History 250

Olaudah Equiano

- (1745-1797) - also known as Gustavasa Vassa (replacement name given to him) - African who was sold into slavery and bought his way out - kidnapped as a boy (age 11) from his home and sold into slavery - he served in the Seven Years' War as a captain's boy and was then sold to a slave trader where he went to the Caribbean - from there a white colonist bought him and he eventually bought his way out of slavery - he went to England to live and published a book about slavery and his experiences - his message was widespread and helped to inspire the abolition of slavery

Belinda's Petition

- 1783 petition to the Massachusetts General Court for a pension from the estate of her former master Isaac Royall Jr. - He died in 1781 and his wil said if she chose to be free she should receive a pension of 30 pounds for 3 years but only one payment was made so she petitioned again in 1787 and won

In what ways did the English and the Americans betray their promises to African Americans following the war, and what happened to the Black population in the aftermath of that betrayal?

- 80,000 black loyalists refugees were left behind and returned to bondage in the U.S. - On the return, the English took 20,000 evacuees and sold many into slavery in the Caribbean, despite the promise of freedom - In the Americas, most black patriots were not given their freedom after the war. Nor were black veterans given military benefits for their service

Felix's Petition

- A 1773 petition written by African American slave called Felix, on behalf of himself and other Boston slaves, asking the Mass. Gen. Court to end slavery - speaks to the desperation of the "unhappy State and Condition" in which slaves lived - was the first public protest to a legislature made by blacks in New England - first of 5 appeals within a 2 year period asking for a range of rights

What was the significance of Lord Dunmore's Proclamation?

- A decree issued by the English promising freedom to all enslaved people who sought refuge with them - Also allowed Blacks to join the English army, and take up arms about the American rebels - "give me liberty or give me death" - more African Americans became loyalists rather than patriots - psychological warfare against the patriots

What challenges did enslaved people face in retaining culture and forming a sense of unified community?

- African-American family life was prevented from flourishing - lost native languages and ethnic identity - incest taboos meant choosing mates on plantations other than their own - ?

What economic similarities existed among West African societies prior to European contact?

- Based on a combination of agriculture and trade. - Iron refining and forging, textile production, architecture, rice cultivation.

What laws (for example, the Negro Acts) were developed to restrict the rights of free Blacks during the colonial era? How were these laws enforced?

- Denied all rights to vote, own property, testify in court, learn to read, or have freedom of mobility - Couldn't be freed, even if owners wanted to free them - Enforced with violent punishment and brutality for breaking rules - used muzzles, castration, dismemberment, whipping, etc. - punishment was public in order to set an example

What is a theme that we have discussed in class that relates to Sherley Anne Williams' novel, Dessa Rose? With this theme in mind, discuss either how Williams' novel illuminates our historical understanding of slavery or how what we know about slavery informs the way we should interpret this aspect of the book. Your answer should be 6-8 sentences long.

- Dessa rose explores the complications and emotion of slavery very uniquely. -dessa v mrs rufel (breastfeeding) -"it is true the female slave is as deadly as the male"

What factors caused Europeans to consider expansion, and why did they specifically begin exploring the west coast of Africa

- Economy, religion and glory. - Their discovery of gunpowder and other technological advancements made them confident about exploration. - Portugal especially hoped to spread christianity - They also aimed to discover/attain the wealth in Asia but wanted to bypass/avoid the Arab "middlemen" in the Mediterranean

What was significant about Anthony Johnson's story and what does it tell us about the nature of slavery and freedom in colonial America?

- His story encapsulates changing ideas about race and slavery in colonial america - Brought to Jamestown from Africa in 1621 then released 14 years later. By 1651, he owned 250 acres of land with a profitable tobacco plantation and had his own servants. He even won 4 court cases but when he died in 1670, the court denied his will and deemed that because he was black, he was not a citizen and therefore had no rights to property nor the right to pass it down to his black children. They gave his land to a white man, and showed the growing radicalization of the colonies.

