Histology 2- to the final-new!!

The eye is composed of three layers:

1. A tough external fibrous layer consisting of sclera and cornea. 2. A middle vascular layer that includes choroid, ciliary body and iris. 3. An inner sensory layer in which the retina communicates with the brain through the optic nerve.

Peripheral nerves are surrounded as a whole by protective epineurium.

- Nerves are supplied by blood vessels that penetrate the epineurium and form networks of capillaries. It is a DCT coat with adipocytes, fibroblasts, fibrocytes and collagen.

11. Intratesticular and extratesticular ducts.

- Seminiferous tubules drain to the tubuli recti (straight tubule) at the mediastinum ( and then rete testies then extratesticular ducts) The male genital duct- classification: 1.Intratesticular ducts a.Tubuli recti (straight tubules) b.Rete testies 2.Extratesticular ducts a.Ductuli efferentes b.Ductus epididymidis c.Ductus deferens Tubuli recti (straight tubules) o Are short terminal portions of the seminiferous tubules o straight tubules are at the mediastinum testis. o They are lined with : - sertoli cells in their proximal portion and - simple cuboidal epithelium (to low columnar epithelium) at the further portion ( with microvilli on their apical portion). o They lie around LCT o Function: to pass sperm into the rete testis. Rete testis o Is complex of highly anastomosing channels o Located at the mediastinum of the testis o Is lined by the simple cuboidal to low columnar epithelium with microvili and some cilia (motile flagella project from the luminal surface). o The CT around there is a little denser o and they channel sperm from the seminiferous tubules to the efferent ductules, with some reabsorption of water. Epididymal duct: A single coiled tube of 4-6m long. It is at the body and head of epididimydis. 1. Regular luman 2.Pseudostratified columner epithelium -columner cells with sterocilia -short basal cells 3.Basment membrane 4.Tunica fibromuscularis -circulary oriented smooth muscle cells 2-3 layers. 5.interstital loose connective tissue rich in capillaries Ductus deferens: 1. Tunica muscosa a.longitudinal muscosal folds b.pseudostratified columnar epithelium with sterocilia c.lamina propria (fibroelastic layer made by LCT anc collagen) 2.Thick tunica muscularies a-inner longitudinal layer b-middle circular layer c-outer longitudinal layer 3.Tunica adventitia Ductus efferentes 1.Irregular lumen- highly coiled (Scalloped appearance) 2.Epithelium -Tall columnar ciliated cells , -Nonciliated cuboidal cells) 3.Basmemt membrane 4.Thin layer of circularly oriented smooth muscle cells and loose CT outside the Basement membrane Ejaculatory duct: paired ducts 1cm long from joining the distal part of vas deferens to the excretory duct of seminal veiscles. These vessels run into the prostate (from there the same pathway for urine and sperm to the penis). The duct's wall arrangment resambles the vas deferents except of smooth muscle layer.

between the fibers is endoneurium

- consisting of LCT with reticular fibers, schwann cells, fibroblasts, fibrocytes, macrophages and mast cells. No collagen - only reticular fibers

Layer 5 of the neural layer

.Outer plexiform layer is a fibrous layer synapses between axons of rods and cones and dendrites of bipolar neurons between the two nuclear layers

The layers of the cerebellum:

1. Molecular layer -Site of synapses -stellate cells -basket cells -A lot of neutrophil 2.Purkinje cell layer a.pear shaped multipolar cells -single dendrites to the molecular layer -axon form the effernt pathway towrds the molecular layer -nissale body -pale nucleus -secrete GABA b.astrocytes -at the levels of the cells and sheath them c.Other astrocytes -send processes towrds the molecular layer 3.Granular layer -grnule cells -golgi cells -very cellular layer, little neutrophil -cerebellar glomulori

1. Molecular layer of the cerreculum

1. Molecular layer is the site of synapses, where scattered stellate cells and basket cells (interneurons) are found with a lot of neuropil (nervous tissue CT of many interwound fibers). Basket cells are rounded and pale with prominent nucleus while the stellate cells are more spindle shaped and dark cells.

1. Molecular layer = plexiform layer

1. Molecular layer = plexiform layer contains few neurons of cajal and stellate type, with many dendrites and axons. Found just below the pia mater. The cajal cells run horizontali making stria called stria exneri.

Neurons of the spinal cord are:

1. Radicular neurons -Golgi type I efferent neurons with axons -make the anterior of horn of the SP -multipolar neurons 2.Oligodendrocytes -myelin sheath in the CNS 3.Astrocytes structural support and form BBB 4.interneurons -short axon -golgi type 2 5.funicular neurons -are sensitive afferent neurons with Golgi type I -create ascending tracts of spinal cords -make up the funiculi

35. Structure and function of thymus.

1.Capsule of connective tissue 2.Conncetive tissue septa a-blood vessels 3.Pseudolobulues a-cortex b-medulla c-Hassall's coruscle

34. Structure and function of spleen

1.Capsule of dense connective tissue a-mesothelium 2.Connective tissue trabeculae 3.White pulp a-lymphoid nodule b-central artery c-germinal center 4.Red pulp a-Billroth's cord b-sinusoids

Which structures the ciliary body contains?

1.Ciliary muscle 2.Ciliary processes 3.Ciliary zonule

29. Microscopic structure of heart. Conducting system

1.Endocardium -Endothelium -Subendothelial layer -Myoelastic layer -Subendocardial layer 2.Myocardium 3.Epicardium -Mesothelim -Submesothelial layer -Subepericardial layer Modified cardiac muscle cells make up the impulse conducting system. Conducting system : rythamic contractuon of atria and vebtricles are resukts from impulses withing the heart itself by autorhytaminc fibers: 1) the sinoatrial node (S-A node) 2)the atrioventricular node (A-V node) 3)the atrioventricular bundle (0f Hiss) 4)the right and left crus

Layers of the cerebral cortex display stratification based on cytoarchitecture and impregnoarchitecture with nissle or golgi stains:

1.Molecular layer = plexiform layer -Neurons of cajal -stellate cells -many dendrites and axons -Cajal cells --> make stria externi 2.External granular layer -pyramidal cells -many stellate interneurons cells -External granular layer+ internal granular layer=sensory parts of the isocortex 3.External pyramidal layer -Small and medium pyramidal cells -stellate cells -martinotti cells -External +internal pyramidal layers=well developed in the motor areas 4.Internal granular layer -stellate neurons -pyramidal neurons 5.Internal pyramidal layer -large Bets cells (pyramidal cells)- motor neurons -Stellate cells -Pyramidal cells -Axons of the Bets cells mmake the decending tracts 6.Multiform layer -Few large pyramidal layer -Many small pyramidal cells -Multiform cells

The neural layer has 9 (!!) layers. The layer most deep is the retinal pigmented epithelium that is the same as the anterior retina. Then superificialy:

1.Pigmented epithelium (of the choroid) 2.Rods and cones layer 3. Outer limiting layer 4.Outer nuclear layer 5.Outer plexiform layer 6.Inner nuclear layer 7. Inner plexiform layer 8. Ganglionic layer 9. Nerve fiber layer 10. Outer limiting membrane

26. External and middle ear.

1.The auricle -Elastic cartilage - Funnel plate shape -Towrds the ear -coverd by stratified epithelium of the ear 2.External suditory meatus. -Flat canal -outsite -->tympanic cavity -Layers: Tunica mucosa epithelialis : stratified squaous epithelium Tunica submucosa: -hair follicels -sebaceous glands -Cermimous glands (aporcrine gland-cerumen) The wall supported by: -External part-->elastic cartilage -Internal part-->temporal bone 3.Tympanic membrane=Erudrum membrane histological strucutre: epithelial: Inner -thin epidermis (ecdoerm ) outer -simple cuboidal epitehlim (endoderm) between them -fibroelastic CT layer -Sharpnells's membrane(anterior upper part) -Sound wave -->middle ear --> vibration 3.Middle ear: -tympanic cavity -Auditory tube-eustachian tube ( pharynx and middle ear) -Layers: epithelial: simple cuboidal epitelium. In the deeper region-->ciliated pseodostraratified columner epithelium Lamina propria-continous eith the peristium of the temporal bone. -Membrane: -Oval window -Round window -Auditory ossicles: -Malleus -Incus -Stapes -Muscles: -Tensor tymoani muscle -Stapedus

