this territory as modern-Western showplace of Japanese enlightenment: Use of brick in architecture; no Greco-Roman columns; fascist (plainer, more austere, more accessible to the people) -High court (1910) vs. district court (1925) -Penal colony: Prison workshop d. Social costs of Japanese Manchuria, Taiwan, and Korea: Drug trafficking -Japan continues to sell opium when Britain stops -Morphine/heroine e. 1911, China went through a revolution that overthrew the ruling imperial dynasty -1916, China had no effective central government -Former Chinese empire became prominence of warlords -Unified at the end of the 1920s -Japan saw this as negative and positive -Positive: China is not governed by a strong central authority so Japan can go a little further, take a little more; piratical way -Negative: Chinese government can't intervene to guarantee Japanese privileges in China; Ex: safely sailing in and out of ports f. 1927: Japan stationed Japanese army in KLT -Japan has standing army (Kwantung Army) in the Asia continent -Japan has had a standing army in the KLT for the duration of its possession of this territory -Army presence in Taiwan and Korea as well -Having these armies stationed in the empire begs for their use -We see a shift towards aggressive policy (1931)

Marco Polo Bridge Incident

a. Japanese troops of the Kwantung Army have been stationed in Manchukuo b. By 1937, rise in climate of militarism -March to the outskirts of Beijing -Chinese capital: Nanjing (Southern capital) -Touch off a series of battles that ultimately spread through North and Central China -Beginning of Japan's undeclared war c. "China Incident" -Kwantung Army had the goal of taking over all of China -Trying to conquer China suffers from the same problem of trying to conquer Russia: too big d. Response: -The peasants that occupy the area steadily facing encroachment flee with everything they can grab and burn the rest -Army didn't predict this war to be long -Brought not supplies, which created suffering for the Kwantung Army -The various Chinese factions of the government set aside their differences and cooperate in the fight (not very good cooperation) -Factions believed they would prevail over Japan and then fight to the death over China -Slow, bloody process of resistance -Japan is resisted by everybody -They are not being welcomed at all as liberators, etc. -The more territory you take, the more troops you need to hold it -Fewer troops on the front line -Sending resources from Manchuria

Manchukuo

a. Manchukuo was the establishment from Manchuria after the Mukden Incident b. Why is Manchukuo established as a nation rather than a colony? -After the Treaty of Versailles, imperialism was on a downward slope -The idea in Japan after 1919, colonial subjects should be groomed for eventual independence and national self-determination -Japan thought that creating Manchukuo as a colony would be internationally unpopular as imperialism was going out of style -Politically difficult to not create it as a state c. "Homeland of the Manchu's" -Deserves the right of self-rule d. By the time Japan creates Manchukuo as a nation, the population is well over 90% Chinese -The Manchu population was only a very small percentage of the actual population of Manchuria e. Manchukuo: Puppet state f. Legitimizer of Japanese control in Manchukuo: Pu Yi g. 1926, Hirohito (Shōwa) becomes Emperor -This is the emperor who rules from 1926-1989 -One of the longest historical reigns -Replaces his father who was mentally incompetent in some way h. League of Nations -Has to decide whether it's going to recognize the independence of Manchukuo or not -Sends a committee of inquiry to Manchukuo, but concludes that this is not a real nation and does not recognize it -1933: Japan protests this decision by withdrawing from the League of Nations -Only geopolitically unimportant states and Japan's allies recognized Manchukuo as a state i. Architecture: Fascist qualities j. Building on a massive scale -Imposing -Power of the state (big) -Army to project its power -Lack of power by the citizens (small) k. Kwantung Army headquarters is not fascist or Western-style -Manchukuo is not recognized by the West, so there is no need to do this -Reproduction of themes meant to invoke traditional Asian-style of building -Appealing to Asian subjects -Invoke sense of identification and belonging l. We don't have Dōka -In contrast to the Chinese and Koreans, Manchu's are seen as lower and un-assimilable m. 1931-1941, Japan exploited Manchukuo greatly -Mining, industrialization, etc. -Swift growth of the population

Ultranationalism

a. Maruyama Masao b. Provided book description of Unit 731: -Masao's attempt to equivocate not necessarily what had happened in Japan as fascism but describing it as ultra-nationalism -Ultra-nationalism is his way of understanding the time of Japan he was present for (coming to peace) -Apologetic attempt to account for actions, etc. -Masao was never charged c. Soldier in the Japanese army -In the post-war period, he became one of Japan's leading academic (political scientist) -Influential d. Argues along the lines of medical ethics -From the Meiji Period forward (Imperial Rescript), the state has gradually taken upon itself the sole authority to regulate moral conduct -Sole arbiter of what is good and bad -The individual is irrelevant in determining if he/she is acting morally -The state arrogates all power to judge moral conduct onto itself -The state is the emperor (divine; incapable of doing wrong) -The closer you are to the state (emperor), the more moral you are -Japanese > Koreans -Soldiers > Civilians -The very nature of the subject legitimizes violence e. Crimes against humanity and war crimes can take place because of hierarchical idea of morality -Discredited position -It gives power to no people (no agency) -Faulting the system rather than the individuals -Removes all blame from any person (excuse; dissolving the issue) f. Phenomenon: -Imperial Japan lacks resistance despite individual suppression -Non-cooperation rather than outright resistance -Heavy censorship g. This is greater than Japanese war crimes; it is there push toward total fascism