What was the purpose of "secret" societies in West Africa and how did they function

- Incorporating community and spirituality. - They were called the Poro (men) and Sande (women). - They regulated acceptable standards of behavior and doled out punishment to those who violated rules of society. - assisted those in desperate need during times of crisis - provided formal education to youth and offered supervised adulthood training

What political similarities existed among West African societies prior to European contact?

- Men dominated, but women could still have power and serve has gov officials - Similar class structures regarding slavery and the treatment of slaves. - In Poro and Sande communities, the women held most of the economic and spiritual power, controlled marketplace, and exercised economic independence.

What promises did the English and the Americans make to the Black population during the American Revolution?

- The English promised freedom in the EU or to return to Sierra Leone if the Africans sided with them/loyalists (Dunmore started) - Rebels soon promised the liberty as well, and 5,000 black men fought with the Americans - but many states did not comply with Washington's plan, and refused to promise freedom in exchange for military service

What were the main stipulations of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850? Why was the Fugitive Slave Act created, and why would it have caused controversy in the North?

- The Fugitive Slave Act required that all runaway slaves must be returned to their owners if found. This included if they were found, even in a free state, anyone who found an escaped slave in the free North would be required by federal law to return them to their master in the South. -legalizing kidnapping

Seasoning

- The process by which newly arrived Africans were broken into slavery in the Americas - Modified their behavior and grouped them into gangs, each with a different type of labour/workload - primed them physically and mentally for slavery - taught them to apply their skills to the new environment - some were taught European languages

What strategies did Africans use to cope with their conditions during the Middle Passage

- They often tried to kill themselves by jumping off the ship or starving themselves to death - attempted to counteract the bad spirits of the captors with rituals from their homeland - tried to "poison" ship's drinking water; put "charms" in it - rebellions or revolts - preferred to face death rather than accept bondage

How did enslaved people in the North use lawsuits as a strategy to gain freedom?

- They often used freedom suits filed by enslaved people against slaveholders to assert claims to freedom, often based on descent from a free maternal ancestor, or time held as a resident in a free state or territory. Usually based on "technicalities"

What political strategies did they use in the petitions in an effort to win the support of state legislatures?

- They used Christianity ("what would our great father think of such doings?"), compliments ("good worthy gentlemen"), persuasion, descriptive writing of slavery conditions, guilt, hypocrisy

Describe the differences between slavery in West Africa and chattel slavery in the Americas.

- West Africa: "humane", part of masters family, kept identity/personhood, were educated, fed, clothes, housed. Treated more like indentured servants who could someday gain freedom. - Chattel: became "property", no personhood

Cosmogram

- West African symbol from Congo to present-day Sierra Leone - showed cycles of life and death - manifested ideas

El Mina

- a "castle" or "factory" built by the Portuguese in on the Guinea Coast of Ghana in 1481 - permanent barracoon where mass amounts of slaves were stored for shipment - base for trading slaves, gold and ivory

Stono Rebellion

- a 1739 uprising of slaves in South Carolina, leading to the tightening of already harsh slave laws - began at Stono Bridge near Charleston - broke into a warehouse and stole the guns and ammunition, then killed warehouse workers leavering their severed heads on the building's steps - then fled to florida and on the way, the number increased from 20 to 100 - sacked plantations and killed 30 more white people - Indians re-routed them and killed 44, dispersing the rest

Geneva Club

- an association created for community - a gang of African Americans protesting slavery - led the 1741 revolt in which the group conspired to set fire to places such as governors house and soldiers barracks

What was the significance of the Phillipsburg Proclamation?

- if you leave and come to our side, we'll give you your freedom (you don't have to fight) - so women and children got up and left as well - some women took up arms after this proclamation

How did enslaved people incorporate African cultural practices into armed rebellions? (black renaissance movement)

- loyalty oaths - religious "witch" doctors - covered their clothes in some sort of powder to protect them - used powder from these witch doctors to start fires in rebellions

Flying Africans

- refers to the transmigration/cosmogram idea that Africans would "fly" home to Africa once they died - Many African folktales about this

Mansa Musa

- ruled Mali 1312-1337 - one of the wealthiest rulers of all time - took a pilgrimage to Mecca with a huge entourage and gave gold to those who greeted him on the way

What strategies did ship captains use during the Middle Passage to try to maximize their "profit?

