History final exam

In November 1917

Lenin and his Bolshevik Red guard had driven Kerensky from power. Rallying around the crowd "All power to the soviets" lenin's rallying cry was "peace, land, and bread". Once lenin was in power he ordered all farmland be disturbed to the pesants and workers would be in control of the factories. Lenin signs the treaty of Brest - Litovsk with Russia giving large portion of land to germany in the peace agreement

March 1921

Lenin launches the NEP New Economic Policy sought to restore the economy by encouraging peasants to sell their surplus crops. Government kept control of major industries

The Gallipoli Campaign

A promising strategy for the Allies seemed to be to attack a region in the Ottoman Empire known as the Dardanelles. This narrow sea strait was the gateway to the Ottoman capital, Constantinople. By securing the Dardanelles, the Allies believed that they could take Constantinople, defeat the Turks, and establish a supply line to Russia. The effort to take the Dardanelles strait began in February 1915. It was known as the Gallipoli campaign. British, Australian, New Zealand, and French troops made repeated assaults on the Gallipoli Peninsula on the western side of the strait. Turkish troops, some commanded by German officers, vigorously defended the region. By May, Gallipoli had turned into another bloody stalemate. Both sides dug trenches, from which they battled for the rest of the year. In December, the Allies gave up the campaign and began to evacuate. They had suffered about 250,000 casualties.

Peasants Align with the Communists

After Sun Yixian died in 1925, Jiang Jieshi (jee•ahng jee•shee), formerly called Chiang Kai-shek, headed the Kuomintang. Jiang was the son of a middle-class merchant. Many of Jiang's followers were bankers and businesspeople. Like Jiang, they feared the Communists' goal of creating a socialist economy modeled after the Soviet Union's. Jiang had promised democracy and political rights to all Chinese. Yet his government became steadily less democratic and more corrupt. Most peasants believed that Jiang was doing little to improve their lives. As a result, many peasants threw their support to the Chinese Communist Party. To enlist the support of the peasants, Mao divided land that the Communists won among the local farmers.

Nationalists Overthrow Qing Dynasty

Among the groups pushing for modernization and nationalization was the Kuomintang, or the Nationalist Party. Its first great leader was Sun Yixian. In 1911, the Revolutionary Alliance, a fore- runner of the Kuomintang, succeeded in overthrowing the last emperor of the Qing dynasty. The Qing had ruled China since 1644.

Imperialism and Militarism

Another force that helped set the stage for war in Europe was imperialism. As Chapter 27 explained, the nations of Europe competed fiercely for colonies in Africa and Asia. The quest for colonies sometimes pushed European nations to the brink of war. As European countries continued to compete for overseas empires, their sense of rivalry and mistrust of one another deepened. Yet another troubling development throughout the early years of the 20th century was the rise of a dangerous European arms race. The nations of Europe believed that to be truly great, they needed to have a powerful military. By 1914, all the Great Powers except Britain had large standing armies. In addition, military experts stressed the importance of being able to quickly mobilize, or organize and move troops in case of a war. Generals in each country developed highly detailed plans for such a mobilization. The policy of glorifying military power and keeping an army prepared for war was known as militarism. Having a large and strong standing army made citizens feel patriotic. However, it also frightened some people. As early as 1895, Frédéric Passy, a prominent peace activist, expressed a concern that many shared

The Versailles Treaty

As the Paris Peace Conference opened, Britain and France showed little sign of agreeing to Wilson's vision of peace. Both nations were concerned with national security. They also wanted to strip Germany of its war-making power. The differences in French, British, and U.S. aims led to heated arguments among the nations' leaders. Finally a compromise was reached. The Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919, five years to the day after Franz Ferdinand's assassination in Sarajevo. Adopting Wilson's fourteenth point, the treaty created a League of Nations. The league was to be an international association whose goal would be to keep peace among nations. The treaty also punished Germany. The defeated nation lost substantial territory and had severe restrictions placed on its military operations. As tough as these provisions were, the harshest was Article 231. It was also known as the "war guilt" clause. It placed sole responsibility for the war on Germany's shoulders. As a result, Germany had to pay reparations to the Allies. All of Germany's territories in Africa and the Pacific were declared mandates, or territories to be administered by the League of Nations. Under the peace agreement, the Allies would govern the mandates until they were judged ready for independence.

Nationalists and Communists Clash

At first, Jiang put aside his differences with the Communists. Together Jiang's Nationalist forces and the Communists successfully fought the warlords. Soon afterward, though, he turned against the Communists. In April 1927, Nationalist troops and armed gangs moved into Shanghai. They killed many Communist leaders and trade union members in the city streets. Similar killings took place in other cities. The Nationalists nearly wiped out the Chinese Communist Party. In 1928, Jiang became president of the Nationalist Republic of China. Great Britain and the United States both formally recognized the new government. Because of the slaughter of Communists at Shanghai, the Soviet Union did not. Jiang's treachery also had long-term effects. The Communists' deep-seated rage over the massacre erupted in a civil war that would last until 1949.

Early Fighting

At the beginning of the war, Russian forces had launched an attack into both Austria and Germany. At the end of August, Germany counterattacked near the town of Tannenberg. During the four-day battle, the Germans crushed the invading Russian army and drove it into full retreat. More than 30,000 Russian soldiers were killed. Russia fared somewhat better against the Austrians. Russian forces defeated the Austrians twice in September 1914, driving deep into their country. Not until December of that year did the Austrian army manage to turn the tide. Austria defeated the Russians and eventually pushed them out of Austria-Hungary.

Bismarck Forges Early Pacts

Between 1864 and 1871, Prussia's blood-and-iron chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, freely used war to unify Germany. After 1871, however, Bismarck declared Germany to be a "satisfied power." He then turned his energies to maintaining peace in Europe. Bismarck saw France as the greatest threat to peace. He believed that France still wanted revenge for its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. Bismarck's first goal, therefore, was to isolate France. "As long as it is without allies," Bismarck stressed, "France poses no danger to us." In 1879, Bismarck formed the Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria- Hungary. Three years later, Italy joined the two countries, forming the Triple Alliance. In 1881, Bismarck took yet another possible ally away from France by making a treaty with Russia.