33. Strucure and function of lymph node.

1.conncetive tissue septa 2.Connective tissue trabeculae a-blood vessles 3.Cortex a-lymphoid nudule with germinal center b-subscapular sinus c-internidiate sinus 4.Medulla a-medullary cords of lymphocytes b-medullary sinus c-reticular cell with pale nucleus d-lymphpcyte with small and dark nucleus

43. Microscopic structure of tooth.

1.crown- is part that is visible when the tooth is in situ in the oral cavity 2. cervix- is located between the crown and the root. 3.root- is part embedded in the bony cavity ( alveolus) of the ,axilla and ,mandible Tooth ► in the tooth, you should anatomically identify: 1. Crown - covered by →enamel 2. Neck - 3. Root - covered by→ cementum 4. Pulp cavity- The root canal communicates with the periodontal ligament via smal opening at the tip of each root. Through this small opening blood , lymph and blood vessels and nerves enter and leave the pulp. The structures associated with tooth are: 5. Periodontal ligament 6. Bony socket (alveolus) 7. Gum (gingiva) Histological components of tooth: A. Hard tissues: enamal, dentin,cement B. Soft tissue: tooth (dental) pulp (pulpa dentis) (+ periodontal ligament) 1.Enamal -Crown -ameoblast Inorganic matrix: -calcium hydroxyxpatite -Organic material -water Organic matrix: glycoproteins: amelogenins+enamales 2.Dentin -pulp cavity -root canal -Inorganic components: -70% of calcium hydroxyapatite -Organic components: -20% of organic materials (collagen type 1 fibrils, GAG,PG (keratan Sulfate) -About 10% of bound water 3.Cementum -dentin root -cemetocytes like bone lack osteon oval cells cytoplasmic process -Cementum composed of : 1.50% of calcium hydroxyapatite 2.50% of organic material 3. bound water Most of the organic material is composed of type 1 with associated proteoglycans and glycoproteins. The cementocytes secrete their cementum at the root and form two parts: - Upper primary (accellular) cementum -Lower secondary (cellular) cementum 4.Pulp cavity -Pulp cavity - tissue-filled space Jelly-like structure containing: - LCT with thin collagen fibers (type2) - Fibroblasts - (AGS)Amorphous ground substance contains glycosaminoglycans(PAG) and proteoglycans (PG), which cause →gelatinous consistence of the pulp - Highly innervated and vascularized tissue The apical foramen- small opening at the tip of each root through vessels and nerves enter and leave the pulp. 5.Sharpey's fibers Sharpey's fibers are periodontal ligaments are bundles of collagen connecting root with alveoli. • A thin , pale -yellowish bone like calcified tissue -collagen type 1

Layer 10 of the neural layer:

10. Outer limiting membrane is the terminal expansion of muller cells over the retina, in contact with the membrane of vitreous body.

Layer 2 of the neural layer

2.Rods and cones layer contains the two main photoreceptors, named after their shapes.

Layer 3 of the neural layer

3. Outer limiting layer is a defined series of junctions (adhering junctions) between muller cells and photoreceptors.

4.Internal granular layer

4. Internal granular layer is made from 1.stellate 2.pyramidal neurons

Layer 4 of the neural layer

4.Outer nuclear layer contains cell bodies of photoreceptors (rods and cones) which receive their nutrients from the pigmented layer.

Layer 6 of the neural layer

6.Inner nuclear layer contains the nuclei of bipolar neurons. they make interconnections and integrate the signals over a wide area.

Layer 7 of the neural layer

7. Inner plexiform layer is another fibrous layer of synapses between bipolar cells and dendrites of ganglionic neurons. פלייקסיפורמ -- > מזכיר פייברוס

Layer 8 of the neural layer

8. Ganglionic layer has ganglion neurons with long axons that make the next layer of fibers. The fibers converge and make the optic nerve.

Layer 9 of the neural layer

9. Nerve fiber layer from axons of ganglion cells.

38. Structure of bronchi and bronchioles.

Aireat hierachy: Trachea-->primary bronchi-->secondery bronchi-->triary brinchi (segmental)-->bronchioles-->trminal bronchioles -->respiratory bronchioles-->alveolar ducts -->alveolar sacs -->alveoli 1.Primary bronchi Lamina epithelialis -Pseodostratified columnar epithelium Lamina propria: -Muscous and serocus glands decrese -SMCs +elastic fibers -increse Submucosa Hyaline cartilage start to break out. -Malt 2.Bronchioles -simple colymnar epithelium -No cartilage or glands -Lmaina propria - SMC's elastic fibers collagen fibers -muscociliary apparatus 3.Terminal bronchi -simple cuboidal ciliater epithelium -clara cells exocrine function *surfactanct *Detoification *antimicrobial peptides- local immune defence. 4.respiratory bronchi - air start diffusion of air -simle cuboidal epithelium with clara cells -presence of alveoli interrupting the continuity of the wall of the bronchiole.

All neurons of the retina receive their nutrition by which cells? Where the cells bodies of these cells located? חשוב

All neurons of the retina receive their nutrition by elongated glial cells called Muller cells (who's cell body is in the inner nuclear layer).

1. Structure and function of hypophysis.

Anatomical+functional introduction: The pituitary gland is a small gland located in the hypophysial fossa of the sphenoid bone The pituitary stalk connects the pituitary gland to the hypothalamus The hypothalamus controls the activity of the pituitary gland Hypophysis= pituitary gland Trabecular type of endocrine gland -connective tisses capsule -Trabeculae with blood and nerves Hypophysis composed of (2 parts) : 1.adenohypophysis -Pars distalis (distal part) -Pars tuburalis (tubral part) -pars intermedia (intermediate part) 2.Neurohypophysis -pars nervosa ( nervous part) -Infundibulum What is the structure of the adenohypophysis? 1.adenohypophysis Pars distalis -is the bulk of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland -cord of aggregated cell -sinosuidal capillaries -cells granules -chromophobes/chromaphils (acidic or basophilic) b. Pars tuberlis -a funnul shape region leading to the hypothalamus c. Pars intermidia -simple cuboidal epithelium -barrier -cells: *basophils ( chromphils), *chromophobes -colloid filled cysts What is the strucutre of the nuerohypophysis? 2.Neurohypophysis a. Pars nervosa -Bigger part -White matter axons (unmyelnitted axons) -tramsport: oxytocin and ADH -Herring bodies -pituicytes (gliall cells, lipofuscin) b. Infundibulum -Smaller part -Is stalk attached to the hypopothalmus at the median eminance ( at the base of the hypothalmus) What the adenohypophysis produce and secrete? 1.somatotropin=GH (somatototroph 2.Proclactin (mammotroph) 3.TSH 4.FSH 5.LH 6.ACTH What the neurohypophysis secrete? Secretion of the Neurohypophysis -not produce any hormone -ADH -Oxytocin

Arachnoid mater

Arachnoid mater: made by: - a avascular sheet in contact with dura -a system of loosely arranged trabeculae (collagen and fibroblasts) which form a spider web-like appearance. The layer is transperent and formed by one layer of flat cells, but though to be impermeable to fluid. It provides cushioning and contains the CSF of the ventricles and central canal in spinal cord.