- ship design: netting, baracades, separating men and women - "dancing" the slaves - changing people's names - restraints - torture: rape, whipping, cutting, sharks - Upon arrival to "freshen up" slaves for sale: bathing, eating , oiling, rubbing with gun powder to get ride of lesions, being plugged up with wax or corks to not appear dissentary

What types of labor did enslaved people in the North perform, and how did slavery differ in the urban areas vs. the rural areas?

- shipping industry, so mainly utilized as sailors, shipbuilders, or menial labor like loading/unloading of ships - this was mostly urban areas; rural areas were agricultural and the slaves were more spread out. - because urban areas such as NY were more condenses, slaves formed black communities but couldn't in rural areas

What similarities existed between the major resistance movements during the colonial period? (1712 and 1741 revolts and the Stono Rebellion)

- the revolts used fire as a war tactic - authorities showed up and prosecuted/executed the participants - some would kill themselves to avoid being captured/tortured - slave uprisings towards white masters/property against their maltreatment - gathering of various Africans, creating a sense of community

In what ways was the system of slavery profitable in the North? How, for example, did a region like New England profit from slavery?

- they profited from the ship building and trade portion of commerce - even though there wasn't a need for agricultural labor, they utilized slaves in other ways

What strategies did the colonists use to try to prevent future rebellions?

- they separated family members and ethnic groups - separated Africans from Native Americans

In what ways were Black women's lives during the colonial era similar to their male counterparts? In what ways were they different?

- they were used for labour also - but they were constantly sexually harassed and exploited - suffered from the intersectionality of being black AND being a woman - could not gain freedom because both of these things were compounding to work against them

What social similarities existed among West African societies prior to European contact?

- villages were constructed around complex systems of family, community, and lineage in which all people were considered part of an extended family network - clans called lineages, either patrilineal or matrilineal. Both nuclear and polygynous families. - elders had greatest economic and social power of the family's lives. Emphasized hierarchy. - work land communally, dividing task by gender. - secret societies to instill proper behavior (sande and poro) - more sexual freedom among women, they could befriend men and didn't need veils.

How did the underground Railroad develop and function? In what way did it pose a threat to the South?

-Due to the Underground railroad's secrecy, we don't know much about where it came from. -fully functional by 1840. -a network of safe houses where slaves could hide and retreat after escaping slavery. - posed a threat to the south because the network made it easier for slaves to escape and not return - as property, southern slave owners were upset because of the loss of money, as these slaves worked for free and were only a profit to them

What challenges did the nation face in the immediate aftermath of the Civil War? Why was "reconstructing" the nation so difficult?

-Land -citizenship, class/social status, education, politician and civil rights, etc. -extreme racism. There were constant unprovoked attacks including murders, beatings, rapes, etc. Because the country was struggling internally, it was difficult to reconstruct it.

Why was Abraham Lincoln hesitant to pass the Emancipation Proclamation, and why did he finally agree to sign it?

-Lincoln was concerned about the long-term consequences of emancipation, worrying that it would alienate the South and having a large free black population in the U.S.-Because of this, he believed that the best plan for abolishing slavery was "compensated abolition" followed by a forced return to Africa

What was the "general strike"? What challenges did it create for the Union army, and how did the Union army ultimately decide to deal with it?

-Union Camps were overwhelmed by fugitive slaves and did not know what to do with them. They decided to put them to work. - also caused problems because the union had to figure out its stance on anti-slavery.

In your opinion, what were the most effective ways enslaved people resisted slavery? What were the least effective ways? In supporting your opinion, describe at least one aspect of: 1) cultural, 2) religious, and 3) daily resistance. Your answer should be 6-8 sentences.

-WORK AVOIDENCE -riots

What were the differing roles for men and women in most West African societies prior to European contact?

-communities were ruled by both men and women, depending. -the Sande is the women's society, the Poro were societies ran by the men -women controlled the marketplace and exercised economic independence -spirituality, the elder women were believed to have special contact with the spiritual realms and often were asked to use their power of divination to mediate between the two. -Poro had most of the power, respect and political control.