Political Reforms

Bolshivek leaders saw nationalsim as a threat to unity and party loyalty. To keep nationalism in check. Lenin organized Russia into several self governing republics under the central government. In 1992, the country was named the Union of Soviet Socailist Republics (USSR) in honor of the councils that helped launch the Bolshevik Revolution. The bolshiveks renamed their party the communist party. the name came from the writings of karl marx. he used the word communism to describe classless society that would exist after workers seized power, In 1924, the communists created a constitution based on socailist and democrtaic principles. In reality the communist party held all the power. lenin had established a dicatorship of the communist party not a dictatorship of the proletariat as marx had promoted

Russia Struggles

By 1916, Russia's war effort was near collapse. Unlike the nations of western Europe, Russia had yet to become industrialized. As a result, the Russian army was continually short on food, guns, ammunition, clothes, boots, and blankets. Moreover, the Allied supply shipments to Russia were sharply limited by German control of the Baltic Sea, combined with Germany's relentless submarine campaign in the North Sea and beyond. In the south, the Ottomans still controlled the straits leading from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea. The Russian army had only one asset its numbers. Throughout the war the Russian army suffered a staggering number of battlefield losses. Yet the army continually rebuilt its ranks from the country's enormous population. For more than three years, the battered Russian army managed to tie up hundreds of thousands of German troops in the east. As a result, Germany could not hurl its full fighting force at the west. Germany and her allies, however, were concerned with more than just the Eastern or Western Fronts. As the war raged on, fighting spread beyond Europe to Africa, as well as to Southwest and Southeast Asia. In the years after it began, the massive European conflict indeed became a world war.

Civil War Rages in China

By 1930, Nationalists and Communists were fighting a bloody civil war. Mao and other Communist leaders established themselves in the hills of south-central China. Mao referred to this tactic of taking his revolution to the countryside as "swimming in the peasant sea." He recruited the peasants to join his Red Army. He then trained them in guerrilla warfare. Nationalists attacked the Communists repeatedly but failed to drive them out.

War in the Trenches

By early 1915, opposing armies on the Western Front had dug miles of parallel trenches to protect themselves from enemy fire. This set the stage for what became known as trench warfare. In this type of warfare, soldiers fought each other from trenches. And armies traded huge losses of human life for pitifully small land gains. Life in the trenches was pure misery. "The men slept in mud, washed in mud, ate mud, and dreamed mud," wrote one soldier. The trenches swarmed with rats. Fresh food was nonexistent. Sleep was nearly impossible. The space between the opposing trenches won the grim name "no man's land." When the officers ordered an attack, their men went over the top of their trenches into this bombed-out landscape. There, they usually met murderous rounds of machine-gun fire. Staying put, however, did not ensure one's safety. Artillery fire brought death right into the trenches. "Shells of all calibers kept raining on our sec- tor," wrote one French soldier. "The trenches disappeared, filled with earth . . . the air was unbreathable. Our blinded, wounded, crawling, and shouting soldiers kept falling on top of us and died splashing us with blood. It was living hell." The Western Front had become a "terrain of death." It stretched nearly 500 miles from the North Sea to the Swiss border. Military strategists were at a loss. New tools of war—machine guns, poison gas, armored tanks, larger artillery—had not delivered the fast-moving war they had expected. All this new technology did was kill greater numbers of people more effectively. The slaughter reached a peak in 1916. In February, the Germans launched a massive attack against the French near Verdun. Each side lost more than 300,000 men. In July, the British army tried to relieve the pressure on the French. British forces attacked the Germans northwest of Verdun, in the valley of the Somme River. In the first day of battle alone, more than 20,000 British soldiers were killed. By the time the Battle of the Somme ended in November, each side had suffered more than half a million casualties. What did the warring sides gain? Near Verdun, the Germans advanced about four miles. In the Somme valley, the British gained about five miles.

Nations Take Sides

By mid-August 1914, the battle lines were clearly drawn. On one side were Germany and Austria-Hungary. They were known as the Central Powers because of their location in the heart of Europe. Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire would later join the Central Powers in the hopes of regaining lost territories. On the other side were Great Britain, France, and Russia. Together, they were known as the Allied Powers or the Allies. Japan joined the Allies within weeks. Italy joined later. Italy had been a member of the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary. However, the Italians joined the other side after accusing their former partners of unjustly starting the war. In the late summer of 1914, millions of soldiers marched happily off to battle, convinced that the war would be short. Only a few people foresaw the horror ahead. One of them was Britain's foreign minister, Sir Edward Grey. Staring out over London at nightfall, Grey said sadly to a friend, "The lamps are going out all over Europe. We shall not see them lit again in our lifetime."

A Restless Region

By the early 1900s, the Ottoman Empire, which included the Balkan region, was in rapid decline. While some Balkan groups struggled to free themselves from the Ottoman Turks, others already had succeeded in breaking away from their Turkish rulers. These peoples had formed new nations, including Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, Romania, and Serbia. Nationalism was a powerful force in these countries. Each group longed to extend its borders. Serbia, for example, had a large Slavic population. It hoped to absorb all the Slavs on the Balkan Peninsula. Russia, itself a mostly Slavic nation, supported Serbian nationalism. However, Serbia's powerful northern neighbor, Austria-Hungary, opposed such an effort. Austria feared that efforts to create a Slavic state would stir rebellion among its Slavic population. In 1908, Austria annexed, or took over, Bosnia and Herzegovina. These were two Balkan areas with large Slavic popula- tions. Serbian leaders, who had sought to rule these provinces, were outraged. In the years that followed, tensions between Serbia and Austria steadily rose. The Serbs continually vowed to take Bosnia and Herzegovina away from Austria. In response, Austria-Hungary vowed to crush any Serbian effort to undermine its authority in the Balkans.

War Affects the Home Front

By the time the United States joined the Allies, the war had been raging for nearly three years. In those three years, Europe had lost more men in battle than in all the wars of the previous three centuries. The war had claimed the lives of millions and had changed countless lives forever. The Great War, as the conflict came to be known, affected everyone. It touched not only the soldiers in the trenches, but civilians as well.

The Allies Meet and Debate

Despite representatives from numerous countries, the meeting's major decisions were hammered out by a group known as the Big Four: Woodrow Wilson of the United States, Georges Clemenceau of France, David Lloyd George of Great Britain, and Vittorio Orlando of Italy. Russia, in the grip of civil war, was not represented. Neither were Germany and its allies.