19. Microscopic structure of cerebellum - cytoarchitecture and impregnoarchitecture.

Cerebellum ortex made by gray matter and 3 distinct layers. A medulla of white matter inside. Cortex makes up cerebellar folia as foldings separated by sulci. It is enveloped by the pia mater, arachnoid and dura. Functions of cerebellum are coordination of muscular activity, posture and equilibrium. It receive constant feedback about movements and proprioception. Cerebellum has neurons of different types and neuroglia of CNS: 1. Astrocytes 2.Oligodendrocytes 3.Microglia Pukinje cells layer pear shpend The layers of the Cerebellum: 1. Molecular layer 2.Purkinje cell layer 3.Granular layer Cerebellar medulla 1. Afferent fibers 2.Effernt fibers cerebellar medulla contains afferent and efferent fibers, myelinated axons of purkinje cells . Afferent nerve fibers come from spinal cord and brain stem. They are climbing and mossy fibers Cytoarchitacture Cytoarchitecture refers to the layers of cells described above. From wikipedia Cytoarchitecture (Greek κύτος= "cell" + ἀρχιτεκτονική= "architecture"), also known as cytoarchitectonics, is the study of the cellular composition of the central nervous system's tissues under the microscope. Impregnoarchitecture referes to: 3 type of method to visulized nerve tissue: 1.silver impregnation: 2.osmium tetroxide 3.Madder staining

30. General structure of capillaries - types and functions

Defenition of capillaries The capillaries - the thinnest vessels forming diffuse network (by anastomoses) The capillaries are suited for the exchange of nutrients ,product of metabolism and gases between blood and surrounding tissues • There are small thin-walled blood vessels with the average diameter of - 7-9 µm Histological structure: -Tunica intima Simple squamous endothelial cells resting on the basal lmina -Tunica intima Pricytes - equivalent ot the tunica intima Types of capillaries - the major structural variations in capillaries occur in organs with various functions: 1)The continous or somatic capillary -Most common type. -Without fenetratea -Continual basal lamina -Tight , well developed oclluding junction -neumerous pinocytotic vesicles (transport of macromolecules. -muscle tissue CT tissue Exocrine glands nerbous tissue 2.Fenestrated or visceral capillaries -Slevelike structure -allows more extensive molecular exchange across the endothelium -Presence of large fenestrates -thin diapragm thiner than the cells membrane --> provide channels across the wall. -Diapgragm without trilaminae structre -Continus basal lamina on the basak lamina -in tissues with raoid exachnge if substances between tissue and blood ( small intestine , endocrine ) 3.Fenestrated capiilarie with opening: -No diapragm present -Continous basment membrane -Aloow more exchange (nutrients, protein , macromolecules) -Kidney -renal glomerolus 4.Discontinus sinosuidal capillries: -Maximal exchange of macromolecules -Large perforations without diapragm -Iregular intercellulae clefts -->forming discontinous basal lamina with sapces. -->there are gaps between the individual cells. -Liver, spleen , bone marrow

Dura mater:

Dura mater: consists of DCT organized as : -outer periosteal layer -inner meningeal layer The two layers are fused except on superior sagittal surface they separate to form dural venous sinuses. The dura mater which enveloped the spinal cord is saperated from the periostum of the vertebrea by the epidural space. It is a durable membrane with larger blood vessels passing through it to the arachnoid, while the venous channels or sinuses lie over it in the epidural space.

2.External granular layer

External granular layer contains pyramidal cells and many stellate interneurons. The dendrites receive impulses from receptors or special or general sensation and move them to the first layer for dispersal and communication. This and the internal granular layer are developed in sensory parts of the isocortex.

3.External pyramidal layer

External pyramidal layer contains 1.small and medium 2.pyramidal cells, 3.stellate and 4.martinotti cells. This and the internal pyramidal cells are well developed in motor areas. Dendrites arrive from the inner part of the cortex, and the axons form the pyramidal tracts. Other fibers move inside the own layer, or to the other hemisphere.

18. Microscopic structure of spinal cord, Rexed laminae. Reflex arch.

From what the spinal cord is made from? Spinal cord is made by segments along the spinal vertebrae from which spinal nerves go to the body. The glial cell are 1.Astrocytes froming BB 2.Oligpdendrocytes 3.Microglial cells 4.ependymal cells (around the central canal) Rough antomy of the spinal cord: 1. Inner gray matter -butterfly shape -centreal canal (ependymal cells) 2.Outer white matter , make funicului 3.Anterior median fissure , posterior median sulcus 4.Dorsal roots ,posterior sensory horn,spinal ganglion 5.Anterior roots, anterior motor horn Grey matter Which cells are found there? Locations? Laminae? - Consists of: - multipolar neurons -cell bodies -glial cells - Anterior motor horns Has large motor neurons called radicular neurons, their cell bodies and smaller interneurons. - Posterior sensory horns - Intermediate zone. Found between the horns (place for neurons of the autonomic nervous system). - Divided into 10 Rexed's laminae. White matter: - Forms funiculi: dorsal funiculus ventral funiculus lateral funiculus ventral white commissure Not seen in normal H&E staining techniques. - Along axons are neuroglia that produce myelin sheath and give structure (oligodendrocytes and astrocytes) Rexed's laminae are successive layers of cells from dorsal to ventral horns. - Laminae I-IV are the main cutaneous receptive regions. - Laminae V receives afferents from the viscera ,skin and muscles. - Laminae VI receives mostly proprioceptive impulses. (subconcious location) - Laminae VII is the intermediate zone that belongs to ANS (sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers). - Laminae VIII - IX are motor neurons of anterior horns. - Laminae X is the ependymal cells around the central canal Neurons of the spinal cord are: 1. Radicular neurons 2.Oligodendrocytes 3.Astrocytes 4.interneurons 5.funicular neurons Reflex action Reflex action is a generated reaction connecting different neurons that is involuntary, and rapid, as a response of stimulus. The reflex follows a general sequence without involving the conscious part of the brain.

32. Microscopic structure of veins. Arteriovenous anastomosis.

General histological structure: 1. Tunica intima: #Simple squamous epithelium same. #Usually has a thin subendothelial layer #On smaller veins and especially those of the lower limbs it may form valves. 2. Tunica media: #The tunica media is reduced # small bundles of smooth muscle cells intermixed with reticular fibers (fibroblas secrete) and delicate network of elastic fibers. No elastic laminae except for an internal elastic laminae on the large veins. 3. Adventitia: #The best developed layer #Longitudinally oriented smooth muscle cells interposed with large amount of collagen #Well developed vasa vasorum #thickest layer made by loose CT, many vasa vasorum. Arteriovenous anastomosis. In certain regions of the body participate in regulation of blood flow by direct communication between arterioles and venules • In tissues (in the skin of nose ,lips, in erectile tissue of penis) are direct routes between the arteries and the veins that divert מוסתblood from the capillaries. in thermoregulation at the body surface. • Changes in diameter of arteriovenous anastomoses regulate blood pressure.

3.Granular layer of the cerreculum

Granular layer is made by granule cells and golgi cells (large granule cells). This layer is very cellular with little neuropil and contains the cerebellar glomeruli. The cerebellar medulla contains afferent and efferent fibers, myelinated axons of purkinje cells . Afferent nerve fibers come from spinal cord and brain stem. They are climbing and mossy fibers

10. Microscopic structure of testis. Blood - testis barrier.

Histological structure of the testies - all the layers and the cells: Tunica vaginalis -parietal layer=periorchium -visceral layer=epiorchium tunica albugina (DCT) mediastinum testies teststies septa testiscular lobes (250 lobules) Each lobe (lined by stratified germinal epithelium) a.semiferous tubules (1-4) -stratum fibrusum+stratum myoidum b.interstitial connective tissue -LCT,collagen fibers,fibcroblasts, mast cells,macrophages -Leyding cells (testesterone) c.Straight tubules d.Rete testies ( drain to the effernet duct) basal lamina sertoli csll spermtogonium primary spermatocytes secondery spermatocyte spermatid spermatozoa sertoli csll-functions 1. Form blood-testies barrier between vessels and spermatogonia 2.Secrete anti-Mullerian hormone 3.Mechanical support and secretion of testicular fluid for developing spermatogenic cells. Spermtogenic cells: 1. Spermatogonia -stem cells, divided mitotically-one daughter cells , one primary spermtocyte 2.Spermatocyte -primary spermtocyte (diploid) -secondery spermatocyte (haploid) 3.Spermatids -they are 4 in number, much smaller, need to mature 4.Spermatozoa -mature cells , with head and flagullum