War Crimes

a. Not limited to the duration of Japan's war with China or WWII -Part of fascism and militarism as well as war b. War crime: Crime committed by one army against other military forces -Ex: Pearl Harbor -Exigencies of war can be used as a defense -VS crimes against humanity: c. Issue of the comfort women: -Japanese army throughout the 15 Years War drafted many women (several hundred thousand) of (mainly) Korean decent to euphemistically comfort the soldiers -Thought to have reduced rape -Japanese prostitutes volunteered (typically) d. Crime against humanity e. ssue of medical experiments on soldiers / civilians on 15 Years War -Unit 731 f. Legitimacy: Japan was preserving lives of its subjects -This unit was under the direction of Ishii Shirō

Washington Naval Conference

a. Part of the Shidehara Diplomacy -1902 b. Sought to prevent an arms race among the victors of WWI -U.S., Great Britain, Japan, Italy, France -Ratio: 5 : 5 : 3 : 1 : 1 c. Furious Japanese public -Shidehara was delighted (Japan: Pacific power) -Place limits on the number of warships -Didn't want to keep spending money to compete -Cheaper balance of power d. Idea after WWI that war was unpalatable and countries had to be restrained from waging it

Reverse Course

a. Peace Constitution (1946) b. Establishment: -Height of liberalism of the U.S. occupation of Japan -Reverse Course c. Reverse Course: -Japanese Constitution is more liberal than the U.S.'s -Shift toward conservatism -Determined by geo-political factors d. Conservatism -Late 1940s: We see symptoms of the Cold War -Trouble in Korea -Explode in war -U.S. senses urgency in terms of what needs to happen in Japan -Little manpower to send over to Korea -→ Problem: Origins of the Reverse Course e. How does the U.S. work around the problem of Japan never having a military? -National Police Reserve -Proxy army -U.S. military can be sent off to Korea f. SCAP retreat from leadership in Japanese archipelago -MacArthur did not want to be in Japan forever -Political ambitions to be achieved in the U.S. -From the beginnings of the operation, he was eager to get home -1950: Re-empower conservative Japanese officials to take over authority in Japan -Yoshida Shigeru (1878-1967): Empowered by MacArthur to take over the reigns of government as SCAP retreats to commit itself to Korea

San Francisco Treaty

a. Peace treaty between Japan and the U.S. that terminated WWII ii. WWII for Japan ends with the end of the occupation iii. Condition: The U.S. also imposes the →

Yoshida Doctrine

a. Philosophy of government -Economy is #1 -Economic growth is paramount, and everything must be subordinated to this goal b. Setting Japan back on its feet and putting it on a path to economic recovery was extremely important -Best way of pumping as much funding as he could into the regeneration of the economy was to avoid a military -Save the money and productively turn it into economic growth -No Japanese military -Rely on U.S. military umbrella c. Force underlying Japan's high-speed growth d. Out-performs pre-war peak, and continues to growth at an astonishing rate, becoming a model for other Asian nations e. Significance of ANPO protests, however -He was getting results, so a lesser of two evils f. → End of the occupation -San Francisco Treaty (1951) -U.S. - Japan Mutual Security Treaty (ANPO)

Kyōdatsu

a. Post-Postdam Declaration -Massive hunger, scarcity, and homelessness were a concrete reality -→ Disease outbreak -"Barracks" living -The city was bombed to shambles b. The Black Market -Theoretically an underground, illegal way to get a hold of goods subject to rationing -Parallel economy that makes these goods available in greater quantities -Nearly impossible to survive off government portions c. U.S. to send food aid to prevent mass starvation d. Problematic that the majority of the country was living in an illegal way e. Scenes remained common through the early-1960s f. Japan was expected to pay the costs of U.S. occupation -Bankrupted by war -Must pay for peace g. In such a situation of enormous distress, the psychic condition of people was quite fragile -Kyōdatsu: h. Kyōdatsu: -"Exhaustion" -Prior to 1945, used in a medical setting -The people expected death, and were living among death -Received their lives back, but living in post-war terror i. One of the dominant themes of late-1940s Japan was widespread interest in alcohol and drugs -Not readily available, so it was brewed themselves -Poisoning and blindness were common -Discovered amphetamines as a useful way to stimulate population to exert itself more effectively in factories and on the battlefield -Commercially marketed by belligerent powers -One of the U.S.'s first actions was to seize military stockpiles of methamphetamines and amphetamines -However, drugs found their way to the Japanese public -Corruption in U.S. army -Widespread availability led to the world's first meth outbreak -Mid-1950s, resolved the issue -Drug-trafficking fell into the hands of gangsters -Not a feature of normal, non-criminal Japanese -No longer an interest of the government now -Japan lost its police force after the war