Police terror

Dictators of totalitran states use terror and violence to force obiendence and crush opposition. Normally the police are expected to rspond to criminal activity and protect citizens. in a totaliaran state the police serve to enforce the central governments policies. they may do this by spying on the citizens or by intimading them. Sometimes they use brutal force and even murder to achieve their goals.

The Battle on the Eastern Front

Even as the war on the Western Front claimed thousands of lives, both sides were sending millions more men to fight on the Eastern Front. This area was a stretch of battlefield along the German and Russian border. Here, Russians and Serbs bat- tled Germans and Austro-Hungarians. The war in the east was a more mobile war than that in the west. Here too, however, slaughter and stalemate were common.

The Conflict Grinds Along

Facing a war on two fronts, Germany had developed a battle strategy known as the Schlieffen Plan, named after its designer, General Alfred Graf von Schlieffen. The plan called for attacking and defeating France in the west and then rushing east to fight Russia. The Germans felt they could carry out such a plan because Russia lagged behind the rest of Europe in its railroad system and thus would take longer to supply its front lines. Nonetheless, speed was vital to the Schlieffen Plan. German leaders knew they needed to win a quick victory over France. Early on, it appeared that Germany would do just that. By early September, German forces had swept into France and reached the outskirts of Paris. A major German victory appeared just days away. On September 5, however, the Allies regrouped and attacked the Germans northeast of Paris, in the valley of the Marne River. Every available soldier was hurled into the struggle. When reinforcements were needed, more than 600 taxicabs rushed soldiers from Paris to the front. After four days of fighting, the German generals gave the order to retreat. Although it was only the first major clash on the Western Front, the First Battle of the Marne was perhaps the single most important event of the war. The defeat of the Germans left the Schlieffen Plan in ruins. A quick victory in the west no longer seemed possible. In the east, Russian forces had already invaded Germany. Germany was going to have to fight a long war on two fronts. Realizing this, the German high command sent thousands of troops from France to aid its forces in the east. Meanwhile, the war on the Western Front settled into a stalemate.

Britain Grants Limited Self-Rule

Gandhi and his followers gradually reaped the rewards of their civil disobedience campaigns and gained greater political power for the Indian people. In 1935, the British Parliament passed the Government of India Act. It provided local self-gov- ernment and limited democratic elections, but not total independence. However, the Government of India Act also fueled mounting tensions between Muslims and Hindus. These two groups had conflicting visions of India's future as an independent nation. Indian Muslims, outnumbered by Hindus, feared that Hindus would control India if it won independence.

Boycotts

Gandhi called on Indians to refuse to buy British goods, attend government schools, pay British taxes, or vote in elections. Gandhi staged a successful boycott of British cloth, a source of wealth for the British. He urged all Indians to weave their own cloth. Gandhi himself devoted two hours each day to spinning his own yarn on a simple handwheel. He wore only homespun cloth and encouraged Indians to follow his example. As a result of the boycott, the sale of British cloth in India dropped sharply.

Tangled Alliances

Growing rivalries and mutual mistrust had led to the creation of several military alliances among the Great Powers as early as the 1870s. This alliance system had been designed to keep peace in Europe. But it would instead help push the continent into war.

Strikes and Demonstrations

Gandhi's weapon of civil disobedience took an economic toll on the British. They struggled to keep trains running, factories operating, and overcrowded jails from bursting. Throughout 1920, the British arrested thousands of Indians who had participated in strikes and demonstrations. But despite Gandhi's pleas for nonviolence, protests often led to riots.

Czar resist change

In 1881 Alexander III succeeded his father Alexander II and halted all reforms in Russia. Like his grandfather Nicholas I Alexander II clung to the principles of autocracy a form of government in which he had total power. Anyone who questioned the absolute authority of the czar, worshiped outside the Russian Orthodox Church, or spoke a language other than Russian was labeled dangerous.

Shifting Alliances Threaten Peace

In 1890, Germany's foreign policy changed dramatically. That year, Kaiser Wilhelm II—who two years earlier had become ruler of Germany—forced Bismarck to resign. A proud and stub- born man, Wilhelm II did not wish to share power with any- one. Besides wanting to assert his own power, the new kaiser was eager to show the world just how mighty Germany had become. The army was his greatest pride. "I and the army were born for one another," Wilhelm declared shortly after taking power. Wilhelm let his nation's treaty with Russia lapse in 1890. Russia responded by forming a defensive military alliance with France in 1892 and 1894. Such an alliance had been Bismarck's fear. War with either Russia or France would make Germany the enemy of both. Germany would then be forced to fight a two-front war, or a war on both its eastern and western borders. Next, Wilhelm began a tremendous shipbuilding program in an effort to make the German navy equal to that of the mighty British fleet. Alarmed, Great Britain formed an entente, or alliance, with France. In 1907, Britain made another entente, this time with both France and Russia. The Triple Entente, as it was called, did not bind Britain to fight with France and Russia. However, it did almost certainly ensure that Britain would not fight against them. By 1907, two rival camps existed in Europe. On one side was the Triple Alliance—Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. On the other side was the Triple Entente—Great Britain, France, and Russia. A dispute between two rival powers could draw all the nations of Europe into war.

Shaky Start for the New Republic

In 1912, Sun became president of the new Republic of China. Sun hoped to establish a modern government based on the "Three Principles of the People": (1) nationalism—an end to foreign control, (2) people's rights—democracy, and (3) people's livelihood—economic security for all Chinese. Sun Yixian considered nationalism vital. He said, "The Chinese people do not have national spirit. Therefore even though we have four hundred million people gathered together in one China, in reality, they are just a heap of loose sand." Despite his lasting influence as a revolutionary leader, Sun lacked the authority and military support to secure national unity. Sun turned over the presidency to a powerful general, Yuan Shikai, who quickly betrayed the democratic ideals of the revo-lution. His actions sparked local revolts. After the general died in 1916, civil war broke out. Real authority fell into the hands ofprovincial warlords or powerful military leaders. They ruled territories as large as their armies could conquer

World War I

In 1914, Nicholas II made the fateful decision to drag Russia into World War I. Russia was unprepared to handle the military and Economic costs. It's weak generals and poorly equipped troops were no match for the German army. German machine guns mowed down advancing Russians by the thousands. Before a year had passed more than 4 millon Russian solidera had been killed, wounded, or taken prisoner. In 1915 Nicholas moved his headquarters to the war front. From there he hoped to rally his discouraged troops to victory. His wife czarina Alexandra ran the government while his was away. She ignored czars chief advisers instead she fell under the influence of mysterious Rasputin a self described holy man he claimed to have magical healing powers.

