History 041 Lesson 6

Spain Empire Treaty

Next came an agreement with Spain. By 1819, the Spanish empire in the Americas was disintegrating. A number of Latin American nations had revolted from Spain and won their independence. During the War of 1812, Andrew Jackson occupied part of the panhandle of Florida. In 1818, Jackson swept into Florida again, this time to punish Indians who had launched raids into the United States and then retreated back into the Spanish territory. But the eager general went far beyond his instructions when he not only captured Indians but removed the Spanish governor from power and seized two important Spanish outposts. Most of Monroe's cabinet favored punishing Jackson for these excesses, but John Quincy Adams supported Jackson's moves as another way to pressure Spain. If the Spanish couldn't control the Indians in Florida, then they shouldn't possess Florida. In their weakened position, the Spanish gave in. The Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819 gave Florida to the United States, in return for the U.S. taking over the payment of five million dollars that Spain owed to American citizens.

Thomas Jefferson - The Nickel Cheat Sheet No. 7

Next, look at the value of the coin: "five cents." This reminds you that Jefferson designed our money system. He chose to base it on the decimal system, with influence from the Spanish dollars,169 where the coins would usually be worth five and ten times the value of each other, instead of copying the British model, in which coins were worth twelve or twenty times each other's value. That darn Jefferson seemed to have his hand in just about everything.

President Title

"His Highness the President of the United States of America, and Protector of Their Liberties." The House would have none of it, not wishing to confer any titles not found in the Constitution. The Senate gave in, and addressed Washington simply as "the President of the United States."

"Old Ironsides"

"We have met the enemy, and they are ours." Meanwhile on the Atlantic, a few American warships, notably the frigate U.S.S. Constitution (nicknamed "Old Ironsides" because its thick wooden sides held up so well under cannon fire), managed to defeat some British warships that were the same size or smaller, but they could not even hope to defeat the larger British "ships of the line" that bottled up many American ports.

Opposed Radicals

A few radicals again breathed out threats of secession, but the majority of the convention simply agreed on some constitutional reforms that would make it harder for the government to interfere in the economy or declare war. The convention then sent delegates to Washington to inform President Madison of their demands. Unfortunately for them, they arrived shortly after the news of Jackson's stunning victory at New Orleans and the signing of the Treaty of Ghent. In the patriotic swell that followed, the Federalists seemed like rotten eggs—an unpatriotic minority that was pulling only for its own interests. Once opposition to the war become unpopular, so did the Federalists.

Sacagawea

Along the way, they had picked up a French trapper and his fifteen-year old Indian wife, Sacagawea, to serve as translators. Sacagawea had been kidnapped as a girl, and grew up away from her own tribe. When Lewis took part of the group ahead of the rest, they ran into a Shoshone war party. This band of Indians was unsure of their new pale acquaintances, and many wanted to leave them. But when Clark arrived with the rest of the group, some of the Indian women recognized Sacagawea—they had been friends before she was kidnapped. Later, Sacagawea recognized the leader of the war party as her own brother, Cameahwait!

Neutrality Proclamation

But Washington did neither. Instead, he issued a Neutrality Proclamation, insisting that we would side with neither. The United States still had almost no navy, and could not afford to be swept up into an international war.

Federalist Measures

Federalists pushed measures through Congress which they said would help protect the country when war came. These were called the Alien and Sedition Acts. The Alien Act increased the time immigrants had to live in the United States before they could become citizens from five to fourteen years. It also allowed the president to put any immigrants who were not citizens in jail. Federalists said this was important to deal with enemy spies, and to minimize the influence of French citizens living in the United States. The Sedition Act made it a crime to print information intended to make the government look bad. Once again the Federalists claimed that it would be essential during war to have a unified country. Those who criticized the government would only weaken the war effort at a crucial time.

Exemplary Constitutional Practices

He also tried very hard not to show favoritism, choosing government officers from many regions of the country, and turning down even his qualified nephew, Bushrod Washington, for the job of district attorney.