General Douglas MacArthur

a. Post-War Government: b. Responsibility to supervise the occupation of Japan

SCAP

a. Post-War Government: b. SCAP: Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers -This was a person: General Douglas MacArthur c. SCAP also refers to entire U.S. presence in Japan d. Fundamentally an American show, despite "Allied Powers" -U.S.S.R. was excluded e. The paradox of the occupation of Japan: Fundamental success -Take a population in the throws of kyōdatsu, and by 1952, democratic government was established -Liberal representative government; capitalism; etc. f. Goals of the U.S. occupation of Japan (1945-1952) g. Elimination of militarism: -Essential for SCAP to wipe the slate clean -Two civilizations coming together with distorted perceptions of each other after a four-year war, and now one will be in charge of the other -Restore Japan with utilitarian goals -Not a punitive operation -No punishment -Flipside: Japanese cooperation (embrace of defeat; maximize what the U.S. will put in) -Rooting out the military establishment -.Thought that before anything new could be established, the old order had to be completely removed h. Implementing American Style democracy -The U.S. saw itself of having mission to democratize the world -Replacing militarism with U.S. style democracy as a gift to the Japanese -Important for the U.S. to establish Japan as a carbon copy of itself -Wanted to make sure that the Japanese enjoyed the same political rights as Americans -Not create a colony, but to come in and establish the kind of state that it wanted to be -Creating Japan in the image of the U.S. as it presently was in the 1940s (not back to its founding) i. Reconstitution of Japan as a Cold War ally in East Asia: -Most important goal (1947 →) -Recreating Japan as a bulwark against Communism -Establish Japan as an ally in the far east because U.S. did not have any allies there -Democratic ally on the Pacific Rim was necessary -Cooperation with U.S. foreign policy -Establish military bases -Become a part of the first world

Occupation

a. Post-War Government: -The U.S. occupied Japan for over 6 years (1945 - mid-1952)

Potsdam Declaration

a. Potsdam Conference: -July 1945, following the defeat of the Axis powers in Europe, the major Allied powers gathered together outside Berlin b. Decided what the peacetime world (after both Japan and Germany were defeated) would look like c. Decision: Japan must surrender unconditionally -No Japanese conditions will be met -Japan will be dived into segments and administered collectively by the Allied powers, but this didn't happen d. August 14, 1945 -Unconditional surrender of Japan -The Japanese citizens are not expecting defeat as the outcome -The media has been censored to display Japanese strength -Prior to August 14, the Emperor was viewed as divine, and had no war report with the population -However, it soon becomes clear that Japan will surrender -It was the Emperor's responsibility to inform the public -At noon, the public is told to be waiting at their radio -The Emperor delivers a historic broadcast: Surrender Rescript d. U.S.S.R. -Question: What is the role of the Soviet Union? -Theoretically, U.S.S.R. and Japan had neutrality pact -But, Stalin said he would attack the East, following the end of the war in the West -90-days after V.E. day, Japanese were on high alert for attack -Move troops from the West to the East -U.S. did not want U.S.S.R. to have a role in the restructuring

Yoshida Shigeru

a. Pre-war official -Dissident to pre-war regime -Followed pathway to success b. Internationalist -Friendly to the U.S. and Great Britain c. His retirement meant he avoided serving in politics in any point during which Japan was at war with the Allies that later came back to occupy it -Out of power during the years when being in power would have resulted in a jail sentence d. 1949: Briefly arrested and jailed, however -Regime turned on everyone during final vortex to dissolution -Jail sentence of one era is a credential for next e. Began as a leader in the shift away from U.S. power in Archipelago to Japanese power f. Post-war period -Returned to foreign ministry -Became Prime Minster -Did not have ultimate decision-making authority -Grooms him to take over power when SCAP is gone -Liked the idea that Japan would no longer maintain a military (enjoyed U.S. military protection) -To be a conservative means to be pro-U.S. g. Yoshida Doctrine

Surrender Rescript

a. Resulting from the Potsdamn Declaration b. The Emperor is speaking -The royal "we" -Political rhetoric c. The Emperor is taking it upon himself to convey the news and taking responsibility for the surrender -Responsible for making the decision to surrender d. Emperor surrendering comes to be viewed as him hating war all along -His generals led the country to war, not him e. Phrased in positive terms -Avoid any mention of the term "defeat" -Described as not a war of violence, but a fight of liberation -Remove selves from the tyranny of the colonial West -"The war situation has developed not necessarily to Japan's advantage, while the general trends of the world have all turned against her interest." (huge understatement) -Discuss nuclear bombs -Important to be noted because after the war it's very much debated the extent to which the atomic bombs motivated Japan in the final analysis to surrender -The outcome of continuing to fight would be ultimate collapse and obliteration for "human kind" -The Emperor is saving the world, in this Rescript -The Emperor claims to be suffering right alongside the people -"The hardships and sufferings to which Our nation is to be subjected hereafter will be certainly great." (first indication that there will be a post-war; Japanese subjects understand they will not die) -"It is according to the dictate of time and fate that We [the Emperor]..." (it is the Emperor who is finally coming down on the side of peace, ending the war himself; this is a gesture to mankind, not just the Japanese) -Public outburst is not in the interest of maintaining stability -Emperor is telling the people to stay calm and not riot -Bringing the language of the Imperial state into the postwar period, reassuring people with continuity -The Emperor is saying he isn't going anywhere, and his position has been guaranteed (we know this isn't true though; Postdam Declaration was unconditional: the Emperor is describing nothing more than his hope; must maintain public calmness) -Fundamentally the last message written by the Imperial government to the public without input of the Allies and before United States occupation f. The impact on the national psyche was profound g. Surrender was not 100% supported