America Joins the Fight

In 1917, the focus of the war shifted to the high seas. That year, the Germans intensified the submarine warfare that had raged in the Atlantic Ocean since shortly after the war began. In January 1917, the Germans announced that their submarines would sink without warning any ship in the waters around Britain. This policy was called unrestricted submarine warfare. The Germans had tried this policy before. On May 7, 1915, a German submarine, or U-boat, had sunk the British passenger ship Lusitania. The attack left 1,198 people dead, including 128 U.S. citizens. Germany claimed that the ship had been carrying ammunition, which turned out to be true. Nevertheless, the American public was outraged. President Woodrow Wilson sent a strong protest to Germany.After two further attacks, the Germans finally agreed to stop attacking neutral and passenger ships. Desperate for an advantage over the Allies, however, the Germans returned to unrestricted submarine warfare in 1917. They knew it might lead to war with the United States. They gambled that their naval blockade would starve Britain into defeat before the United States could mobilize. Ignoring warnings by President Wilson, German U-boats sank three American ships. In February 1917, another German action pushed the United States closer to war. Officials intercepted a telegram written by Germany's foreign secretary, Arthur Zimmermann, stating that Germany would help Mexico "reconquer" the land it had lost to the United States if Mexico would ally itself with Germany. The Zimmermann note simply proved to be the last straw. A large part of the American population already favored the Allies. In particular, America felt a bond with England. The two nations shared a common ancestry and language, as well as similar democratic institutions and legal systems. More important, America's economic ties with the Allies were far stronger than those with the Central Powers. On April 2, 1917, President Wilson asked Congress to declare war on Germany. The United States entered the war on the side of the Allies.

World War I Spells More Problems

In 1917, the government in Beijing, hoping for an Allied victory, declared war against Germany. Some leaders mistakenly believed that for China's participation the thankful Allies would return control of Chinese territories that had previously belonged to Germany. However, under the Treaty of Versailles, the Allied leaders gave Japan those territories. When news of the Treaty of Versailles reached China, outrage swept the coun- try. On May 4, 1919, over 3,000 angry students gathered in the center of Beijing. The demonstrations spread to other cities and exploded into a national movement. It was called the May Fourth Movement. Workers, shopkeepers, and professionals joined the cause. Though not officially a revolution, these demonstrations showed the Chinese people's commitment to the goal of establishing a strong, modern nation. Sun Yixian and members of the Kuomintang also shared the aims of the movement. But they could not strengthen central rule on their own. Many young Chinese intellectuals turned against Sun Yixian's belief in Western democracy in favor of Lenin's brand of Soviet communism

The Communist Party in China

In 1921, a group met in Shanghai to organize the Chinese Communist Party. Mao Zedong, an assistant librarian at Beijing University, was among its founders. Later he would become China's greatest revolutionary leader. Mao Zedong had already begun to develop his own brand of communism. Lenin had based his Marxist revolution on his organization in Russia's cities. Mao envisioned a different setting. He believed he could bring revolution to a rural country where the peasants could be the true revolutionaries. He argued his point passionately in 1927

The Salt March

In 1930, Gandhi organized a demonstration to defy the hated Salt Acts. According to these British laws, Indians could buy salt from no other source but the government. They also had to pay sales tax on salt. To show their opposi- tion, Gandhi and his followers walked about 240 miles to the seacoast. There they began to make their own salt by collecting seawater and letting it evaporate. This peaceful protest was called the Salt March. Soon afterward, some demonstrators planned a march to a site where the British government processed salt. They intended to shut this saltworks down. Police officers with steel-tipped clubs attacked the demonstrators. An American journalist was an eyewitness to the event. He described the "sickening whacks of clubs on unprotected skulls" and people "writhing in pain with fractured skulls or broken shoulders." Still the people continued to march peacefully, refusing to defend themselves against their attackers. Newspapers across the globe carried the jour- nalist's story, which won worldwide support for Gandhi's independence movement. More demonstrations against the salt tax took place throughout India. Eventually, about 60,000 people, including Gandhi, were arrested.

Civil War Suspended

In 1931, as Chinese fought Chinese, the Japanese watched the power struggles with rising interest. Japanese forces took advantage of China's weakening situation. They invaded Manchuria, an industrialized province in the northeast part of China. In 1937, the Japanese launched an all-out invasion of China. Massive bombings of villages and cities killed thousands of Chinese. The destruction of farms caused many more to die of starvation. By 1938, Japan held control of a large part of China. The Japanese threat forced an uneasy truce between Jiang's and Mao's forces. The civil war gradually ground to a halt as Nationalists and Communists temporarily united to fight the Japanese. The National Assembly further agreed to promote changes outlined in Sun Yixian's "Three Principles of the People"—nationalism, democracy, and people's livelihood.

The Long March

In 1933, Jiang gathered an army of at least 700,000 men. Jiang's army then surrounded the Communists' mountain stronghold. Outnumbered, the Communist Party leaders realized that they faced defeat. In a daring move, 100,000 Communist forces fled. They began a hazardous, 6,000-mile-long journey called the Long March. Between 1934 and 1935, the Communists kept only a step ahead of Jiang's forces. Thousands died from hunger, cold, exposure, and battle wounds. Finally, after a little more than a year, Mao and the seven or eight thousand Communist survivors settled in caves in northwestern China. There they gained new followers. Meanwhile, as civil war between Nationalists and Communists raged, Japan invaded China

Wilson's Plan for Peace

In January 1918, while the war was still raging, President Wilson had drawn up a series of peace proposals. Known as the Fourteen Points, they outlined a plan for achieving a just and lasting peace. The first four points included an end to secret treaties, freedom of the seas, free trade, and reduced national armies and navies. The fifth goal was the adjustment of colonial claims with fairness toward colonial peoples. The sixth through thirteenth points were specific suggestions for changing borders and creating new nations. The guiding idea behind these points was self-determination. This meant allowing people to decide for themselves under what government they wished to live. Finally, the fourteenth point proposed a "general association of nations" that would protect "great and small states alike." This reflected Wilson's hope for an organization that could peacefully negotiate solutions to world conflicts.