Washington's Wishes

He disdained the "spirit of party" which caused people to work for the benefit of their own side rather than for the good of the nation as a whole. As he was preparing to leave office, after eight years as president, Washington had a "Farewell Address" published in the newspapers. In it, he hoped the United States would stay away from any "entangling alliances" with foreign countries, and he also hoped that his fellow citizens would keep out of political parties.

Unanimous Vote

He was reelected in 1792 with another unanimous vote from the electors, and many wanted him to make himself available for a third term in 1796.

Monroe Election

In 1816, Monroe won office almost unopposed. In 1820, the Federalists didn't put up any candidate at all, and Monroe took all the electoral votes but one.182 In many ways, Monroe was a throwback to earlier days. He was the last president to wear a wig, knee breeches, silk stockings, and silver buckles. He was the last veteran of the Revolution to serve as president, and the last of the "Virginia Dynasty" of presidents. (With the exception of John Adams, all of the first five presidents were from Virginia.) During Monroe's eight years in office, the absence of political bickering certainly made the political atmosphere in the country more pleasant.

The Rush-Bagot Treaty

In 1817, England and the U.S. signed the Rush-Bagot agreement, which provided for removing warships from the Great Lakes. This was the first step in a process that, by the 1880s, resulted in the U.S.-Canadian border becoming the longest unfortified border anywhere in the world. In 1818, the two countries signed another treaty which set the border between the United States and Canada at the 49th parallel of latitude until the Rocky Mountains. After that, the issue was murky, since both American and British trappers occupied the Oregon Country. When they couldn't settle the question at the time of the treaty, both sides agreed to a joint occupation of Oregon, which they could renew in ten years. That state of affairs would last until 1846.

The WarHawks

In Congress, a flock of young representatives called loudly for war, so loudly in fact, that they came to be called the war hawks. This group included Henry Clay from Kentucky and John C. Calhoun from South Carolina. They insisted that national honor required us to respond to British insults. Some even claimed that the British were hoping to reverse the outcome of the American Revolution and that the nation's very independence was at stake! But the war hawks looked toward other benefits they hoped to win by war. By fighting England, the U.S. would have a good excuse to attack the Indians supplied by the British in the West, thus clearing more land for settlement. They also felt that United States forces could easily snatch Canada away from Great Britain.

Solution to Sedition

Jefferson and Madison each wrote anonymous solutions to the problem, which were called the Kentucky and the Virginia Resolutions. In these documents, they declared that the states should be able to do something about unconstitutional laws.

The Embargo

Jefferson had to do something about this intolerable situation. Washington had declared neutrality, the nation had negotiated treaties with both the English and the French, but none of this was working anymore. America was incapable of launching a full naval war on either of the abusive European powers. Jefferson therefore decided that if our ships could not go to sea without being raided, then our ships would not go to sea. He pushed an embargo, a suspension of trade, through Congress in 1807. No American goods could be exported by any ship. Jefferson hoped that England and France depended so much on our supplies that they would be willing to negotiate rather than lose them altogether.

Conflicting Parties

John Adams became president in the election of 1796 by a mere three electoral votes over Thomas Jefferson. This presented a problem, since Adams was a Federalist and Jefferson was the leading Republican.166 Needless to say, Adams wouldn't ask Jefferson to do much as his second in command.`

Thomas Jefferson - The Nickel Cheat Sheet No. 5

Look at the date. I realize this is stretching it, but that date might remind you of how long ago Jefferson lived. It will remind you that it was so long ago that Jefferson's been dead a long time. When you think of that, you'll think of his tombstone and what's written on it. That's important because Jefferson dictated the three accomplishments he wanted inscribed on his own tomb. The inscription reads, "Here was buried Thomas Jefferson, Author of the Declaration of Independence, of the Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom, & Father of the University of Virginia." Those were the most impressive accomplishments to him. There's no mention of any office that he held: governor of Virginia, Vice President or President of the United States.