What similarities existed between the major resistance movements during the colonial period? (1712 and 1741 revolts and the Stono Rebellion). Consider, in particular, the methods, strategies, and outcomes.

-fire as war tactics

In what ways did flight (running away) undermine the system of slavery? How did the decision to run away challenge slaveholders' beliefs about slavery, and how did successful fugitives threaten the existence of slavery?

-many fugitives gave little indication fleeing -they concealed their feelings -plantation owners were stunned to find out that their most "loyal" slaves had run away -underminded the slaveholders because they were blindsided -they thought if their slaves acted loyal they were loyal -running away deprived slaveholders of their property and labor force

Why was the Dred Scott case so important? What were the main questions that the Supreme Court considered and why was the outcome so devastating to the Black population? Your answer should be 6-8 sentences.

-similar, 200 years apart -aj: court denied his will to give fellow black property -scott: was property himself

What were the four stages of the Middle Passage, and what occurred in each phase

1) First trading of slaves for commercial venue (raiding parties developed about 150 years later) 2) Long march: tied together and marched 200 miles to coastline 3) Loaded onto anchored ships ("slavers") or put into "Barracoons" until ship could be filled 4) Voyage on cargo ship in terrible conditions, then checked once reached land and sold into slavery and branded

What were the 3 major empires in West Africa prior to European contact

1. Ghana (4th century-1076) 2. Mali (1230-1468) 3. Songhai (1464-1591)

Name two ways that the Anti-Slavery Movement differed from abolition.

1. anti slavery pushed for gradual emancipation by benevolent whites. (economic) 2. abolition included people of all races pushing for immediate ending to slavery.

What specific factors caused African elites to be willing to trade humans

1. military and political weakness (conflict with morocco, could not resist against europeans encroachment) 2. economic dependence (became dependent on luxury items that Europeans provided) 3. issues of identity (africans, at this time, did not see each other as members of the same group)

Treaty of Tordesillas

A 1494 agreement between Portugal and Spain, declaring that newly discovered lands to the west of an imaginary line in the Atlantic Ocean would belong to Spain and newly discovered lands to the east of the line would belong to Portugal.

Tight Packing

A plan that called for loading as many slaves on a ship as possible.

Caravel

A small, highly maneuverable three-masted ship used by the Portuguese and Spanish in the exploration of the Atlantic.

Triangular Trade

A three way system of trade during 1600-1800s Africa sent slaves to America, America sent Raw Materials to Europe, and Europe sent Guns and Rum to Africa

Conjure man

Also called a witch doctor, "jujuman," root doctor, obeahaman" and leaf doctor, this is a priest and physician called upon by African tribal members and followers of religions

During the abolitionist movement of the 1830s, neither nor black women had the right to vote. Why was suffrage for black men so important for the abolitionist movement?

Because white were worried that if black men received the right to vote, they would have the right to be elected into office and change policies surrounding slavery and segregation. - also believed that giving black people rights would encourage them to socially interact with the white population. This was a concern especially for Northeastern states whom had larger black populations.

What caused Ghana empire to decline?

Commercial and religious rivalries. Islamic Berbers from (what is now) Morocco called the Almoravids competed with Ghana for control of the Trans-Sahara trade. In 992, Ghana captured their trade center so in 1076 they retaliated and conquered Ghana.

What were the differing roles for men and women in most West African societies prior to European contact

Elder women were believed to have special contact with spirits and were often asked to use their powers of divination to mediate between the spiritual and earthly realms.

Describe some of the famous stories we discussed in class that demonstrated the creative ways that a few Black people escaped to freedom?

Harriet Tubman was one of the most famous conductors of the Underground Railroad. She escaped slavery at age 29, and was a fugitive herself. She was so notable because she returned to the south at least 15 times to help others, sometimes holding black people at gunpoint who would try to turn back. 1. She was believed to be PERSONALLY responsible for the freedom of close to 400 enslaved people.

Why do some historians believe that Bacon's Rebellion caused slavery to become racialized?