Fascism

a. Rise of Fascism in Japan -Manchukuo previews what goes on in the home islands b. Today: Includes anything bad or authoritarian c. Past: 1930s Italy is the original case of fascism -During the war and after, it was decided that Germany fit the model of fascism originated by Italy d. Questions: -Is fascism a good label to describe what happens in Japan in the 1930s and in the early 1940s? -What is the relationship between "internationalism" in the 1920s and "fascism" in the 1930s? e. Concept that comes out of the literature from contemporary Italy -This term was later applied to Nazi Germany f. Characteristics: -Political authoritarianism by the "middle" -Nationalism nurtured through mass organizations -Agrarianism -Militarism -Cult of the supreme leader -Corporatist economic ideology -Social Darwinism g. Political authoritarianism by the "middle" -Middle stratum: the group of people who are below the bourgeoisie but above the proletariat -Ex: Small shop keepers -Dictatorship by this stratum of society h. Nationalism nurtured through mass organizations -Nationalism: belief the nation is central to human life and should be treated as such -Growth and cultivation of nationalism -Outcome of policies adopted well before the 1930s -Starting in Meiji Period and gaining strength through Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors -National organizations is a relatively new phenomenon -Paying to the masses at all is historically new -1920s: engage the public (still not democratic) -Rise in political parties -Creation of very large political organization with no power but meant to cultivate loyalty to the nation (discussion groups) -Not elite directed, but not resisted by the elites i. Agrarianism j. Militarism k. Cult of the supreme leader -Tōjō Hideki :Prime Minister of Japan (through 1944) -Lacked charismatic leadership style Emperor who ruled from 1926-1989: Shōwa / Hirohito, Tōjō (filling authority functions in society, but people aren't venerating him); Shōwa Period / Taishõ Period (1912-1926) -Tōjō filled political role that one would expect the cult of the supreme leader to fill l. Corporatist economic ideology -Corporatism: the control of big business over the government and their influence over political affairs -Businesses: zaibatsu (big monopolies) -To the extent on the eve of WWII, 12 families controlled 80% of Japan's wealth -One of the most monopolistic societies in history -Significant control of business by government -Rejection of individualism inherent in laissez-faire capitalism -Laissez-faire capitalism was idealized in most of the Western democracies -Democratic ideology is predicated on free market enterprise and capitalism -Corporatism rejects laissez-faire capitalism and projects the nation rather than the individual as the end beneficiary -Economic ideology that rejects communism -Rejection of Marxism m. Social Darwinism -Ideology that weak races will be dwindled out and only the strong will remain -Sees the world as a zero-sum game -There are winners and there are losers -Fascism extends Social Darwinism among nations -Ex: idea that Germany must expand -Idea to promote birth and expand the Japanese population -Motherhood becomes valorized -Subsidies to big families -Breeding strong army n. Levels of fascism: -Countryside -Cities -Elite politics o. Countryside -Within fascist ideology, the countryside is valorized -Agrarianism -In order to modernize, Westernize, and develop, Japan has accentuated urban growth -This is where "real Japan" is -Where the upstanding citizens come from -This is a nakedly self-serving ideology on the part of the state (because, the countryside was in trouble for much of the modern people) -Japan did not borrow much to finance modernization -Extracted money from the countryside -Macro-level impoverishment -Micro-level impoverishment in the family -By the 1920s, less than half of all farm families owned the land -The rest were tenant farmers (borrow the fields of somebody with enough, provide all the labor, and share in the profit) -1945, U.S. reformed land-owning system (democracy couldn't flourish) -In crisis before the 1920s, and things got worse by the advent of the Depression -The government needs to throw them a bone; make them feel like their suffering has some purpose -Purpose → Agrarian -The state does not want the farmers to revolt Pacify the farmers (overall, successful) -Growth of a young army of men who realize they have no chance in the countryside -Army prioritizes meritocracy -Celebrate young man's decision to join the military -Sending off military recruits p. Cities -Emphasis of building up the cities as Japan's modern power -At the end of the 1920s, Japan fell into the Great Depression (gold standard) -Japan's economic deterioration feeds fascism -Appealing to: Have a leader; join the army; coagulate with the middle stratum -1931, Japan begins to recovery from the Depression -Japan leaves the gold standard -Deficit spending begun early (good for the military because most of the money went there; feeds Japan's need for colonies - you need markets for all of these goods) -Invasion of Manchuria (puppet state that is economically tied to Japan) -Provides whole new market for Japan's industrial output q. Elite politics r. Early 20th century -Growth of institutions of representative government -Male suffrage becomes universal -2 major political parties: Diet: Bicameral (akin to U.S. Congress; elites vote for upper house; the masses vote for the lower house - seen by some as evidence of growth of democracy/peaceful, cooperative, internationally oriented, etc.) s. 1930s: Stifling all these trends -From the perspective of elite politics, it would be hard to see the 1930s as growth in a direction toward representative government t. 1936 Incident -February 26, 1936 -Turning point in the development of Japanese fascism -Elite politics take a "fascist" turn -Date of attempted coupe by the military -Stationed throughout the empire, but has a significant force in Tokyo -Two divisions march in Tokyo and claim they are acting on behalf of the emperor and seek to implement direct role -→ No more rule by representative government and political parties -The military is acting out of its own interests, but is representing a popular position that parties are ineffective, weak, prone to obstructionism, etc. -In 1930s Japan, two divisions of the Imperial Army (~1400 officers and men) march into the streets of Tokyo, resulting in widespread mayhem, and Tokyo is placed in state of siege for three days -Claiming to be acting in the name of the emperor (who has no authority), you can get away with anything -He possesses most agency and legitimacy -Wanted restoration to direct rule by the emperor -To suppress the army, the government brings in the navy: Poor relations; the navy is happy to bring down the army -Emperor released statement removing his name, saying he does not support this -Brands the soldiers as insurgents -The public is sympathetic to this coupe -Multiple groups trying to overthrow the central government -Despite a failed couple, there are turning points: The military is able to shutdown/overthrow civilian government; paves the way for the rise of politicians who were sympathetic to the military (cleared out ranks of politicians unfriendly to the military); emerging rise of Tōjō Hideki - name to associate with the suppression of the coupe; reign of power lasts through 1944 (WWII) w. Japan and China begin an all out war in 1937