Thomas Jefferson - The Nickel Cheat Sheet No. 1

Look at the shape of the coin first. It is round, but that's not enough. It doesn't have the little serrations on the edge like the dime and the quarter, so we can say that the nickel is well-rounded. And wouldn't you know it, Jefferson was our most well-rounded president. He spent his time being an architect, inventor, philosopher, diplomat, writer, lawyer, scientist, musician, and politician. He was at least fairly good at all of these pursuits, and excellent at some of them. He was incredibly curious. He would record the weather conditions every day, write the date he bought clothes on inside the articles of clothing themselves so he would know how long they lasted, and make indexes to his own books. Towards the end of his life, Jefferson was the main founder of the University of Virginia, and designed the principle buildings for it. President Kennedy once had a dinner at the White House that almost fifty Nobel Prize winners attended. These people represented some of the leading scientists and authors in the world. As he greeted this impressive assembly of guests, Kennedy remarked that "I think this is the most extraordinary collection of talent, of human knowledge, that has ever been gathered together at the White House—with the possible exception of when Thomas Jefferson dined alone."

James Madison/Macon's Bill

Macon's Bill No. 2. This act tried to use American trade as a prize. It resumed U.S. shipping to all the world, but promised that Congress would stop trade with the enemy of whichever power quit attacking United States vessels. So, if England stopped attacking American ships, then Congress would stop trade with France, giving England the advantage. The same was true the other way: if France stopped attacking us then we would cease trade with England. The stage was set. What seemed like a good negotiating tool for the United States turned instead into a way for Napoleon to sucker Madison into doing what he wanted.

Thomas Jefferson - The Nickel Cheat Sheet No. 6

Now flip over to the "tails" side. Immediately you see a building there. That's Jefferson's main home in Virginia, Monticello.168 Naturally, Jefferson designed it, but it took twenty-five years to build out of the materials found on the plantation. It still stands today, with all of the strange gadgets Jefferson put in. There is a little elevator built into the fireplace so wood could be hoisted up from the basement. Likewise, there was another "dumb waiter" (as these little rope-operated elevators are sometimes called) popping up right in the middle of his dining room table, so wine could come straight from the cellar. He had what was modern plumbing for the times, with tunnels that led from his toilet to the side of the hill (but the servants who had to clean these out could not have been terribly impressed). One of the beds lifted right into the ceiling so that it wouldn't take up space during the day. It's still well worth a visit the next time you find yourself driving south from Washington D.C. Like Washington, Jefferson seemed to get the most delight out of his plantation, of which he remarked, "All my wishes end, where I hope my days will end, at Monticello."

Thomas Jefferson - The Nickel Cheat Sheet No. 2

Now look at the "heads" side of the coin. The thing that attracts your attention first is Jefferson's portrait. Notice the plain coat he's wearing. He presented a much more down-to-earth appearance than either Adams or Washington, who preferred powdered wigs and ruffled shirts. They insisted on formal manners, while Jefferson behaved himself much more commonly. Once he offended a British ambassador by greeting him in his bathrobe and slippers. (On the other hand, Jefferson did appreciate fine French wines and cuisine, which were only within the reach of the rich.) You might also glance at the roundness of the nickel again to remind yourself that Jefferson put a circular table in the White House, so no one would have a place at the table that was better than that of anyone else. In his appearance and manners, Jefferson was the most democratic of any president before Jackson.

Thomas Jefferson - The Nickel Cheat Sheet No. 4

Now look at the other slogan on the front of the nickel. It says "Liberty." Certainly, few people did as much for liberty as Jefferson. He was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence. Later in his life, he declared, "I have sworn upon the altar of God, eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man."167 Furthermore, few people have used their liberty as well as Jefferson. We've already seen the many things he studied in the free time he had. And we will continue to see how much he contributed to the early government of the country.