16. Mammary gland active and inactive - structure, function.

Histological strucute of the mamry gland: 1.Lobule ( secretori unit -alveoli and tubuli, Clear vacuoles at the apical pole of the secretory cells) -Brnched cuboidal epithelium and myoepithelial cells. -->many lobules together--->1 lobe 2.15-20 lobes of tubuloalveolar glands each lobe saperate by LCT and adipose tissue. 3.lobules 4.Intarlobular duct -simple or 2-layered stratified cuboidal cells. 5.Intralobular LCT -rich in lymphocytes+plasma cells 6.Interlobular duct - outside the lobes +surrounds by denser interlobular CT 7.Interlobar duct -surround by interlobar connetive tissue with denser appearance 8.Lactiferous duct -Stratified cuboidal epithelium +myoepithelial cells. 9.Lactiferous sinus ( the dilations of the lactiferous duct) 10.Dctus papillares ( lactiferous duct narrow to ductus papillares in the orifice) 11.Lactiferous pore 12.Nipple Non lactans VS Lactans מהסיכום

15. Structure and function of placenta.

Histological strucutre of the placenta 1.Fetal part-is the choionin (choionic plate) a.Chorionic plate - -Irregularly arranged cells that are syncytiotrophoblasts and cytotrophoblasts -These cells when mature have large vessels run inside them. -Much of the plate is loose CT and amorphous ground substance. b-chorionic villi -syncytiotrophoblast cells (outside) -Cytotrophoblastic layer (inside) -stroma of chorionic villi- LCT -blood vessels in chorionic villi -Hofbauer cells -macrophages c-Intervillous space -Filled with maternal blood 2.Maternal part- decidua basalis a-connective tissue of the decidua basalis b-decidual cells 3 types of villi: 1.Primary chorionic villi 2.Secondary chorionic villi 3.Tertiary chorionic villi They are contacting each other through layer of chorionic villi and intervillous space. Placental blood barrier- prevent mixing of maternal and fetal blood What are the important functions of the placenta? Has several important functions: 1. Metabolism - synthesis of :glucose,cholesterol, fatty acids. 2.Transport of nutrients, waste material, water, hormones and maternal antibodies (IgG). 3.Possible passageway for drugs or viral pathogens. 4.Endocrine - synthesis of HCG, lactogen, steroid hormone and growth hormones.

14. Microscopic structure of uterus. Menstrual cycle.

Histological strucutre of the uterus 1.Uterus is covered by mesothelium called parametrium (dense CT of the broad ligament). 2.the uterus is a thick-walled organ, whose wall consists of 3 layers: A - tunica mucosa - Endometrium -epithlial lining: simple columner epithelium composed of mixed secretory and ciliated cells. -Lamina propria- loose connective tissue -2 zones: *zona functionalis a.have spiral arteries (can be coild/straight) #spiral arteries make terminal -cpillaries and lacuna b.Functional layer during secretory phase divided to: -Spongy layer (deep) -Compact layer (superficial) *zona basalis -have straight arteries from radial arteries -Uterine glands B - tunica muscularis - Myometerium -4 poorly defined smooth muscle cells -Vascularized Ct -middle layer blood vessels (radial arteries) C - tunica serosa - Perimetrium What is the menstrual cycle: · hormonally (estrogens & progesterone) modulated cyclic morphological changes of the endometrium · duration → variable but averages - 28 days The cycle commonaly lasts 28 days. 1.1-4 days : menstrual phase 2.Days 5-14 : The proliferate phase 3.Days 15-27: The secretory phase 4.Day 28 and onward: Ischamic phase

2. Neuroendocrine hypothalamo - hypophyseal system. Adenohypophysis.

How the regulation on the neurohypophysis is done? -Hormone secreting cell of the adenohpophsis -Releasing and inhibiting hormones (from the hypothalmus) -first capillary plexus+secondery capillary plexus -Examples: *Proclactin-secreting hormone *Proclactin-inhibiting hormone Pathway of the homones which through the neurohypophysis: stalk-->stored in Herring bodies with binding proteins-->released from unmyelinatted axons--> to fenestreted capillary plexus Blood supply of the hypophysis Internal carotid artery -Superior hypophysial artery -Inferior carotid artery *They drain to -->hypophysial portal system Superior hypophysial arteries makes: -Primary plexus (infundibulum) -Secondery plexus fenestreted endothelial capillaries (adenohypophysis) Inferior hypophysisal arteries -plexus around the neurohypophysis What is the structure of the adenihypophysis (=distal part)? -more stained cells -made by cord of cells with different staining properties -sinusoidal capillaries -delicate connective tissue stroma The cells the adenohypophysis - chromophils- morphology? 1.Parenchymal cells -glandular epithelial cells -synthesize and secrete protein hormones. 2.Round to polygonal -developed golgi complex -mitochondria -rER -secratory granules. 3.Secretory vesicels are scattered and discharged by exocytosis to the fenestrated capillaries with diapragms. 4.Mammotropic cells -contain granules in the cytoplasm -that during pregnancy they grow up to double their size. Cells of the adenohypophysis are divided to: 1.Chromophobes 2.Chromaphils -Acidophils *Somatotrophic cells *Mamatropic cells -Basophils *Gonadotropic cells *Thyratropic cell *Corticotropic cells What is the tubural part =infundibulum of the adenohypophysis? is a funnel shpaed region leading to the hypophysis Where the intermidiate part of the adenohypophysis loacted and what is it contains? -Between the the adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis contains of: -Basophils (chromphils) -chromophobes -follicles-like structure lines by cuboidal epithelium -coloid filled cysts Neurohypophysis=nervous part: 1.Lighter white matter axons (unmyelinatted axons) -secretory granules -ADH -oxytocin 2.Pituicytes -glial cells -round nuclei and processes -supporting role -contain Lipofuscin 3.Hering bodies

27. Internal ear - bony and membranous labyrinth.

Internal ear: -Covered by temporal bone -Made by: -Bony labyrnith(externally) -Memnranous labyrnith (internally) 2 portions: 1.Vestibular portion- -Inner ear -For preception, motion balance 2.Coclear portion -preception of sounds -externally- lined labyrneath -Internally- membranous labyrnyth Bony labyrnith - -made by the petrus part of the temporal bone , Lined with endosteum -Filled with perilymph (Na low ,k high) -Surrounded by: 1.Vestubule *Utricel *Succula *maculla 2.Semicircular canals *superior *postrior *horizontal 3.coclea -Hollow organ -Turn -->modibulus Membranous part: -inside the bone labyrnith -Endolymph ( low Na , high K ) -Inside -CT+simple epithelium -CT strands between it and the periosteum. -Make up: 1.Sacuula+ Utricle Macula-inside (Neuroepithelium-sensrory cells-->hair cells +cplumner with sterocilia supporting cells. Otolitic membrane -Linear accelaration 2. Endolymphatuc duct Endolymphatic sac 3.3 semicircular duct -ampula -dilated part -Crista ampullaris (for andular movment) -Ampulla-->gelitmous glycoprotein -hair cells +supporting cells Coclear duct: 1.Sacular vestibuli -Oval window -Vestibular mambrne (Reissner's) -Simple aquamous epithelium 2.Scala media -organ of corti -coclear duct with endolymph 3.Scala tympani: -continous helicoterma -Met scala vestinuli -Until round window -Between coclear duct and cochlear bone 3.Stria vascularis - lateral wall of the scala media produce endolymph (high K+) 4.Organ of corti

5.Internal pyramidal layer

Internal pyramidal layer is identifiable by: 1.large Betz cells (pyramidal cells) which are motor neurons. 2.stellate and 3.pyramidal cells are seen. Axons of Betz cells make the descending tracts.

6. Microscopic structure of kidney - renal corpuscle, filtration barrier.

Kidney -structure: 1. Fibcrous capsule and fatty adipose capsule 2.Cortex -renal corpuscle a.Bowman's capsule -parietal layer -simple sqamous epithelum - rticular fibers -visceral layer -podocytes b.Glomerolus -fenestrated epithelium c.Bowman space d.Vascular pole e.Urinary pole 3.Medulla -10-18 medullary pyramids -renal columnes -corticomedullary junction (base of the pyramids) -Medullary rays -Renal lobe -Apices of the pyramids (-->renal papilla -Staright tubules, collectind ducts, capillaries, loope of henle. What is the filtration barrier (apparatues)? is the barried through which the blood has to filtred and absorbed into the Bowman's space The filtration barrier composed of: 1.Endothelium if the glomular capillaries 2Basal lamina of the capillaries consist of : -Type 4 collagen -laminin -Pedicales -filtration silt -diaphrgms The pathway of the blood in the filtration barrier: 1. Basment membrane of fenedtrated capiilaries 2Between filtrated silts of pedicles 3.Through the diaphragm 4.Bowman's space

37.Microscopic structure of larynx and trachea.