Port Arthur

a. Russo-Japanese War -One of the first major wars of the 20th century fought with modern weaponry -1904-1905 (20th Century) -Began with the siege of the city of Port Arthur, a warm water port that was Russia's priority -Japan decided that it would launch a preemptive attack on Russia in 1904 as a means of knocking Russia out of the running as its rival for hegemony for power in East Asia -300,000 Japanese troops, confronted by 310,000 Russian troops -Japanese leader: General Nogi Maresuke -Russia fortified and attempted to defend it from attack by the Japanese, who were arriving at sea and had to climb up the hills b. Banzai Charge c. Japan loses roughly 58,000 troops -Russia loses half of that d. Japan is fighting to recover what it thought it had rightly won during the Sino-Japanese War -Their sacrifices seem a lot more understandable e. After 11 months, Port Arthur fell -Russia could not stomach anymore -General Nogi considered this a victory f. May 1905, Russia gave up and sued for peace -More a matter of Russia Losing, not Japan g. Outcomes: -Banzai charge becomes legitimate -Cult of the Bayonet -Port Arthur becomes symbolic/emotional to the public -The spilling of Japanese blood in this territory consecrates it as Japanese territory -Treaty of Portsmouth h. Post-Russo-Japanese War -1905 -First time a European power and an Asian power are sitting at a table (as equals to an extent) -Theodore Roosevelt negotiated the Treaty of Portsmouth, ending this war -Hibiya Riot -Russo-Japanese War is a disappointment compared to the Sino-Japanese War -Japan turns against technology i. Postscript of Russo-Japanese War -1912, the Meiji Emperor dies (the Meiji Period ends) -Seen as a moment for the nation to take stock of where it has come -Object of colonization -> Defeated Western nation -Funeral rights go on for days -On the day of the funeral, the nation pays no attention at all; rucked by the news of the suicide of General Nogi -Response: Total remodel of jūnshi, in that it is for his Emperor -Public sees General Nogi's death as a great demonstration of loyalty -Public sees this as completely bizarre: By the end of the Meiji Period, modern weapons of war have become very entrenched in war -Japan has been completely separated by jūnshi (no reason to go back); modern conscript army is where they are at now

Gotō Shinpei

a. Taiwan -Colonization is reflective of what happened in Okinawa -Illogical to the Taiwanese that they would be pulled into colonization by China's loss in the Sino-Japanese War -Substantial resistance, put down by the Japanese military -Strong role of the army (brutality) -Taiwan is basically a military colony b. Leader: Gotō Shinpei -Mustache and spectacles -Trained as a medical doctor -Informs his perspective on colonial administration -Hired to take over the colonial administration of Taiwan with the idea that he will turn disorderly, savage island of Taiwan into a model Japanese colony -Thinks in biological terms - start with the subject population -If he can make the population healthier (make sure the people are getting enough to eat, limit diseases, etc.), the population will be stronger, more fit, and grateful to him and Japan, and one step further along the way to Dōka -Put up hospitals across the island -Legitimatize with Western architecture -Imitating modern Western enlightenment trumped comfort -Marble = imposing -Japan is just as good of a colonizer as any of the Western powers -Builds medical institutions, transportations, ports for exportation, communication methods, etc. -"Military rule in civl garb" -Regarded positively by historians -Transform colonial subjects into "Japanese" -Japan put up a number of Shintō shrines -Become Dōka by worshipping Japanese emperor -Taiwan comes into Japanese possession 15 years before Korea is taken over (serves as a model) -Gotō is not active in Korea -Dōka is arguably the most successful in Taiwan, but not completely successful c. Korea -More resistance to Japanese control -Japanese originally saw the most potential for Dōka in Korea -Korea is only 120 miles away (at its closest point) from Japan -Strong chance of genetic connection -Korea has a long tradition of being an independent, politically organized state -Korea has had a king for longer than Japan -Part of the Chinese world order -Agricultural system -Literate -Model for Japan in a sense -Does not submit well to Dōka -Relations between Japan and Korea have for most of history been poor -Taiwan did not occupy the same amount of significance as Korea did to Japan -Japan has long periodically attempted to bring Koreans under their control -Made Korea into somewhat of a penal colony: Imprisonment, flogging, execution -Falling to the wrong side of the Japanese state had negative repercussions for you and your family -There were elites in the population that saw advantages for themselves in adhering to the colonial regime -Some collaborators also saw a gain for Korea -Implement lessons and become independent -1945, Korea was released from Japanese imperial control -Japan lost all of its former colonies with its loss in WWII (-> WWI)