Thomas Jefferson - The Nickel Cheat Sheet No. 8

Now look at the phrase "United States of America." This can remind you of Jefferson's republican ideals. Like Washington and others, Jefferson would rather have stayed at home than leave so often to take part in government. But he felt it was his duty to serve, and so he did it.

Thomas Jefferson - The Nickel Cheat Sheet No. 9

Out of many ideas, one Constitution; out of many nationalities, one nation; out of many backgrounds, one people. It's a great motto because we still haven't lived up to it. These days, in fact, a number of people prefer to point out what differences we have rather than what we have in common, thus fracturing Americans into many smaller groups. That's too bad, because one of the main ideas of the country is that, while we aren't united by the same background or race, we should be united by the ideals that brought the country about.

Thomas Jefferson - The Nickel Cheat Sheet No. 10

So while there were inconsistencies in his thoughts and practices, the same is true of most. But even though he was one of the powerful elite, he was in the front of a movement to spread rights and power more broadly, something which would only weaken his own position. Most people do not work to diminish their own power. As you've seen by now, Thomas Jefferson was an unusual individual.

Good Expectations

The "Corps of Discovery," as they called themselves, performed remarkably well. Only one man died, and that was because of disease, not violence. Sacagawea traveled most of the way with her infant son and even at her young age was highly useful to the expedition. The corps failed to discover a convenient water route to the Pacific, but only because none existed

Louisiana Purchase

The Constitution did give the executive branch power to negotiate treaties, as long as the Senate ratified them. After much debate, two thirds of the Senators ratified the Louisiana Purchase, overcoming their colleagues who felt that America had been corralled into taking a heap of worthless wilderness off of Napoleon's hands.

Party Ideals - Federalists

The Federalists wanted a more balanced economy, with more trade and manufacturing. They wanted heavy federal support for these enterprises, and therefore favored a loose construction of the powers of the national government under the Constitution. They admired the British and wanted to strengthen our ties with mother England rather than with the French. In general, many Federalists felt the aristocracy knew what was best, and so they should set the direction for the country.

Party Ideals - Republicans

The Republicans, therefore, promoted a nation of farmers and limited manufacturers. They favored strict construction of the Constitution, and more power to the states and people than to the federal government. They favored closer ties with France than with England. In general, the voting public knew what was best and should control the direction of the country.

Era of Good Feelings

The most immediate reason for the Era of Good Feelings came out of politics. With the end of the War of 1812, the Federalist party withered and died. James Monroe trounced Rufus King, the last Federalist candidate to run for president in the election of 1816. What happened to the party which controlled the fortunes of the country over its first decade? Mostly the war. The Federalist party had come to be dominated by merchants in the North, who opposed the war since it devastated their trade. In late 1814, they called a convention in Hartford to discuss what they could do about "Mr. Madison's War," as they called it.

Hamilton's Advice

Washington took direct action. He called out the Pennsylvania militia, and donned his old uniform to review the troops. Hamilton then took command and rode out to find that in the face of these troops there wasn't much rebellion left. Still, by getting involved, Washington showed his preference for a direct, vigorous national government, rather than one which yielded to the states.

Thomas Jefferson - The Nickel Cheat Sheet No. 3

he next thing you should look at is the phrase, "In God We Trust." Jefferson trusted in God in his own way. He didn't attend any formal church, but his beliefs were those of a deist. Deism was a rather scientific belief, typical of Enlightenment thinking. A deist believed that God is like a clockmaker. He assembled the universe like a clock, so that once it was set in motion it could run by itself. Therefore, deists didn't look for much interference from God in day-to-day affairs, but instead studied the creations of God to see how they worked. Jefferson admired the New Testament, but thought that over the centuries some people had added their own ideas to it, so he put together a collection of what he felt to be the authentic teachings of Jesus. Jefferson was also proud of the Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom, which he wrote. This did away with the establishment of the Anglican Church in that state. Many accused him of being irreligious in his life (especially in the vicious campaigning of 1800), but what he really opposed was the government giving an advantage to any particular religion.