HIST228 Non Brahmin and Dalit Protest

What determines Jati rank?

-Each Jati given ritual rank, locating it in social hierarchy - Ranking based on religion (scale of purity and pollution) but also secular power and wealth -What determines rank is debated- some say religious status (purity and pollution) this explains why a Brahmin is more important than a king. -But if you're wealthy and have political power your chance of moving up a caste is better.

Non Brahmin movements: Sanskritization: Social change process by which lower castes seek upward mobility by emulating the rituals and practices of the upper or dominant castes.

Active effort to have equality in practice. -Sanskritisation-Increase ritual standing by doing the same thing as the upper caste. Attempt to rise up in religious scale. Quite conservative. West- forming caste associations looking for jobs, pressure from Dalit caste associations to set jobs aside and bring their people in.

Jati

Actual unit of social organisation, occupational group determined by birth, maintained through strict rules on marriage and dining. What we think of when we use the word caste. Caste determines job for rest of life. Marriage only happens within a caste. Everything within a caste.

Non Brahmin movements: Justice party

Advocates for Sanskrit. Started party in 1916 mainly due to caste prejudices and disproportionate Brahminical representation in government jobs. Won an election did really well, as soon as the got power they abused it. The Justice Party's foundation marked the culmination of several efforts to establish an organisation to represent the non-Brahmins in Madras.

Vaishya

Agriculture and cattle-rearing Caste. Overtime came to be landowners, traders and money-lenders.

Ambedkar's Leadership: Starts Scheduled Caste Federation, 1942, but overwhelmed by Congress

Ambedkhar happy to fight for swaraj but wanted to know what share Dalits was going to have. Started another new party. Claimed Dalits were distinct from the Hindu's. The Untouchables and the Muslims no longer wanted to participate. Quit India movement was very successful and Ambedkhar didn't have the time of the money for his resources.

Laws of Manu

Ancient Hindu text from which the castes were formed.Legal context for untouchability

Ambedkar's Leadership: Resigns in 1951 after lack of support on Hindu Code Bill

Attempt to reform personal laws related to the Hindus. Concerned marriage (allowed divorce conflicted with personal law); adoption; guardianship; the policy on joint-family property (was controversial as it included the nontraditional allocation of property to women.) ; policies regarding women's property; established policies on succession (portions of inheritance to daughters and widow rights) and maintenance. People don't support hit draft.

Ambedkar's Leadership: Gandhi fasts in response to communal award of 1932, results in compromise of Poona Pact

Award of separate electorate, Gandhi began the most controversial event of his career, started a fast to his death unless it was withdrawn. Poona Pact was a compromise reservation- more rights but not only people allowed to vote for it.

Ambedkar's Leadership: Offered seat in Constituent Assembly, becomes first law minister of independent India: constitution abolishes untouchability

Believed congress were true representatives of the Dalits in cabinet mission. Congress thought they could get Ambedkhar into it. He took part in drafting the constitution and made untouchability illegal. Became law minister.

Dalit protest: Resurgence of bhakti

Bhakti made a come back- simple direct devotion to God no need for priests. Formed basis for later Dalit protests.

Positive Discrimination:

Came after it was realised Brahmins were dominating new jobs and positions. Positive discrimination- lower caste would have special schools, jobs and seats in legislative councils reserved.

Non-Brahmin movement in south India: Tamil language and Dravidian identity

Caste is a big issue in South Indian life, the Brahmin's made up a really small proportion of south India but monopolised all of the South Indian jobs.

Congress and Gandhi: Congress dominated by Brahmins, socially conservative

Congress largely to blame for alienation of the Dalits. Took a long time before congress became interested in any social problem let alone untouchability.

Leads mass conversion to Buddhism in 1956, shortly before his death

Final attempt and getting rid of untouchability. He's still worshipped by Dalits. Great leader, remarkable story from degradation to first law leader of India.

Dalit Protest: Missionary and government education: educated elite and mass consciousness

Followed a similar pattern to non-Brahmin movements. Result of this was creation of small, well educated elite. Wider effect, these ideas filtered down, mass awareness of oppression on behalf of the Dalits.

Congress and Gandhi: Gandhi makes removal of untouchability an issue of public concern in 1920s, but until 1940s upholds caste system

Gandhi first congressmen to make untouchability a matter of congress concern. Clear that untouchability had to be abolished. Started the constructive programme- trying to get rid of untouchability. He did want to get rid of it but didn't want to get rid of caste system, somehow managed to keep many different groups together.

Congress and Gandhi: Harijan campaign: religious solution - temple entry and idealisation of bhangis (sweepers)

Gandhi tried to convince Hindu's that untouchability should be abolished. Should be something that the Upper caste should give not for the Dalits to advocate for. Put responsibility on the upper castes. Bhangis- sweeper, he held up the sweeper as the ideal example of a public servant. He would encourage other congress leaders to clean the toilets. Thought sweeping was a wonderful way to show how the untouchables had served india- fine thing that anyone can do. Really big impact on undermining but no effect. Religious aspect didn't work for Gandhi. Dalits said if they were given political and economic power all the rest (religion) would follow.

Caste and Colonialism: New opportunities provided by British rule, but monopolised by upper castes

Gave caste a new lease of live. The role of the British Raj on the caste system in India is controversial.The caste system became legally rigid during the Raj. New education system, government jobs etc. Theoretically these jobs were open to anyone but in practice people already in a good social position were able to take advantage of these opportunities.