"Peace Constitution" (Article 9)

a. The Crowning Effort of American Investment of Democracy in Japan -The Constitution b. 1946, Japan got a new Constitution -Model itself with the West -Safeguarded certain rights and protected representative government -Emperor to be described as only a symbol, not as divine -Gender equality was included c. Article 9 ("Peace Constitution): -"Aspiring sincerely to an international peace based on justice and order, *the Japanese people forever renounce war* as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as means of settling international disputes. In order to accomplish the aim of the preceding paragraph, *land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential, will never be maintained*. The right of belligerency of the state will not be recognized"

Cult of the Bayonet

a. The ideology expressed by the banzai charge b. Updated version of Bushidō -Exalts the Japanese spirit, even in adverse conditions c. Japanese spirit is more important than firepower -Retards modernization; fosters militarism -If you expect every battle you encounter to be victorious on your end, why not fight?

Cultural Rule

a. The name given to the policy that is adopted in Taiwan and Korea after 1919 b. Means that the role of the military in the colonies is being rolled back in colonial life, and step up programs that will enable the colonies to ultimately govern themselves -Idea that too heavy military presence in colonies is not good -World wide idea -Comes out of the ideas of Woodrow Wilson -Wanted liberation of colonies -Increased educational opportunities -Ramifications for Japanese colonialism, too -Makes subjects more loyal to Japan c. Rolling back the military presence in colonial life d. Time during which the army took a backseat to Japan's civilian administration of the colonies -Educational opportunities increased -Effort to inculcate the virtues of Japaneseness -Problematic: Tensions rising; resistance e. Decade during which Japan sought to primarily engage with the outside world in a peaceful/cooperative way -1927: Distinct shift in policy

ANPO: The Art of Resistance (Documentary)

a. The relationship of the United States and Japan -America is strangling Prime Minister Sato -Many American bases are still present -Japanese Parliament wasn't functioning anymore b. 1960 protests -Uproar over ANPO -Must now defend democracy for the first time -Japan wanted America out -Uniting theme: To not go back to war c. War -After, The Prime Minister was arrested as a Class-A war criminal -Kishi was set free, and Hideki was executed -Being opposed to ANPO was a synonym for hating Kishi -The Japanese government never prosecuted anyone responsible for the war -Security treaty: Political support for monetary support -RAA: Recreation and Amusement Program -Recruiting average women -Created by the Japanese government to prevent rape d. Democracy -Democracy in Japan did not come from bringing down the military; it was forced upon them from above e. U.S. - Japan Mutual Security Treaty -Institute democracy at gunpoint -Buy our way into power -Heavy influence by America on Japan f. Hiroshima and Nagasaki -The power of nuclear bombs were known worldwide, but the enduring effects were experienced only by the Japanese g. The Bloody Record of Sunagawa -U.S. Base Tachikawa was the main point of protests h. Paul Robeson i. Prime Minister Ikeda replaced Kishi -Harnessed the energy from protesting into the economy for growth -Strategy was to subvert and destroy Japan's socialist party -To create propaganda to make sure no left wing grew in Japan j. Okinawa -After the United States won the war, the 800 homes on the island were burned, and all the families were taken to refugee camps -Replaced with American military bases k. "Kimin" -A country abandoning its people -In the beginning of Japan, the goal was to protect the state, not the people

Military Rule in Civil Garb

a. This comes under Leader Gotō Shinpei in Taiwan b. This is an army administering this colony, but cloaked in a benevolent logic of civilian administration c. Ruled by military government pretending it is not a military government

Shidehara Diplomacy

a. This is the result of the work of Japan's Foreign Minister, Kijūrō b. Shidehara was associated with international liberalism, and was thus very well liked by the Western powers c. He had a bifurcated career of differing influential periods d. Hallmark: Washington Naval Conference e. Characteristics: -Unpalatable -Associated with peaceful engagement with outside world -Washington Naval Conference -General reduction of military spending (Army and Navy); military is not happy - decrease in conscripts -Time of economic encroachment of colonialism (trade, industrialization, maximization of laborers, mining) f. Peaceful relations with China -China has been someway involved in all of Japan's imperialist wars g. Significance in Japan's foreign minister -Bureaucrat -Lost power -> -Replaced for a more militaristic shift from this point forward h. Trend following Shidehara's loss of power is one of Japanese government having less control over foreign policy -Power predominantly falls in the hands of the military i. Japan stationed Japanese Army in KLT -We see a shift toward an aggressive policy in 1931

Ishii Shirō

a. Unit 731 was under the direction of Ishii Shirō b. Began career and Japan, then moved to Manchukuo -Better access to research subjects c. Constructed medical laboratories throughout Manchuria and China (not Taiwan and Korea)