Larynx= is a short passage for air between the pharynx and trachea . -Phonation (vocal cords) -Reinforned by hyaline cartilage "TCA" -Smaller cartilage "ECCS" Epiglotties 1.Elatic cartilage 1. Perichindrium 2.Chondrocyte in pairs 3.Capsular matrix 4.Elatic fibers 2.Tunica mucosa a-lingual surface -stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium b-mucosal papillae-on the lingual side c-apical portion of the laryngeal surface- stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium (lower portion of the laryngeal surface:pseudostratied ciliated epithelium ) 3.Mixed glands , seromucous-on the laryngeal side Undereneatht the epiflottis in the larynx: Vestinular folds (up) : -Respiratory epithelium -Mucous glands -Lymph nodules Vestibular folds (between) Vocal folds (down) : -Elastic ligaments -Vocalis mucle -Stratified squamous non keratinized epithelium Trachea: Is a thin tube that bifurcates at its into primary bronchioles -Hyaline cartilage 1.Tunica mucosa a-pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium -oval nuclei of columnar cells -cilia -basal cells -goblet cells -5 types of cells b-thick basement membrane c-lamina propria , loose connective tissue+tracheal glands 2.Tunica submucosa a-connective tissue with seromucous glands 3.Tunica fibromusculocartilaginea a-hyaline cartilage #-perichondirum with chondroblast #isogenous groups -chondrocytes -nucleus of the chondrocyte -capsular or territorial matrix #Interterritorial matrix b-perichondirum 4.paries membranaceus -trachealis muscle-smooth muscle+anuular ligaments 5.Tunuca adventitia

The pathway of the light:

Light travels through the many layers of the neural layer to reach the rods and cones, the main receptors of light. The rod and cons communicate by action potentials to the upper layers with bipolar cells that trasmit the AP to ganglion cells, who's axons run back deep to make the optic nerve. Light-->rods and cons-->bipolar cell-->ganglion-->optic nerve the ganglion cells create the optic nerve.

6.Multiform layer

Multiform layer contains 1.a few large pyramidal cells 2.many small pyramidal cells . Other multiform cells of different sizes and shapes

13. Microscopic structure of ovary, ovarian follicles, corpus luteum.

Ovary histological structure: Held by the mesothelium which is part of the broad ligamnet and its thickness called suspensory ligament and overian ligament. 1. Cotical region 2.Medullary region 1.Cortical region a-germinal epithelium-simple cuboidal epithelium b-tunica albuginea ovarii (DCT) c-interstitial connective tissue of cortex overri d-primordial follicles e-Primary follicels -growing follicles -unilaminar follicles -multilaminar follicles f-Secondery (antral) follicles g-Mature (Graffian)follicles h-corpus luteum 2.Medullary region a-rich vascular network with loose connective tisse (lymph and nerves) Follicles: (Stages of the follicels (4):) 1.Primordial (resting)follicles -They contain the primary oocyte (before meiosis) that is surrounded by flattened 1 layer of follicular cells (simple squamous) and under the follicular cells lie a basement membrane. 2.Primary (growing) follicles a.primary oocyte (larger) b.distinct zona pellucida+ corona radiata c.Follicular ganulosa cells *Unilaminar primary follicle #one layer,cuboidal cells *Multilaminar primary follicule #stratified follicular cells #2 parts - Avascular part -Vascularized part d.Basal lamina (basement membrane) e. theca folliculi - theca interna (sestradiol) - theca externa 3.Secondary follicles = antral / vesicular follicles. a.Antrum b.follicular fluid (liquor folliculi) c.zona pellucida oocyte is eccentrically located d.cumulus oophorus e.granulosa cells. g.theca interna-steroid secreting cells. j.FSH: -under influence of FSH and growth facto larger, with a visible antrum (space) between the granulosa cells. The spaces are filled with liquor. 4.Mature follicles = Graafian follicles -Secondery oocyte -zona pellucida -corona radiata -comulus oophorus -antrum folliculi -Membranous granulosa ? -basement membrane -internal follicular layer -external follicular layer Waht theca intrana secretes? estradiol (estrogen precursor) in quentatiy that couses the hypophysis to release massive abount of LH (LH surge) and couses as well diffrentiations of the remanant foliicles into corpus luteum. What is the name for follicular degradation? And what is follicular deradation? Atresia Most folliculi will undergo to degeneration and not reach Graafian follicle. When they die, they lose shape and later are degraded by macrophagic cells. This can happen at any stage of development, including graafian follicles. Corpus luteum: Occur after ovulation Temporary endocrine gland which is the remenent of the mature follicle Secreted progesterone, estrogen and relaxin. o after ovulation, the granulosa cells and those of theca interna that remain in the ovary form a temporary endocrine gland called the corpus luteum (Corpus luteum formed from the remnant of the mature follicle. The ovulated follicle is transformed into a yellow glandular structure, the yellow body.) o The oocyte is now in the uterine tube, while the large corpus luteum (Corpus luteum is localized in the cortical region of the ovary) keeps secreting progesterone, estrogen and relaxin. The structure of the Corpus luteum: 1.Central connective tissue 2.granulosa cells: --> become granulosa lutein cells 3.theca interna cells-->theca lutein cells 4.Theca externa cells o It has a central connective tissue core, and -the granulosa cells (make up 80% of the parenchyma- now call the granulosa lutein cells ) granulosa lutein cells #The granulosa cells will form -->granulosa lutein cells granulosa lutein cells: #Are large (up to 50 µm) and paler #produce progesterone -and the theca interna cells #The theca interna cells will form theca lutein cells theca lutein cells: #are smaller and stain more intensely #produce estrogen o The theca externa looks like a capsule around it. If no fertilazation will occur what will happen to the corpus luteum? o If no fertilization occurs the corpus luteum begins to degenerate about 14 days after ovulation and becomes smaller and form structure called corpus albicans. o The corpus albicans consist of a dense connective tissue scar. If fertilazation will occur what will happen to the corpus luteum? If fertilization occurs, the implanted embryo will secrete HCG (human chorionic gonadotropin, produce by the placenta) that will keep the corpus luteum alive.

42. Oral cavity - tongue, palate, minor salivary glands.

Palate:Forms the roof of the mouth ▪ It's horizontal partition that separates oral cavity and nasal cavity. ▪ The palate composed of : 1. (Bony)Hard palate→ which formed the ventral part of the palate. 2.Soft palate →which form the dorsal part of the palate. 3.valvula The function of the palate: -The plate is used during swelling , phonation and articulation. o Hard palate -immovable -core of bone From the the oral aspect contains -stratified squamous keratinized epithelium or parakeratinized epithelium. Lamina propria dense connective tissue -Contain capillaries and infiltrated lymphocytes. - The lamina propria in these regions rests directly on the periosteum of underlying bone In the submucosa: minor salivary glands?? Soft palate -movable -Skelatal muscle core -uvula-posteropr extention Epithelium: stratified squamous nonkeratinized epitheliu (oral side) basopharungeal side-respiratory epithelium woth goblat cells. ▪ The lamina propria : -A dense connective tissue ▪ Rich vascularity makes →mucosa red. (the lamina propria?) core of skeletal muscle. Submucosa Housing minor mucous salivary glands - mixed seromucous glands in→nasopharyngeal side -mucous glands in →oral surface.

36. Pharynx and tonsills of waldayer´s ring.

Pharynx= connectcs nasal and oral cavitries to the larynx and to the osophagus. It's continous to the oropharynx after the level of the soft plate. -lined by psudostratified (keratinied) epithelium changed into nonkeratinized epithelium at the level of the oropharynx. Tonsilles and waldaye's ring: MALT -beneath the epithelium , forming Waldayler's ring. Tonsiles= concentration of lynph nodules 1 Pharyngeal tonsils -posterior of the of the nasopharynx -pseodostratified columnar ciliated epithelium -lacks crypts 2 palatina tonsiles -Epithelium -thick capsule - no glands -stroma Crypts-10-20 2 lingual tonsils -Epithelium -thin capsule *weber's glands (open to the base of the crypts *Skeletal muscle- tongue -Stroma -Cryps-singular

Pia mater

Pia mater consist of: - layer of flattened cells of mesenchymal origin. -layer of astrocytes-not direct contact with nerve cells Adhention -It is directly firmly adhered to the surface of the brain and spinal cord. Pierces The pia is pierced by small blood vessels that give nutrition to the CNS, covered by the blood brain barrier.