Russia Withdraws

In March 1917, civil unrest in Russia—due in large part to war-related shortages of food and fuel—forced Czar Nicholas to step down. In his place a provisional government was established. The new government pledged to continue fighting the war. However, by 1917, nearly 5.5 million Russian soldiers had been wounded, killed, or taken prisoner. As a result, the war-weary Russian army refused to fight any longer. Eight months after the new government took over, a revolution shook Russia. In November 1917, Communist leader Vladimir Ilyich Lenin seized power. Lenin insisted on ending his country's involvement in the war. One of his first acts was to offer Germany a truce. In March 1918, Germany and Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which ended the war between them

The provisional government topples

In November 1917 without warning armed factory workers stormed the Winter palace on Petrograd. Calling themselves the Bolshevik Red guards they took over government offices and arrested the leaders of the provisional government. Kerensky and his colleagues disappeared almost as quickly as the czarist regime they had replaced.

The Great War Begins

In response to Austria's declaration of war, Russia, Serbia's ally, began moving its army toward the Russian-Austrian border. Expecting Germany to join Austria, Russia also mobilized along the German border. To Germany, Russia's mobi- lization amounted to a declaration of war. On August 1, the German government declared war on Russia. Russia looked to its ally France for help. Germany, however, did not even wait for France to react. Two days after declaring war on Russia, Germany also declared war on France. Soon afterward, Great Britain declared war on Germany. Much of Europe was now locked in battle.

"A Peace Built on Quicksand"

In the end, the Treaty of Versailles did little to build a lasting peace. For one thing, the United States—considered after the war to be the dominant nation in the world—ultimately rejected the treaty. Many Americans objected to the settlement and especially to President Wilson's League of Nations. Americans believed that the United States' best hope for peace was to stay out of European affairs. The United States worked out a separate treaty with Germany and its allies several years later. In addition, the treaty with Germany, in particular the war-guilt clause, left a legacy of bitterness and hatred in the hearts of the German people. Other countries felt cheated and betrayed by the peace settlements as well. Throughout Africa and Asia, people in the mandated territories were angry at the way the Allies disregarded their desire for independence. The European powers, it seemed to them,merely talked about the principle of national self-determination. European colonialism, disguised as the mandate system, continued in Asia and Africa. Some Allied powers, too, were embittered by the outcome. Both Japan and Italy, which had entered the war to gain territory, had gained less than they wanted. Lacking the support of the United States, and later other world powers, the League of Nations was in no position to take action on these and other complaints. The settlements at Versailles represented, as one observer noted, "a peace built on quicksand." Indeed, that quicksand eventually would give way. In a little more than two decades, the treaties' legacy of bitterness would help plunge the world into another catastrophic war

The Russo Japanese war

In the late 1800's Russia and Japan competed for control of Korea and Manchuria. The two nations signed a series of agreements over the territories but Russia broke them. Japan retaliated by attacking the Russians at the port Arthur, Manchuria in February 1904 news of repeated Russian losses sparked unrest at home and led to a revolt in the midst of the war.

Battles in Africa and Asia

In various parts of Asia and Africa, Germany's colonial possessions came under assault. The Japanese quickly overran German outposts in China. They also captured Germany's Pacific island colonies. English and French troops attacked Germany's four African possessions. They seized control of three. Elsewhere in Asia and Africa, the British and French recruited subjects in their colonies for the struggle. Fighting troops as well as laborers came from India, South Africa, Senegal, Egypt, Algeria, and Indochina. Many fought and died on the battlefield. Others worked to keep the front lines supplied. To be sure, some colonial subjects wanted nothing to do with their European rulers' conflicts. Others volunteered in the hope that service would lead to their independence. This was the view of Indian political leader Mohandas Gandhi, who supported Indian participation in the war. "If we would improve our status through the help and cooperation of the British," he wrote, "it was our duty to win their help by standing by them in their hour of need."

A Shot Rings Throughout Europe

Into this poisoned atmosphere of mutual dislike and mistrust stepped the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and his wife, Sophie. On June 28, 1914, the couple paid a state visit to Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia. It would be their last. The royal pair was shot at point-blank range as they rode through the streets of Sarajevo in an open car. The killer was Gavrilo Princip, a 19-year-old Serbian and mem- ber of the Black Hand. The Black Hand was a secret society committed to ridding Bosnia of Austrian rule. Because the assassin was a Serbian, Austria decided to use the murders as an excuse to punish Serbia. On July 23, Austria presented Serbia with an ultimatum containing numerous demands. Serbia knew that refusing the ultimatum would lead to war against the more powerful Austria. Therefore, Serbian leaders agreed to most of Austria's demands. They offered to have several others settled by an international conference. Austria, however, was in no mood to negotiate. The nation's leaders, it seemed, had already settled on war. On July 28, Austria rejected Serbia's offer and declared war. That same day, Russia, an ally of Serbia with its largely Slavic pop- ulation, took action. Russian leaders ordered the mobilization of troops toward the Austrian border. Leaders all over Europe suddenly took notice. The frag- ile European stability seemed ready to collapse into armed conflict. The British foreign minister, the Italian govern- ment, and even Kaiser Wilhelm himself urged Austria and Russia to negotiate. But it was too late. The machinery of war had been set in motion.

A Bloody Stalemate

It did not take long for Sir Edward Grey's prediction to ring true. As the summer of 1914 turned to fall, the war turned into a long and bloody stalemate, or dead- lock, along the battlefields of France. This deadlocked region in northern France became known as the Western Front.

Crisis in the Balkans

Nowhere was that dispute more likely to occur than on the Balkan Peninsula. This mountainous peninsula in the southeastern corner of Europe was home to an assortment of ethnic groups. With a long history of nationalist uprisings and eth- nic clashes, the Balkans was known as the "powder keg" of Europe.