Ambedkar's Leadership: Ambedkar wants political solution: access to education, employment, representation

He came from an untouchable class, prince financed his studies, came back to India as a lawyer and political organiser. He was the first leader to establish a pan-India Dalit politics. Vice-President of first all-India Dalit organisation, 1926

Kshatriya

High in Varna social order. Ruling and military caste. Fight in war, govern in peace.

Ambedkar's Leadership: Forms Depressed Classes Congress in 1930: anti-Congress, mildly anti-British

In his first address he made it clear he was opposed to congress and a little bit against the British, grateful for his opportunities.

Shudra

Low in Varna social order. Caste- serving the other three Varna.

Ambedkar's Leadership: Ambedkar founds Independent Labour party: caste/class alliance

Middle of 1930s Gandhi vs Dalits very alienated. Thought he would take on congress by forming caste/class alliance. Short lived. Ambedkhar forced back into Dalit politics. Nehru thought that when India got independence it caste wouldn't be a problem.

Non Brahmin movements: E. V. Ramaswami (Periyar) and the Self-Respect movement: radical and populist

More radical aspect of anti-Brahmin movement. Periyar- "Great One" lead this movement for Self-Respect, started with congress but decided that Dalit and lower caste issues weren't taken seriously. Thought caste was the stem of all bad things. Tried to install a sense of pride in the Dalits. Pre-req for independence was pride in their language and culture.

Bhakti as a medieval caste protest movement

Most important pre-colonial movement was the Bhakti movement- said we don't need priests, intermediaries between people and God. Direct relationship with God. Protests against caste.

Non Brahmin movements: Boycotting priests, temple entry, burning laws of Manu, Tamil separatism

Movement got more radical. Tamil separatism the idea that the Tamil's should have a separate state of their own and that that state would be about self-respect and that. Not as strong as in Sri-Lanka.

Congress and Gandhi: Hindu nationalists and their golden age in the past: Dalit golden age the present

Nationalists saw the ancient Indian society as the golden age and Dalits saw it as the dark age and saw the British as arriving and going to liberate them. Lower caste happy to have British there. Dalit's appreciated colonial rule and Muslims in many instances benefited. Result of nationalist myth making that all stood up against British.

Dalit protest: Conversion of limited effectiveness, message of self-respect more important

One way they protested was converted to Christianity to thank the missionaries for what they did, this conversion from a political point of view wasn't an effective means of protest. Caste system within Indian christianity, Muslims, Sikhs etc. Conversion wasn't the important part but idea of self-respect was, saying they are not worthless and organising political protests.

Non Brahmin movements: Jotirao Phule and Satyasodhak Samaj (Truthseeker's Society) in Maharashtra: Brahmin domination the fundamental problem, social revolution the answer

Phule started the Truthseeker's society, gardener, he wasn't an untouchable but he was from the lower caste, argued that basic problem was Brahmin domination, thought solution was social revolution, big emphasis on western education. Started as radical.

Dalit electorate

Positive discrimination culminated in 1932 when Dalit's were given an electorate of its own. Wealth and power became more of equal concern, lifted their social and economic standing but not religious.

Dalit protest: Appropriating symbols and practices of upper castes

Protest of Sanskritisation, Dalits took the threads Brahmins wore saying they too were born again not just physically but spiritually. Attempt to enter temples they had previously barred from, priest tried to keep them out.

Dharma and Karma

Scriptures set out code of conduct (dharma); adherence to code (karma) determines status in next life. Scriptures dictates actions they should take, when you belong to a caste you should carry out actions in accordance to prescription of caste. Says you better do what the scriptures say or you will come back as an untouchable in another life.

Dalits

Self-chosen name for the Untouchables meaning oppressed. Dalits were excluded from the four sections of Varna system and they formed the unmentioned fifth varna. Other names- Depressed caste (British), Harijans (Children of God, Gandhi), scheduled caste (now used in India.

Introduction of census and formation of caste associations

Single greatest thing because they started counting people who belonged to different castes and used it to establish a rank within the system, attempt within the British to understand India. Caste associations were set up to lobby the British to get a better standing. Caste groups mobilised and took part in politics.

Non Brahmin movements: Shift towards mobilising peasants (Kshatriya/Maratha identity) and away from Dalit concerns

Started mobilising peasants, tried to get them to turn against Brahmin's consequence of this was that he couldn't succeed in appealing to untouchables, moved away from all lower caste uniting. Started opposed but got absorbed by congress.

Dalit protest: Search for political, rather than religious, solution to the problem: positive discrimination

This was an aspect of a lot of Dalit politics, Ambedkar said it was futile trying to get into the temples and it was in congress problems would be solved not in the temple.

Ambedkar's Leadership: Confrontation with Gandhi in 1931-32 over separate electorate for Dalits

Thought this was only way Dalits could get sufficient representation. Reservation means certain number of seats and anyone can vote for them. Separate electorate means only Dalits can vote for it. Gandhi opposed to separate electorate. Nationalist movement weakened because Dalit was starting own political forums. Some Dalits didn't want it either.

Brahmins

Top of Varna social order. Religious caste. Priests and teachers.

What did Untouchables do?

Untouchables are leather workers, sweepers (collecting peoples shit), manual scavengers (get dead carcasses and deal with funeral arrangements) did all the shit "polluting" jobs. Sometimes they had to have a drum to warn they were coming. Degrading occupations. Had to accept what they had to do to move on in the next world.

Varna

Very old social division-class. Untouchability develops in 3rd and 6th centuries AD. Four Varna castes came out of different part of body. Didn't have much practical application.

Non Brahmin movements

Westernisation: caste associations claiming rights