2. Purkinje cell layer of the cerreculum

Purkinje cell layer has the pear-shaped multipolar purkinje cells that has a single dendrite towards the molecular layer that splits and branches (terminal arborization) as it reaches higher. The axons forms the efferent pathway towards the medulla. They have nissle bodies in the soma and a pale nucleus. These cells secrete GABA (an inhibiting neurotransmitter). Astrocytes are situated at the level of the cells and sheath them. Other astrocytes send processes towards the molecular layer

39.Respiratory portion of lungs. Structure of alveoli and blood - air barrier.

Respiratory bronchioles: -Simple cuboidal ciliated cells -making mucosal folds -clara cells -Diffusion take place Alveolar duct:i membrane of respiratory epithelium-->interyuppted -Simole squmous epitelium Lungs-2 types of cells: Simple squmous 1.Pnemonocytes type 1 -Numerous -97% 2.Pnemonocyte type 2 (3%) -Larger -surfactanct -polygonal Among the alveoli : -Strands of smooth muscle cells. -network of capillaries(warp each alveolus) skeleton:collagen + elastic fibers (fibroblast Intealveolar septum: between the 2 neighboring alveoli Thin part - alveoli and capillaris. Gad exchange occur. Thick part -between the alveoli Blood air barrier-is the thin part -Pnemonocyte 1 -A dual basal lamina -Cytoplama of endothelial cells -Plasma membrane of RBC. Alveolar pores of kohn Function and structure of alveoli: Air exchange: -CO2 and O2 -Inter alveolar septa -Elastic fibers (allow inspiration+expiration.) -Reticular fibers - prevent collapse.

40. Microscopic structure of salivary glands - secretory part and duct system.

Salivary glands: -produce saliva -divided to: 1.Minor slavary glands 2.Major salivary glands Saliva : -digestive enzymes -lylosomes -immunogubulins -bicarbonate Major salivary glands: 1.Parotid 2.Submandibular 3.Lingual Have the same basic histological structure: 1. -Partialy encapsulated -connective tissue capsule -connective tssue septa 2.Secrete: Mucus, serous, seromucus 3.Prenchyma: -serous acini -mucus tubules -tubuloacinar secretory units (serous delimilunes) -Myorpithelial cells According to the secretory material: -Parotid: *Exclusivaly serous *Adipocytes *Basophilic look *Saliva -25% -Submandibular *predominan serous + *a bit serous + *serous demilunes *Saliva-70% -Sublingual Predominant mucus tubules + a rare serous acini + serous demilunes Cells-secretory material: 1.Serous cells 2.Mucus cells 3.Tubuloalveolar units ( serous and mucous )- mixed Duct portion of the glands: 1. Intercalated duct -Simple cuboidal epithelium 2.Striated duct -Simple columnar epithelium -strations of mitochondria -eosinophilic 3.Interlobular duct columner epithelium 4.Excretory duct stratratified columnar epithelium 5.Main duct staratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium Parotid gland Section: Glnadula parotis Staining: H&E Magnification :x10 1.connective tissue capsule 2.connective tissue septa a-interlobular ducts b-blood vessels 3.Adipose tissue 4.Secretory lobules a-serous acinus b-intercalated ducts -serous pyramidal cells c-Intercalated ducts d-striated sucts e-nuclei of myoepithelial cells Submandibular gland 1. connective tissue capsule 2.connective tissue septa a-interlobular ducts b-blood vessels 3.adipose cells 4.Secretory lobules a-serous acinus b-mucous tubules c.Serous demilunes- Gianuzzi lunules d.Myoepithelial cells c-intercalated ducts d-striated ducts e.Blood capillaries Sublingual gland 1.Connective tissue capsule 2.Connective tissue septa a-interlobular ducts b-blood vessels 3.Secretory lobules a-mucous tubules b-serous demilunes c-serous acinus d-interlobular ducts

28.Internal ear -vestibulococlear apparatus , organ of corti

Scala media or the coclear duct- is a tringular space between the scala vetibuli and tympani --> organ of corti is found 1.Scala vestibuli (up)--> vestibular membrane --> composed of: 2 layyers of squamous epithelial cells saperated by basal lamina. 2.Scala tynpani-->Basilar membrane--> composed of zona arcuata +zona pectinata of fibrous meshwork +fibroblasts 3 vestibular membrane and scala tympani--> meet and produce-->limbus of spiral lamina --> secrete tectorial membrane (gelatinous mass) 4.Stria vascularis -on the external part: -Psudostratidied vascular epithelium *Basal cells *Intermidiate cells *Marginal cells Organ of corti =spiral organ Is a receptor for hearing. It is the sites on the basilar membrane and above it is the tectorial membrane. It extends through the coclear duct. Cells of the organ of corti: 1.Neuroepithelial cells -inner hair cells -Outer hair cells-atthached directly to the tectorial membrane 2.Supporting cells -Pillar cells -palangeal cells -border cells (=Hesensn's cells)

Sclera

Sclera: -A white layer -surrounds the eye externally -Composition: DCT of collagen fibers , intrersecting in many directions -Extraocular tendons (movment of the eye in many directions --> insert to the aaterior regions of the eye - 2 Functions -sclera : 1.To protact the eye ball 2 provide muscular insertion -posteriorly-join to the epinerium of the optic nerve -Inner suprachooroid lamina : *over the choroid *less collagen *more elastic fiber +melanocyte

12.Accessory genital glands- seminal vesicles , prostate

Seminal vesicles-structure 1.CT capsule 2.Tunica mucosa has branched mucosal folds which *are lined by columnar pseudostratified epithelium that secretes several substances such as fructose, inositol, GP, citrate. 3.Lamina propria of LCT and elastic fibers is seen between the folds. 4.Tunica muscularis made by 2 layers: -inner circular layer -outer longitudinal layer 5.Tunica adventitia- of loose connective tissue. GProstate: Histologcally structure Uretra in the middle of the prostate and the zones Prostate is covered by a fibroelastic capsule with: -SMC -Connectuve tissue -rich in elastic fibers 2.Septa: -Connective tissue -Smooth muscle cells that send septa to divide the lobules. 3.Tubuloalveolar glands: -folds of glandular epithelum a.The parenchyma forms 30-50 tubuloalveolar glands b.Each gland is lined by simple cuboidal to pseudostratified columnar epithelium . c.that are found inside a lot of connective tissue called fibromuscular stroma - DCT with smooth muscle cells. d.Prostatic concentrations = corpora amylacea are found in higher amounts with older age. These are deposits of prostatic secretion in the middle of the prostate is the urethra. The glandsin the middle of the prostate is the urethra. The glands there will arranged in 3 zones around the urethra: 1.Transional zone -mucosal glands --> drain directly to the ureatra 2.Central zone -submucosal glands--> drain through ducts 3.Peripherial zone -the largest with the main glands --> drain through long ducts

21. Dorsal root ganglia and peripheral nerve.

The dorsal root ganglion -Round structure with DCT casule around the glanglion +conatining fincrobals -Relay station -->made by 1.sensory neurons cell bodies and processes and is part of the PNS contains those typical glial cells: 1. satellite cells give structural support, insulation and nutrient regulation. 2.Schwann cells are the ones forming myelin sheath around the axons. The unipolar sensory neurons: -contain Nissle bodies, -an euchromatic nucleus -prominent nucleolus - they are associated with many glial cells around them. Axons-myelinated/unmyelinated Around each nerve fiber is the endoneurium (connective tissue). Nerve fibers are grouped in bundles = fascicles to make peripheral nerves. The nerves establish communication between CNS and receptor organs or effectors like glands or muscles. - Peripheral nerves are surrounded as a whole by protective epineurium. - Individual bundles are surrounded by perineurium - between the fibers is endoneurium