The Rise of Nationalism

One such development was the growth of nationalism, or a deep devotion to one's nation. Nationalism can serve as a unifying force within a country. However, it also can cause intense competition among nations each seeking to overpower the other. By the turn of the 20th century, a fierce rivalry indeed had developed among Europe's Great Powers. Those nations were Germany, Austria-Hungary, Great Britain, Russia, Italy, and France. This increasing rivalry among European nations stemmed from several sources. Competition for materials and markets was one. Territorial disputes were another. France, for example, had never gotten over the loss of Alsace Lorraine to Germany in the Franco Prussian War (1870). Austria-Hungary and Russia both tried to dominate in the Balkans, a region in southeast Europe. Within the Balkans, the intense nationalism of Serbs, Bulgarians, Romanians, and other ethnic groups led to demands for independence

Russia industrializes

Rapid industrialization changed the face of the Russian economy. The number of factories more than doubled between 1863 and 1900. Still Russia lagged behind the industrial nations of Western Europe. In the 1890's Nicholas's most capable minister launched a pogrom to move the country forward. To finance the buildup of Russian industries, the government sought foreign investors and raised taxes. These steps boosted the growth of heavy industry particularly steel. By around 1900's Russia had become the worlds fourth ranking producer of steel. Only the U.S.A,Germany, and Great Britain produced more steel. With the help of British and French investors work began on the worlds longest continuous rail line the trans Siberian railway. Began in 1891 the railway was not completed until 1916. It connected European Russia in the west with Russian ports on the Pacfic Ocean in the east.

The Central Powers Collapse

Russia's withdrawal from the war at last allowed Germany to send nearly all its forces to the Western Front. In March 1918, the Germans mounted one final, massive attack on the Allies in France. As in the opening weeks of the war, the German forces crushed everything in their path. By late May 1918, the Germans had again reached the Marne River. Paris was less than 40 miles away. Victory seemed within reach. By this time, however, the German military had weakened. The effort to reach the Marne had exhausted men and supplies alike. Sensing this weakness, the Allies with the aid of nearly 140,000 fresh U.S. troop launched a counterattack. In July 1918, the Allies and Germans clashed at the Second Battle of the Marne. Leading the Allied attack were some 350 tanks that rumbled slowly forward, smashing through the German lines. With the arrival of 2 million more American troops, the Allied forces began to advance steadily toward Germany. Soon, the Central Powers began to crumble. First the Bulgarians and then the Ottoman Turks surrendered. In October, revolution swept through Austria-Hungary. In Germany, soldiers mutinied, and the public turned on the kaiser. On November 9, 1918, Kaiser Wilhelm II stepped down. Germany declared itself a republic. A representative of the new German government met with French Commander Marshal Foch in a railway car near Paris. The two signed an armistice,or an agreement to stop fighting. On November 11, World War I came to an end.

The Creation of New Nations

The Western powers signed separate peace treaties in 1919 an 1920 with each of the other defeated nations: Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire. These treaties, too, led to huge land losses for the Central Powers. Several new countries were created out of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia were all recognized as independent nations. The Ottoman Turks were forced to give up almost all of their former empire. They retained only the territory that is today the country of Turkey. The Allies carved up the lands that the Ottomans lost in Southwest Asia into mandates rather than independent nations. Palestine, Iraq, and Transjordan came under British control; Syria and Lebanon went to France. Russia, which had left the war early, suffered land losses as well. Romania and Poland both gained Russian territory. Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, formerly part of Russia, became independent nations.

Civil war rages in Russia

The bolshiveks now faced a new challenge stamping out their enemies at home. thier opponets formed the white army. the white army was made up of many different groups. there were those groups who supported the return to rule by the czar others wanted democratic goverment and even socialists who opposed lenin's style of socialism. only the desire to defeat the bolshiveks united the white army. the groups barely corropated with each other. at one point there were three white armies fighting against the bolshievks red army. The revolutinary leader leon trotsky expertly commanded the bolshivek red army. from 1918 to 1920 civil war raged in russia. several western nations including the united states sent military aid and forces to russia to help the white army. however they were little of help.

Gandhi's Tactics of Nonviolence

The massacre at Amritsar set the stage for Mohandas K. Gandhi (GAHN•dee) to emerge as the leader of the independence movement. Gandhi's strategy for battling injustice evolved from his deeply religious approach to political activity. His teach- ings blended ideas from all of the major world religions, including Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. Gandhi attracted millions of followers. Soon they began calling him the Mahatma, meaning "great soul."

An industrial Revolution

The five year plans set impossibly high quotas or numerical goals to increase the output of steel, coal, oil, and electricty. To reach these targets the goverment limited production of consumer goods as a result people faced severe shortages of housing, food, clothing, and other necessary goods. A second plan lauchned in 1933 proved equally successful. from 1928 to 1937 industrial production of steel increased more than 25 percent

The revolutionary movement grows

The growth of factories brought new problems such as grueling working conditions, miserabley low wages and child labor. The government outlawed trade unions to try and improve their lives workers unhappy with their low standard of living and lack of political power organized strikes. A group that followed the views of Karl Marx successfully established a following in Russia. The Marxist revolutionaries believed that the industrial class of workers would overthrow the czar. These workers would then form a dictatorship of proletariat this meant that the proletariat the workers would rule the country. In 1903 Russian marxists spilt onto two groups over revolutionary tactics. The more moderate Mensheviks wanted a broad base of popular support for the revolution. The more radical Bolsheviks supported a small number of committed revolutionaries willing to sacrifice everything for change. The major leader of the Bolsheviks was Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov. He adopted the name Lenin. He had an engaging personality and was an excellent organizer. He was also ruthless. These traits would ultimately help him gain command of the Bolsheviks. In the early 1900's Lenin fled to Western Europe to avoid arrest by the czarist regime. From there he maintained contact with the other Bolsheviks. Lenin then waited until he could safely return to Russia.

Amritsar Massacre

To protest the Rowlatt Acts, around 10,000 Hindus and Muslims flocked to Amritsar, a major city in the Punjab, in the spring of 1919. At a huge festival in an enclosed square, they intended to fast and pray and to listen to political speeches. A small group of nationalists were also on the scene. The demonstration, especially the alliance of Hindus and Muslims, alarmed the British. Most people at the gathering were unaware that the British government had banned public meetings. However, the British commander at Amritsar believed they were openly defying the ban. He ordered his troops to fire on the crowd without warning. The shooting continued for ten minutes. Unable to escape from the enclosed courtyard, nearly 400 Indians died and about 1,200 were wounded. News of the slaughter, called the Amritsar Massacre, sparked an explosion of anger across India. Almost overnight, millions of Indians changed from loyal British subjects into nationalists. These Indians demanded independence.