He insisted that he deserved access to Native American land and began encroaching on it despite their resistance. Him and his followers began fighting colonial authorities. He marched into Jamestown with 500 followers and demanded the colony declare war on NA. The king crushed the rebellion but it was the first full-scale interracial rebellion and consisted of 80 black slaves and 20 white indentured servants. This meant colonial authorities had to prevent future interracial coalitions, so the South created laws to clearly distinguish between slavery and indentured servitude. This therefore racialized slavery.

Ship Throwing

If slave captors thought they were going to get caught after slavery was outlawed, they would throw all the slaves overboard.

What caused Songhai empire to decline?

In 1591, Morocco's king sent an army to attach the capital Gao. The songhai army was no match for firearms and with the army destroyed, the empire collapsed.

What were the key factors that created a distinction between indentured servitude and slavery, and what kinds of laws were established to reinforce the differences between these categories?

Indentured servitude meant that a person owed another person a particular amount of labor (years). Slavery, meant you were unwillingly property and were in bondage for life. One is for life, one is branded by "blackness"

How did the institution of slavery develop in the English colonies in North America? What was the legal structure of slavery and how did it develop?

Initially the status of Africans was unclear for first 30-40 years so it was up to individual owners to determine slaves' statuses. They tried to keep white indentured servants separate from indigenous tribes and black slaves in order to avoid unity and rebellion against maltreatment. NE originally didn't have slave codes but were eventually influenced by Spain and Portugal to make "black" and "slave" synonymous. The occasional freeing of slaves made white people nervous, so they created rules and laws in which slavery became permanent and their personhood was discarded.

How and why did the trade in humans from Africa to the Americas begin?

Initially, African societies were trading their community members for commerce purposes. They dealt mainly women and children for lives as concubines and domestic servant in N. Af. and SW Asia. Then, in 1441 Portuguese ships arrived off the Guinea Coast and their captains traded for gold, ivory and pepper, but then wanted to purchase slaves for domestic work in Portugal and Spain. African rulers began trading people of other ethnic groups, then their own. Then when the Americas were discovered and the need for agricultural labor soared, Europeans abandoned the idea of fair trade and began raiding West African communities and kidnapping their members.

What role did kinship and lineage play in many West African societies and why would it be important in the context of the rise of the trade in humans?

It was incredibly important in defining one's personal identity as well as status. Enslavement meant losing this lineage, community, and connection to the land.

What caused the Mali empire to decline?

Mansa Musa went on a Pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324, passing along his wealth to people on the way. This display of wealth made Mali a target. So when Mansa Musa became ruler and later died, Timbuktu weakened. It was then raided and burned in 1468 by its formerly subject peoples the Songhai and their leader Sunni Ali.

What social, political, and economic forces caused the trans-Atlantic trade to develop?

Primarily the need for labor. European colonizers, aiming for wealth, began the production and cultivation of tobacco and other goods, which required labor. They initially enslaved indigenous americans but after they died out from disease and abuse, they looked for labor sources elsewhere (Africans).

During the 1820s and 1830s, some black leaders believed that black Americans should emigrate. Others believed they should stay in the U.S. and insist on citizenship. In your opinion, what are the possibilities and perils of moving to Africa, Haiti, or staying in the United States? Make sure you identify the advantages and disadvantages of emigration to each country. Your answer should be 6-8 sentences.

Pros: freedom, blackness freedom, citizenship problems: cultural conflict, language and religious differences, land distribution, issues with locals.

Describe and contrast Margaret Garner's actions to the "Flying Africans" or another form of violent rebellion. In your opinion, was she justified in her actions? Differences: generally, these actions were done to ones self, where Margaret took her children's lives (or attempted) as well.

Similarities: these were both done spiritually, to flee from pain. The concept of flying Africans was spiritual--it refers to the portion in the Cosmo gram called transmigration. It was the belief among African-Americans that they would "fly home" once they died.

How did the establishment of textile mills and the invention of the cotton 'gin influence the development of slavery?

The cotton gin was a machine invented by Eli Whitney in 1793, which easily separated cottonseed and fiber. made the task much quicker The "cotton kingdom" refers to a huge cotton-producing region in the southern US. Cotton gin influenced it because it made cotton the most profitable cash crop at the time

In what ways did European expansion into the Americas influence the development of the slave trade

The vast amount of land "available" for agricultural production and cash crops in the Americas lead to the demand for labourers to get the work done in order for the Europeans to make large profits off of the goods they produced, such as tobacco.