23. Fibrous layer of the eye.

The eye composed of three layers : 1.External fibrous layer -->sclera +cornea 2.Middle vascular layer-->choroid +ciliarry cody +iris 3.Inner sensory layer -->rerina Fibrous layers includes: -posterior -sclera -anterior-cornea -Join-->limbus Anterior segment of the eye: 1.Cornea- 5 layers a-Eithelium of the cornea b-Bowman's epithelium c-Stroma of the cornea -Keratonocytes? d-Descement's membrane e-Endothelium of the cornea 2.Anterior chamber 3.Iris a-anterior border of the eye b-Stroma of the iris c-Apncter pupillae muscle d-Dilator papillae muscle e-posterir epithelium of the iris f-pupil 4.Corneosacral junction 5.Canal of schlemm 6.Cillilary body a-cilliary process b-Cilliary muscle -meridional fibers -Radial fibers -circular fibers 7.Ora serrata 8.Lens a-lens capsule b-Lens epithelium (Subsacpular epitheloum) c-Lens fibers 9.Posterior chamber Posterior segment of the eye -sclera, choroid, retina 1.Sclera 2.CHoroid a-suprachoroidal lamina b-choroidal stroma (vascular lmaina) c-choriocapillary layer d-Bricuch's membrane 3.Retina a-Pigment epithelium b-photoreceptor layer -cons ,rods c-external limiting membrane d-outer nuclear layer e-inner plexiform layer f-inner nuclear layer g- inner plexiform layer h-ganglion cell layer i-nerve fiber layer j-internal limiting membrane

44. General structure of the digestive tract, oesophagus.

The gastrointestinal tract (GI) is a hollow tube with a lumen of variable diameter and a wall made of four main layer: 1.Mucosa 2.Submucose 3.Muscularis 4.Adventitia or serosa. 1. Tunica Mucosa: • Mucosa is the inner layer encircling the lumen and shows significant variations along the digestive tube. ▪ Lamina epithelialis mucosa - -Upper portion esophagous - staratigied squamous epithrlium -Lower portion simple columner epitelium b.lamina propria LCT, blood ,lymphatic vessels,small glands, lymphatic tissues c.Internal muscular muscle A thin layer of smooth muscle. 2.Tunica Submucosa: -denser connective -blood and lymph vessels -Meissner's submucosal nerve plexus -glands for example: 1.esophagus→esophageal glands 2.duodenum→duodenal glands-Brunner's) -aggregation of lymph nodules 1.large intestine 2.Appendix 3.Lamina muscularis (externa): ➢ The innermost layer is circular ➢ The outermost the longitudinal. (except of the skeletal muscle of the esophagus ) -Between circular and longitudinal sublayer: ➢blood vessels and lymph vessles ➢ The myenteric (Auerbach's) nerve plexus ➢The myenteric (Auerbach's) nerve plexus+Meissner's submucosal nerve plexus=enteric nervous system 4. Serosa/Adventitia Is a thin layer of loose CT with blood vessels, nerves ,lymph and adipose tissue covered by simple squamous epithelium called mesothelium. Adventitia- esophagus Esophagus 1.Tunica mucosa: Lamina epithelialis mucosa stratified squamous non- keratinized. - Within the epithelium are Langerhans cells a.Lamina propria : -LCT -esophageal cardiac glands BLamina muscularis mucosa/interna -inner circular layer SMC's 2.Submucosa: -no enteric plexus -Blood vessels -esophageal glands of mucus secretion. 3. Lamina muscularis (externa): two muscular layers: -Inner circular and -Outer longitudinal. • Upper 1/3 is mostly skeletal muscle • Middle 1/3 is half skeletal and half smooth • Lower 1/3 is mostly smooth muscle. • The nervous myenteric plexus is situated between the inner circular layer and the outer longitudinal layer, 4.Adventitia serosa is replaced with adventitia as the esophagus is not covered by peritoneum until passing through the diaphragm. -

22. Structure of meninges in the spinal cord and brain.

The meninges is the system of membranes which envelope the central nervous system. It consists of three layers who's primary function is protection of the CNS and contain CSF: Dura mater -DCToxrginized: Outer periodteal layer inner meningal layer -Fusion of the layers, except superior segittal layer surface -envelopes spinal cord-saperate from the periosteum of the vertevrea by epidural space -Durable mambrane with large blood vessels --> to arachnoid -In the epidural space (above the dura) ---> channels or vinuses Arachnoid mater -Avascular sheet -In contact with the dura mater -A system of loose arrannged trabeculae( (fibroblast +collagen) -Layer transperent , formed by 1 layer of epithelial cells, impermemble to fluid -provides cushioning , contain CSF of the ventricles+ central canal pia mater - layer of flattened cells of mesenchymal origin. -Layer of astrcyte- not direct contact with nerve cells -Adhention-->in it dirctely firned adgered to the surface of the brain and spinal cord -Small blood vessels pierced the pia --> give nutrition to the CNS,covered by the blood brain barrier.

20. Microscopic structure of isocortex - cytoarchitecture and impregnoarchitecture.

The neocortex = isocortex is a 6 layers structure that makes up 95% of the cerebral cortex. Cerebral cortex is made by : - gray matter -and white matter while the gray matter has a distinct 6-layer division. It is made up by the cells: 1)Pyramidal neurons 2)Fusiform neurons 3)Stellate (granule) cells 4)Horizontal (cajal) cells 5)Inverted (Martinotti) 6)Basket cells. 7)CNS neuroglia: -oligodendrocytes (myelin sheath) -microglia (immune system) -astrocytes ( BBB, structural and nutrient) -ependimal cells. Layers of the cerebral cortex display stratification based on cytoarchitecture and impregnoarchitecture with nissle or golgi stains: 1.Molecular layer = plexiform layer 2.External granular layer 3.External pyramidal layer 4.Internal granular layer 5.Internal pyramidal layer 6.Multiform layer Stainig which is traditionally used on nervous tissue sections? Common active dye in the staining solution? (2) The Nissl staining is a nucleic acid staining method traditionally used on nervous tissue sections. The active dye in the staining solution can vary, but toluidine blue or cresyl violet are common components that are basic dyes which bind to negatively charged nucleic acids like RNA and DNA.

Layer 1 of the neural layer

The pigmented layer(of the choroid )

17. Structure and function of the skin. Glands of the skin, hairs and nails.

The skin divided to : Epidermis Dermis Hypodermis -not part of the demis The function of the skin: 1.forms a barrier between inside and outer environment 2.Control and regulation of heat exchange (thermoregulation). 3.It is storage for metabolites and able to synthesize precursor for vitamin D. 4.Place for innate nonspecific immunity against foreign pathogens. Epidermis- which kind of epithelial? Layers? -Startified squmous nonkeratinized epothelium 1.Statum basle 2.stratune spinosum 3.Stratume grmulosum 4.Stratum lucidum 5.Stratum corneum Cells od the epidermins: 1. Keratinocytes cells 2.Melanocytes cells 3.Langerhans cells 4.Merkel cells Cells of the epidermins: 1.Papillary layer - LCT papillary layer forms dermal papillae. - Blood capillaries, collagen, fibroblasts, mast cells, dendritic cells, leukocytes, nerve endings. 2.Reticular layer - underneath has denser connective tissue with many collagen bundles in comparisson. - Embedded in the dermis are skin appendages: hair follicles, sebaceous glands and sweat glands. Glands of the hair and skin: 1. Sabaceous glands -acinar glands -ducts ending in the hair follicles -acini ( cells on the BM, round cells with fat droplets) -Holocrine secretion -Product :serum 2. Sweat glands a.Merocrine (eccrine) -coild tubular glands -secretory portion surrunded by myoepithelial cells -duct - stratified cuboidal epithalium -Dark cells -clear cells b.Apocrine (aromatic , odor) -axilla, arleolar (nipple),anal regions -bigger in the suncutanous tissue -open to hair follicle -secree odor (bacterial decomposition) Hair 1.root -hair bulb -dermal papilla 2.Shaft -hair medulla -hair cortex -internal epithelial root sheath -External epithelial root sheath -Glassy membrane 3. Erector pilli muscles Nails: -Plate of keratin -Nail matrix -Nail root (basalis +spinosum) -nail bed (basalis +spinosum) -Lunula (dorsal white part of the begining of the nail) -cuticle -seem as fold of the of the skin before the nail(stratum corneum) -Nail plate (on the nail bed)