Czar continue Autocratic Rule

To wipe out revolutionaries Alexander III used harsh measures. He imposed strict censorship codes on published materials and written documents including private letters. His secret police carefully watched both secondary schools and universities. Teachers had to send detailed reports on every student. Political prisoners were sent to Siberia a remote region of eastern Russia. To establish a uniform Russian culture. Alexander III oppressed other national groups within Russia. He made Russian the official language of the empire and forbade the use of minority languages such as polish in schools. Alexander made Jews the target of persecution. A wave of pogroms organized violence against Jews broke out in many parts of Russia. Police and soldiers stood by and watched Russian citizens loot and destroy Jewish homes, stores, and synagogues. When Nicholas II became czar in 1894 he continued the tradition of Russian Autocracy. Unfortunately it blinded him to the changing conditions of his times.

Women and the War

Total war meant that governments turned to help from women as never before. Thousands of women replaced men in factories, offices, and shops. Women built tanks and munitions, plowed fields, paved streets, and ran hospitals. They also kept troops supplied with food, clothing, and weapons. Although most women left the work force when the war ended, they changed many people's views of what women were capable of doing. Women also saw the horrors of war firsthand, working on or near the front lines as nurses. Here, American nurse Shirley Millard describes her experience with a soldier who had lost both eyes and feet:

Indian Nationalism Grows

Two groups formed to rid India of foreign rule: the primarily Hindu Indian National Congress, or Congress Party, in 1885, and the Muslim League in 1906. Though deep divisions existed between Hindus and Muslims, they found common ground. They shared the heritage of British rule and an understanding of democratic ideals. These two groups both worked toward the goal of independence from the British.

World War I Increases Nationalist Activity

Until World War I, the vast major- ity of Indians had little interest in nationalism. The situation changed as over a million Indians enlisted in the British army. In return for their service, the British government promised reforms that would eventually lead to self-government. In 1918, Indian troops returned home from the war. They expected Britain to fulfill its promise. Instead, they were once again treated as second-class citizens. Radical nationalists carried out acts of violence to show their hatred of British rule. To curb dissent, in 1919 the British passed the Rowlatt Acts. These laws allowed the government to jail protesters without trial for as long as two years. To Western-educated Indians, denial of a trial by jury violated their individual rights.

Noncooperation

When the British failed to punish the officers responsible for the Amritsar massacre, Gandhi urged the Indian National Congress to follow a policy of noncooperation with the British government. In 1920, the Congress Party endorsed civil disobedience, the deliberate and public refusal to obey an unjust law, and non- violence as the means to achieve independence. Gandhi then launched his campaign of civil disobedience to weaken the British government's authority and economic power over India.

Lenin Befriends China

While the Chinese Communist Party was forming, Sun Yixian and his Nationalist Party set up a government in south China. Like the Communists, Sun became disillusioned with the Western democracies that refused to support his struggling government. Sun decided to ally the Kuomintang with the newly formed Communist Party. He hoped to unite all the revolutionary groups for common action. Lenin seized the opportunity to help China's Nationalist government. In 1923, he sent military advisers and equipment to the Nationalists in return for allowing the Chinese Communists to join the Kuomintang

Bolsheviks in power

Within days after the Bolshivek takeover lenin ordered that all farmland be distrubted among the peasants. Lenin and the bolshvieks gave control of factoreis to the workers. The bolshivek goverment also signed a truce with germany to stop all fighting and began peace talks. In march 1918 Russia and germany signed the treaty of brest litvosk. Russia surrended a large part of its territory to germany and its allies. the humalting terms of this treaty triggered widespread anger among the russsians. they objected to the bolshiveks and their policies to murder the royal family.

Governments Wage Total War

World War I soon became a total war. This meant that countries devoted all their resources to the war effort. In Britain, Germany, Austria, Russia, and France, the entire force of government was dedi- cated to winning the conflict. In each country, the wartime government took control of the economy. Governments told factories what to produce and how much. Numerous facilities were converted to munitions factories. Nearly every able bodied civilian was put to work. Unemployment in many European countries all but disappeared. So many goods were in short supply that governments turned to rationing. Under this system, people could buy only small amounts of those items that were also needed for the war effort. Eventually, rationing covered a wide range of goods, from butter to shoe leather. Governments also suppressed antiwar activity, sometimes forcibly. In addition, they censored news about the war. Many leaders feared that honest reporting of the war would turn people against it. Governments also used propaganda, one-sided information designed to persuade, to keep up morale and support for the war.

The Legacy of the War

World War I was, in many ways, a new kind of war. It involved the use of new technologies. It ushered in the notion of war on a grand and global scale. It also left behind a landscape of death and destruction such as was never before seen. Both sides in World War I paid a tremendous price in terms of human life. About 8.5 million soldiers died as a result of the war. Another 21 million were wounded. In addition, the war led to the death of countless civilians by way of starvation, disease, and slaughter. Taken together, these figures spelled tragedy an entire generation of Europeans wiped out. The war also had a devastating economic impact on Europe. The great conflict drained the treasuries of European countries. One account put the total cost of the war at $338 billion, a staggering amount for that time. The war also destroyed acres of farmland, as well as homes, villages, and towns. The enormous suffering that resulted from the Great War left a deep mark on Western society as well. A sense of disillusionment settled over the survivors. The insecurity and despair that many people experienced are reflected in the art and literature of the time. Another significant legacy of the war lay in its peace agreement. As you will read in the next section, the treaties to end World War I were forged after great debate and compromise. And while they sought to bring a new sense of security and peace to the world, they prompted mainly anger and resentment.

Although Russia

progressed many people protested due to low pay, poor work conditions, child labor, etc.