International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Tokyo Trial)

a. Uprooting the Old Order -Putting the former war time order on trial b. International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Tokyo Trial) -1945-1948 -Someone must be held responsible c. U.S. established its own trial to reprimand the wartime leaders -a.k.a. Victor's justice d. Odds were stacked against Japanese defendants getting off -Not only guilt, but language and legal practice barriers -Faulty trials in a sense -Lack of justice e. Defendants were divided into three categories -A, B, and C -A: Tasked with the ultimate responsibility of the war (war crimes); 7 individuals from A were executed f. Set up with the participation of all of the allies -Judges from all of the allied nations -Like the rest of the occupation, this war more or less an American show g. The trials were accomplished relatively quickly, within the span of under 3 years h. Ramifications: -Of the 7 executed, 6 were military officials -1 civilian: Prime Minister -Case is strong that he shouldn't have been -Showa Emperor was let off without any reprimand -Decision was made that he would not be tried -Logic: Too destabilizing to the Japanese psyche and population for the Emperor to be exposed as the war criminal he was -Japanese defendants who were put on trial were pressured into silence -Not allowed to reference the Emperor at all during testimony -By containing guilt to the 7 who were executed, this absolved everyone else of responsibility -For the rest of society, this became a good thing -Allows society to move on -Leave the issue of popular agency untouched i. Emperor -January 1, 1946: Declaration of Humanity -Not a strong social reaction to this -Taken in stride by the people -MacArthur was wrong: Emperor probably could have been put on trial without causing unrest and social anxiety -Renounces his divinity -He is not descended from the gods -Ordinary mortal j. Kishi Nobusuke (1896-1987) k. Japanese military installations and equipment's were all destroyed -Reducing Japan's ability to wage war l. Process of repatriotization -~4 million soldiers survived to repatriate -Additional ~600,000 were captured by the Soviet Union -Significant civilian repatriotizations -Significant hardships -About 1/3 of Japanese civilians in Manchukuo did not survive to repatriate -Discrimination -Koreans left in Japan -Brought over to continue labor when Japanese soldiers left -Forced to work in factories, coal mines, etc. -End of WWII, approximately ~2 million m. Censorship -In the immediate post-war period, there was no paper or printing presses, and so much had been destroyed by the war, that there were no textbooks available to students -Forced to blackout their textbook -Militarist messages (ex: Black out planes because that hints at the military) -Create new means of learning -Occupation classroom -No school facilities; classes took place outside -In time by 1946, new textbooks were written, instilling democratic ideals -Language barrier with American teachers -Pre-war Japan, compulsory education was 6 years long -Not long enough -Compulsory education was extended to 9 years -Narrative of the suffering teacher

Agrarianism

a. Within the countryside level of fascism b. Depiction of rural areas as being the moral base of the nation c. Locate moral worth in the countryside d. Purpose → Agrarian -Moral base of the nation e. Resurgence of Neo-Confucianism f. In practice, agrarianism has ethics courses being taught in rural schools; farmers drafted into reservist organizations; organs of local government, village administrations, etc. putting out literature; championing frugality, hard work, communal solidarity, etc.

Versailles Treaty

a. World War I (1914-1918) -1916, Japan joins the Allies -Opportunistic decision -No Japanese troops were sent to Europe -Attacked German colonies and possessions in Asia (including Micronesia - Pacific Island chains; possessions that Japan took over with little fighting) -Japan can sit at the table of Victor's at the Versailles Treaty in 1919 (this treaty ends the war) b. Treaty of Versailles (1919) -Japan is allowed to keep all the German colonies -Mandate: Administered on behalf of the League of Nations (1919); internationalist dispute-resolving body; fatally handicapped by the U.S. failing to sign; precursor to the United Nations -Japan sends the Navy there to administer them -Like Taiwan and Okinawa, these are subjected to some form of Dōka -Regarded as perhaps relatives to Japanese -Viewed as savage, etc. -Their potential for Dōka is limited: Not a lot of resources committed; exploited for sugar crops, etc. -What Japan really wants out of this treaty is a clause in the saying that all people are racially equal -Declaration it was the equal of Western powers -> denied; Japan is still not viewed as equal with the Western powers -Anglo-Japanese Alliance was terminated -The idea of Britain going to war was inconceivable -More alliances toppled

"Bamboo Spear Defense"