41. Microscopic structure of the tongue and lip.

Tongue: Dorsal surface: 1.Lamina epithelialis mucosae epithelium of stratified squamous nonkeratinized or party- keratinized epithelium forming lingual papillae. 2.Lamina propria mucosa of LCT. Papilla: -Filliform -Fungiform -Folliate -Circumvalate -Test buds -sensory cells -supporting cells -Basal cells 2.Submucosa 3.Cntral core of skelatal muscle Ventral surface: 1.Lamina epithelialis mucosa: stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium, no papilla 2.Lamina propria Lip 1.Ventral surface of the lip -skin a. stratified squamous keratinized epithelium b. dermis #papillary layer -loose connective tissue #reticular layer - dense connective tissue c-Hair follicle, sebaceous and sweat glands 2.Muscle layer - striated skeletal muscle -orbicularis oris muscle 3.Dordsal surface of the lip -oral mucosa a-stratified squamous non - keratinized epithelium b-connective tissue papillae c-salivary glands, serous and muscous 4.Vermilion border of muscosa a- stratified squamous epithelium b-connective tissue with capillaries

9. Urinary passages.

Ureter- histological structure: 1.Luem of irregular shape 2.Tunica mucosa a.transitional epithelium -superficial umbrella shaped cells -middle pear shape cells -lower most basl cells b.lamina propria -loose cinnective tissue 3.Tunica muscularies - 2-3 layers of circular smooth muscle cells -inner longitudinal -outer circular in the lower part: -inner longitudinal -middle circular -outer longitudinal 4.Tunica adventitia-loose connective tissue Bladder 1. Tunica mucosa a.transitional epithelium -superficial umbrella shaped cells -middle pear shape cells -lower most basl cells b.lamina propria -loose cinnective tissue c.Form mucosal folds (whem the bladder id empty) 2.Tunica muscularies -inner longitudinal -middle circular layer -outer longitudinal layer 3.Tunica adventitia or serosa Top portion -->serosa Lowe portion-->adventitia

7. Structure and function of nephron.

What are the nepron are? And from what is it composed of? 1. The nephrones are the dunctional units of the blood plasma 2.The nephrones composed of: a.Renal corpuscle b.Proximal convulted tube (PCT) c.Loop of henle (LOH) d.Distal convulated tublule (DCT) What is glumular filtration? is similar to the plasma , but lacks proteins and not enter the urinary space due to their size. What are the mesangial cells? -supporting cells to the capillaries -control the size of the luman of the capillaries by contraction -Located outside the glomerolus -some juxtaglomular nesangial cells control the sizewof the afferent atrioles

3. Structure and function of thyroid gland.

What is the general structure of the thyroid gland? Follicular type of endocrine glands 1.CT capsule+septa (vessels+nerves) 2.Parnchyma -follicles (reticular fiber between them) -Sphere simple cuboidal epitheliul follicular cells (thyrocytes) -Colloid (in the luman) -Thyroglobulin 3.Parafollicular cells Thyrocytes- structure? round central nucleus rich in rER+GA Which hormone affected the thyrocyte and what the thyrocyte secrete in responsd? TSH affected the thyrocyte to secrete T3 and T4 Parafollicular cells-Secretion?structure? -Secrete granules of calcitonin (When high ca+2 it's secreted -vitamin D -Laregr and larger cells with rich vasculature called perifollicular capillary network. Production and control of theyroid hormones: (5 stages) 1.Thyrotropic cells (pituitary) secrtete TSH--> thyrocytes produce Tyroglobulin 2.Sodium -iodide transportes +iodide -chloride transporter 3.Thyrogubulin reacts with idodie 4. a.T3 and T4 attached to thryroglubulin b. they reabsorbed into thyrocytes c.leaving only T3 and T4 5.secretion of homones 6.Hoemone reach tissue- effectes Negative feedback (TSH and T3 and T4)

4. Structure and function of parathyroid gland.

What is the structue of parathyroid gland? 1.Connective tissue capsule 2.connective tissue septa 3.Parenchyma -Reticular fibers -Capillaries -adiphocytes -Chief cells (PTH) -Oxyphil What is the function of the parathyroid gland? to maintain calcium levels 2 conditions related to secretion of PTH: 1. Hyperthyroidism (to much PTH) 2.Hypothyrodism (Deacrese level of PTH)

5. Structure and function of suprarenal gland.

What is the structue of superarenal gland (adernal gland) ? 1.Fibrous capsule -septa of CT,vessels and nerves 2.Cortex (mesoderm) -zona glomerolusa -Zona fasiculata -zona reticularis -capillaires (fenestrated capillaries for sinoids) 3.Medulla (neural crest) -medullary parenchrmal cells (chromaffin cells) with reticular fiber stroma -big capillary sinusoids -medullary veins -ganglionic nerve cells (The chromaffin cells are modified sympathetic postganglionic neurons) Composition of the cortex of the adernal gland: The cortex compoded of 3 layres: 1.zona glomerolusa- -superficial -columner or pyrimidal in shape ,tightly arranged is closely packed irregular arched or rounded cords,surrounds by capillaries. -mineralcorticoids (aldosterone) 2.Zona fasiculata -Middle part -spingiocytes ,polyhedral ,arranged parallel distinctable straight cords towards the medulla (with lipid droplets in the cytoplasm) -sinosuids between -Glucocorticoids (cortisol, corticostrone) 3.zona reticularis -Deepes part -cells -Deeply stained -the cells arranged in cords -sinosuids beteen the cells -Lipofuscin granules -androgens

8. Juxtaglomerular apparatus of kidney.

Where is the juxtaglomular apparatus is ? At the vascular side of the renal corpuscle made by cells of the DCT Juxtaglomerular appartus cells: 1.Juxtaglomerolar cells (renin and erytrpoitein) 2.Macula densa (osmptic receptors) 3.Lacis cells -are cxtraglomerular mesangial cells (regulate luman of aterioles) What is the function RAAS system (renin-angiostenin-aldosteron-system)? controlos blood pressure mostrly by blood volume Mecahnism of EAAS system: 1. Decrese of BP or symphtetic innervation--|>decrease renal pefusion--> prorenin is converted to renin. 2.In the plasma : angostenin 1 converted to-->angiostenin 2 (by renin) 3. In the kidney: angostenin 1 converted to-->angiostenin 2 (by ACE) 4.Angiodtenin 2: -powerfull vasoconstricter -increase vascular resistance and BP -induce thirst -increse reabsorption of sodium -causes adernal gland to prosuce aldosterone 5.Angiostenin to --> cause to secretion of ADH--> water retnetion --> blood pressure incerse.

Individual bundles are surrounded by perineurium made by

by flattened epithelial-like cells and CT with collagen, elastic fibers, and blood capillaries

24. Vascular layer of eye. Iris and ciliary body.

vascular layer of the eye is called called Uvea Consists of three parts: 1.the choroid--LCT which is highly vascularized and contains little amount of melanocytes, -and located at the posterior 2/3 of the eye. 2the ciliary body 3.the iris

What is the choroid is? From what the choroid is composed of? Where the choroid located?

• Choroid: -LCT which is highly vascularized and contains little amount of melanocytes, -and located at the posterior 2/3 of the eye. Layers of the choroid 1.an Inner choroidocapillary lamina of rich vasculature important for nutrition. 2. An outer Bruch membrane is thin sheet of collagen and elastic fibers. 3.The innermost layer is the retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) that is continuous with that of the retina. ( on the retina.. Blood barrier -Gil) The retinal pigmented epithelium consist: 1.melanocytes -origined from neuroectoderm cells -cover the retina, choroid, and continue behind the iris. 2.macrophages 3.lymphocytes 4.mast cells What are the functions of the choroid? 1.It supplies nourishment to the retina and 2.some absorption of light by a black layer of melanin that prevents light to enter except from the pupil.