Dzhugashivilli

assumes the name stalin man of steel as he positions himself as the new Russian leader

Three goals

autocracy, orthodoxy, and nationality. Anyone who disagreed with the czar was tagged as dangerous

Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin

became bitter enemies in the battle to succeed lenin

Russia and Japan

competed for control of Korea and manchuria. As russia broke some agreements. Japan attacked and won the Russo - Japanese war

Propganda and censorship

control of mass media allows this to happen. no publication, film, art, or music is allowed to exist without the permission from the state. citizens are surrunded with false information that appears to be true. Suggesting that the information is incorrect is considered an act of treason and severley punished. indivduals who dissent must retreat their work or they are imprisoned and killed.

War and Revolution

destroyed the Russian economy. Skilled Workers fled and production dropped

Other totalitarian states

emerged in the 1920's - 1930's Hilter's - Germany, Mussolini's - Italy, Maozedong - China, Kim Il Sung - Korea. After stalin takes hold of the state he begins overhauling the economy

Religious or ethnic persecution

enemies of the state to blame for things that go wrong. these enemies are memebers of religious or ethnic groups. these are easily identifed and subjected to campaigns of terror and violence they may be forced to live in certain areas or are subjected to rules that only apply to them.

Russia

faced a civil war which took 15 million lives. White Russians fought along with U.S. Aid were defeated by the bolshevik (red) Russian army under Leon Trotsky. Contained many ethnic groups. A reorganization in 1922 renamed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR). Each republic was controlled from the new capital Moscow

Lenin

fled to western Europe to avoid capture until he gained a large following to complete his "workers revolution"

The March Revolution

forced Nicholas II to step down from the throne. A year later the Czar's entire family was executed

Future strikes and unrested forces

forced the czar to create the Duma. Russian parliament set up similar to Britain. Unwilling to share power the czar dismantled the Duma 2nd Duma unsuccesful

Soviet Economy

grew and prospered. Lenin did not see progress as a stroke claimed his life in 1924. A power struggle for leadership created turmoil.

stalin seizes control of the economy

in 1928 stalins plans called for a command economy a system in which the government made all economic decisions

Russian propaganda and censorship

in 1930 an editoral in the communist newspaper Pravda expained the purpose of art literaure the cinema, the arts are levers in the hand of the proterlait which must be used to show the masses postive models of intative and heroic labor

police state

in 1934 stalin turned against members of the communist party. in 1937 he launched the great purge a campaign of terror directed at anyone who threatened his power ended in 1938

New economic policy

in march 1921 lenin temporaily put aside his plan for a state controlled economy. instead he retored to a small scale version of capitalism called the new economic policy (NEP). the reforms under NEP allowed peasants to sell their surplus crops instead of turning them over to the government. the goverment kept control of major insudtries banks, and means of communication but it let some small factories, buisness, and farms operate under private ownership. the government also encouraged foreign investment. By 1928 Russia's farms and factories were producing as much as they had before World War I

Germany

wanted to continue to weaken Russia authority by secretly returning Lenin to power and force Russia to withdraw from fighting in World War I.

Stalin becomes Dicator

lenin suffered a stroke in 1992. two of the most notable men were leon trostky and joseph stalin. statlin was cold, hard, and impersonal during his early days as a bolshevik he changed his name to stalin which means man of steel is russian. statlin began his ruthless climb to the head of the goverment between 1992 and 1927. In 1922 as general sectary of the communist party he worked behind the scenes to move his supporters into postions of power. Lenin believed that Stalin was a dangerous man. Shortly before he died in 1924. Lenin wrote comrade Stalin has concertaerd enourmous power in his hands and i am not sure that he always knows how to use that power with sufficent caution. By 1928 stalin was in total command of the communist party, troskty forced exile in 1929, was no longer a threat. Stalin now stood poised to wield absoulte power as a dictator.

200,000 angry workers

marched on the czar's winter palace in 1905. Police opened fire on a unarmed crowd killing 500 - 1,000 known as bloody sunday

A revolutionary group

opposed to the czar following the ideas of karl marx. They were called the bolsheviks and were led by Vladimir Iiyich Ulyanov (lenin)

Russian

was the official language. All other languages were forbidden

Under Nicholas II's

rule sergey witte launched programs to industrialize russia. By 1990 witte transforms russia into the 4th largest steel producer.

Stalin

ruthlessly climbs to the head of the soviet government as dictator in 1928 forcing Trotsky into exile. Transforms the soviet union into a totalitarian state. government that takes every aspect of public and private life. Restrictions of reason, freedom, and human rights

New leaders

set up a provisional government headed by Alexander Kerensky. kerensky's decision to continue to fight in World War I created further revolts including the radical socialist groups called soviets

Lenin disturts

stalin fearing too much concentrated power in the hands of one man

The czar steps down

the march revolution succeed in bringing down the czar. Yet it failed to set up a strong government to replace his regime. Leaders of the Duma set up a provisional government kerensky headed it soviets were local councils consisting of workers, peasants, and soliders in many cities soviets had more influence than provisional government.

religious prescution

the russian orthdox church was the main target of persuction other religious groups suffered greatly the police destroyed magnifat churches ad synagogues and many religiuos leaders were killed or sent to labor camps

Alexander III

took over Russia from his assassinated father in 1881 ruling under the principles of autocracy. imposed strict censorship and his secret police kept watch for dissenters (punishment was banishment to siberia)

Indoctrian

totaliarain states rely on indoctrination instruction in the goverments beliefs to mold peoples minds. control of education is absolutely essetinal to glorify the leader and his policies and to convice all citizens that their unconditonal loyalty and support are required. indoctrian begins with young children is encouraged by youth groups and strongly enforced in schools .

A goverment of total control

totalitarianism describes a goverment that takes total centralized state control over every aspect of public and private life. Totalitarian leaders appearto provide a sense of security and to give a direction for the future.

Russia entered World War I

unprepared and was being beaten bad by the germans. Nicholas moved closer to the troops. While his wife ran the government. A holy man Rasputin was given authority until he was killed by the nobles.

The Bolshiveks

were known as the communist party in reference to Karl Marx emphasizing a class society

Jews

were singled out for discrimination through pogroms where waves of violence were targeted toward jews

Witte

with the aid of French and British investors were able to complete the trans - siberian railway Europe to the pacfic

In March 1917

women textile workers went on strike in Petrograd. 200,000 people joined the strike. Soldiers were ordered to fire on the mob but fired on the commanders as the soldiers joined the rebellion