a. World War II: -Iwo Jima -Okinawa b. Iwo Jima -The capture of Iwo Jima opened the Japanese home islands up to the reach of American aircraft → -March 1945: fire-bombing campaign directed against islands -Destruction and devastation -~670,000 civilians were killed -Fleeing of the city to the countryside -Key feature of urbanization in 1868-1945 was redone -No resources within the city -Shortages of every kind -Transportation, food, etc. -Early 1945: (Before bombing in March) Japan saw that the home islands were in danger and started putting out inquiries about the terms upon which surrender might be accepted -Allies were resolute in holding out until absolute surrender -Unconditional surrender would jeopardize the position of the Emperor -Negotiations through third party states went nowhere -1945: Defense of the homeland was top priority -Japan lost its Empire -Became clear that once the home islands were within range of U.S. bombers, this is where the Allies would going next -Despite being unthinkable up till a few years ago, Japan began planning for an invasion -Prepare the entire population -On the verge of psychological collapse -Last international invasion was 13th century Mongol invasion -Ages 15-60 were shipped out to war -Women were mobilized for labor duties -Launch a campaign of "bamboo spear defense training" -Women and children are given bamboo spears and taught how to wield them -Preparing for a mass suicide -Last ditch impact of Japan to train the population to die on behalf of the Emperor -Nation-wide training because it was unknown where U.S. would land -Mass mobilization of a population not physically capable of fighting was an attempt to frighten the U.S. with the costs of invasion -Similar to the idea of kamikaze -Demonstrate that Japan was so desperate to win that it would do anything, unlike the U.S. -Invasion proceeded South to North c. Okinawa (April 1945) -Final land battle of the war -Additional important naval engagements -Seen as part of the home islands -Japan's first colony -Defense was more visceral -Fighting to keep the U.S. army away from their family -Okinawan citizens (100,000) pressured into suicide -~110,000 Japanese soldiers died -Ended with the U.S. taking Okinawa, which was held on until the 1970s

Mishima Yukio

a. Wrote a number of important novels b. Symbol of Japan's transition from pre- to post-war period c. Born in 1925 -Difficult circumstances -Showed early talent -Lifelong obsession with death -Came to maturities in the 1940s at the height of war fever d. Eligible for draft, but avoided it -Sense of shame -Reflect in his novels e. Become a bureaucrat after the war ended -Resigned to write full-time -Good time to be a new writer -People not tainted by participation in the war f. Intellectual leaders were youth who had been too young to be tainted by this sense of guilt and shame -Led by Mishima g. Spends 949s and 1950s engaged in his writing career -Pioneer of post-war and homosexuality h. At the time of the ANPO protests in the 1960s, there was a leftist movement to oppose the renewal of the security treaty -Renewal meant Japan would remain under the U.S.'s nuclear umbrella and U.S. bases would remain -But, the leftist opposed this and wanted the U.S. out of Japan -Left opposes any idea that Japan will not be able to preserve the sense of itself as a peace nation -Right wing: Also opposition to renewal -Mishima was the face of this -Argued that the army was supposed to be the incarnation of the Japanese spirit -Return to ideal view of the military -As Japan's economic role increases in world affairs, a military role is necessary -Believed that the SDF was lacking militaristic spirit -Weapons warehouse with a dead spirit -His mission to nurture it -Most people thought this was a good thing -Japan should return to militaristic time of Imperial Age -The right opposes U.S. bases because there is evidence that Japan is not fully sovereign -Wanted termination of ANPO in order that Japan could construct its own military -Protests were much less visible i. Mishima became fanatically devoted to the Emperor -Emperor used to be seen as the essence of the Japanese spirit -Mishima saw him as the force behind the arms and legs that would return the Emperor to the head as the essence -Constitution of 1889 enshrining that the Emperor system was placed above politics -1946, made just a symbolic image -1967, formed his own militia: Shield Society -Arming your own militia is illegal, but he gets away with it because of his extreme nationalism is protected by international fame -Limited; operated under secrecy -Members pledged to fight to the death to defend Emperor -Way for Mishima to overcome the survivor guilt j. 1967, writes a meditation on Hagakure -Adapt it for the purposes of a modern age -Bring ethos of death forward for the post-war period -Radical departure for him in the terms of his typical writings -His idea of bushidō is different -His opinion of what a samurai for the modern age should be k. Samurai qualities in post-war Japan: -Peace Constitution, which prevented Japan from having an army, was inimical to the development and realization of the ideal modern samurai: -(1) Masculinity: -Western-style masculinity -Despite looking at traditional text -Conventionally and robustly masculine -Ideal modern samurai -Despite homosexuality -(2) Young: -Mishima was obsessed with youth -Prodigy: Novels released when he was in his 20s -Loss of youth was problematic for him -Idealize that the ideal warrior in Japan should be young -(3) Beautiful: -Ideal representative is to be attractive -(4) Willing to die at moments notice: l. Reflect on: -Imperial and Tokugawa Era -Samurai and masculinity -Militarism m. Suicide -He and Shield Society stormed SDF headquarters, took a general hostage, and demanded to be allowed to speak to the troops -Thought this would restore militarism and military ideologies to Japanese societies -Restore Japan to the 1930s -It may be that he was looking for a flashy way to die -Troops were assembled in the courtyard and made to listen -What he was saying about the restoration of Japan sounded bizarre to these soldiers -People began to boo and laugh, etc. -Mishima locked himself in a room -Cut his stomach -Younger male lover cut off his head, and then committed suicide too -General Nogi of Port Arthur's suicide was similar -The public regarded Mishima's suicide in the same way: Bizarre -Stimulus to some right wing groups, however -Demonstrates the general failure of these ideas to take root -Ideas of recreating militarism in Japan are marginal -These militarist currents have crept back into Japanese society, however --Today: The way WWII is remembered → -The ways this affects Japan's domestic population and international reputation -Controversial issues of war memory: -Swept the issue of responsibility under the carpet -Made the fault of Class A war criminals and system -Issue over Article 9 --Gaining steam to change the peace clause -Make an actual military legal -Unpopular among those who believe peace is progressive and don't want to see the Japanese army deployed