How did the "Founding Fathers" struggle over the issues of slavery and Black rights in creating the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution?

They knew it was inhumane but it was such a controversy that they didn't want to rip apart the colonies amidst the fight for liberty with Britain. so, they outlawed the importation of foreign slaves.

What did the English think about Africans after encountering them, and how did these ideas serve to justify slavery?

They perceived them as unclothed promiscuous savages representative of sin and evil. They were frightened by Africans' dark skin and associated it with bad things. They felt enslavement was justified because they were "better off" living in Europeans' "civilized" society rather than partaking in West African "barbaric" culture.

Ethiopian Regiment

Thousands of black men served with the British army, including 300 men who wore uniformed emblazoned with the slogan "liberty to slaves"

How did the Triangular Trade function? Who profited from the Triangular Trade and who did not?

Two triangular trade systems: 1) traders carried English goods to West Africa in exchange for slaves. These slaves were then carried to the West Indies in exchange for sugar which was taken back to England. 2) white Americans from NE colonies carried rum to W.A. to trade for slaves. These slaves were then taken to the West Indies to exchange for sugar or molasses which then was taken home to be distilled into rum.

John Newton

White captain of a slave ship, indentured servant (individual who sells or loses his or her freedom for a specified number of years) Evangelical Christian, read bible passages to his crew forbade swearing. Treated human cargo harshly.

What was important about the Fort Pillow Massacre, and what did it reveal about the treatment of Black soldiers?

William F. Bradford and his troops had surrendered to confederate commander Nathan Bedford Forrest, who had been a slave owner. of Bradford surrendering, the confederate troop under Forrest -slaughtered 300 black troops and their commander.

Bacon's Rebellion

an armed rebellion that took place 1676-1677 by Virginia settlers led by Nathaniel Bacon against the rule of Governor William Berkeley. He wanted the Native American land.

How did the gang system compare to the task system, and what would it have meant for the lives of enslaved people?

gang system: harsher, divided within slavery on a plantation task: established labors on the plantation

What types of jobs were enslaved Africans expected to fulfill if they worked on a plantation?

it depends on the colony (sugar in Barbados, Tobacco in VA, rice in the Carolinas) but they were responsible for: - clearing land - opened canals - drained swamps - planting and harvesting - build houses

How did early Black Nationalism manifest in Northern Black communities in the nineteenth century? In what ways was nation (or community) building important to the formation of the free Black Northern community?

nation building raised money $ held celebrations property constructed meeting homes

Transmigration

the idea that one's soul would return to Africa after physical death and join the ancestors

In what ways did African culture influence Black people's spiritual beliefs in colonial America? Do you think these influences continued into the 1800s? Provide at least two examples that demonstrate the presence (or absence) of African cultural influences in the 1800s.

trasmigration

What were the main strengths and weaknesses of gradual emancipation in the North?

w:· created a system of indentured servitude, gradual emancipation weakened slavery, but did not abolish it entirely, very slow, economic dependency, left adults in bondage Strengths: did not result from force or intervention by an imperial power, nonviolent

Why were fugitives a growing "problem" in the United States between 1830 and 1860?

· There was an increase in figures supporting fugitives and helping them escape. · The liberator newspaper

David Walker's Appeal was one of the most important abolitionist documents in the antebellum era. What were the main arguments in each section of the Appeal?

· There were four articles in the appeal · He describes the barbarity of slavery Religious hypocrisy

How have black women's roles as "women" influenced their actions? In which ways have black women's racial identity influenced their actions? Identify and describe at least two examples.

· They had to put up with things about their sexuality that men simply did not have to · Rape, having children with their rapist

What was important about Mansa Musa's reign over the Empire of Mali

(r. 1312-1337) He was one of the wealthiest rulers made famous when his 1324 pilgrimage to Mecca contained an entourage of 60,000, a train of 100 elephants, and his distribution of gold to those who greeted him along the way