History of Islam Final

Fatiha

"The Opening" prayer; the first seven verses of the Qur'an. The word Fatiha is the chapter of the Koran or Quran. The Fatiha means the opening Surah, which starts the Koran because it is that Surah which comes first in the Quran, specifically, when you open the Koran. Some Muslim interpret it as a reference to an intended ability to the Surah to open a person's faith. The Fatiha is like any short introduction and it doesn't say much. It has seven verses which are prayer for guidance, Lordship, and mercy of Allah. It speaks of only one single God, but of two kinds of people and it also reveal several things about these parties. The Fatiha describe God as a merciful and all-compassionate God. The two kinds of people the Fatiha talks about are those that are blessed by God and those that God is angry at and are astray.

Mu'awiya

(602-680) Leader of Umayyad clan; first Umayyad caliph following civil war with Ali. Mu'awiya started out as the governor of Syria and was the nephew of Uthman. Mu'awiya was not happy about how his uncle was assassinated and nothing was done about it. Because of this, he went against Ali who was the next successor after Uthman. Mu'awiya led military forces against Ali's army and was victorious. He ended up murdering Ali and then claimed the right to be the next successor as caliph in 661. Since Mu'awiya was originally in Syria, Damascus became the new center for Muslim power. The textbook, A History of the Muslim World to 1750, Mu'awiya was a skillful and honest caliph. One thing significant of his reign was that his family line became rulers in the Umayyads dynasty. Mu'awiya continued the conquests that Uthman and Ali started before him, he took these conquests west and on the sea. His family line were caliphs in the Umayyad Empire until 750 when there was a revolution from the Abbasid.

Battle of Tours

(732 CE) European victory over Muslims. It halted Muslim movement into Western Europe. The Battle of Tours was a battle between Muslims and the Franks. The battle was an important victory for the Franks and Charles Martel, their leader. Some Europeans have claimed this battle to be the loss that kept the Muslims from expanding into Europe, but this up for debate. Muslims would then continue to push through the lower Rhone Valley throughout the remainder of the decade. They captured Arles and other cities until 739 when Martel intervened and took the land for his own kingdom. In battle Muslims would first make a military plan and then raid, if the raid was successful this would lead to conquest, which did not happen at this battle. So, this is why some argue that this is the battle that was the final nail in keeping Muslim expansion out of Europe. However, this loss should not have been a surprise, because for almost a decade before Tours the Muslims supply line and communications had been overstretched.

Battle of ʿAyn Jālūt,

(September 3, 1260), decisive victory of the Mamlūks of Egypt over the invading Mongols, which saved Egypt and Islam and halted the westward expansion of the Mongol empire. Baghdad, the capital city of the ʿAbbāsid caliphate, had fallen to the Mongols under the Il-Khan Hülegü in 1258, and the last ʿAbbāsid caliph had been put to death. In 1259 the Mongol army, led by the Christian Turk Kitbuga, moved into Syria, took Damascus and Aleppo, and reached the shores of the Mediterranean Sea.

Caliph (Caliphate)

A caliph is a successor to the prophet Muhammad and leader. A caliphate is the area which the caliph rules. This is the title of the position of the person who fulfilled the leadership role of the Umma after Muhammad's death. The term comes from the word Khalifa which means "successor" or "deputy". The first Caliph was Abu Bakr, although it is not known if he was directly called by that name. The second Caliph was Umar ibn alKhattab, the third was Uthman ibn 'Affan, and the fourth was Ali ibn Abu Talib. There are two names that the caliphs were called. The first was "khalifat rasul Allah", which means successor of the Prophet of God. The second is "khalifat Allah", which means deputy of God. During the first century of Islamic history, the caliphate was universally believed to have the power to define religious obligations that related to ethics and the ritual of worship. They had supreme military and political power as well as responsibility for the preservation of the integrity of religious communities. However, over time, the Ummayad caliphs lost support from important sectors of the Umma and their dynasty was eventually overthrown.

Sūra

A chapter of the Qur'an A sūra is the term for a chapter in the Qu'ran. The Qu'ran is made up of 114 sūras. Each sura is not the same length, with the shortest one being about 3 ayat long, and the longest being about 286 ayat long. Ayat is the term for verses in the Qu'ran. There are over six thousand ayat in the Qu'ran. Most of the suras don't follow any chronological or thematic pattern as the Qu'ran was pieced together as the Uthmanic Code, which was created around 650. Also, when Muhammad recieved God's word, it came piece by piece. Each piece was often related to the situation that was currently affecting Muhammad at the time.

Al-Biruni

A contemporary of Ibn al-Haytham was al-Biruni (973-1048), a native of Khwarazm. In an age of multitalented scholars, many considered him to have been the most erudite scholar of the period. He obtained positions in several Iranian courts, where he measured latitudes between cities and measured solar meridian transits. In 1017, he was back home when Mahmud of Ghazna conquered Khwarazm. Al-Biruni was one of the many captives taken to Ghazna, and he remained a virtual prisoner of Mahmud for the rest of that ruler's reign. He was forced to accompany Mahmud on several campaigns to India, but he made the most of the experiences and subsequently wrote a massive and perceptive description of Indian society and culture. He mastered Turkish, Persian, Sanskrit, and Arabic, and he published numerous works in physics, astronomy, mathematics, medicine, history, and what we might call anthropology. He introduced techniques to measure the earth and distances on it using triangulation. He estimated the radius of the earth to be 3930 miles, a value not obtained in Western Europe until the sixteenth century. His wide range of abilities is demonstrated in his having translated Euclid's works into Sanskrit.

Fitna

A deep, violent, factional dispute within the Muslim community. This dispute began with disagreements over the leadership of the caliph Uthman. After his assassination, Ali, son-in-law of the prophet Muhammad, was chosen to succeed. Questions over the justification of the death of Uthman arose, and battles outbroke in response. The battles themselves are representative of the first violent disagreement within the Muslim community. A'isha, the wife of the prophet and two of the prophet's friends, opposed the rule of Ali and believed that Uthman's death was unjustified.1 At The Battle of the Camel, Ali's forces and his opponents met, but Ali was victorious. His victory reinforced the authority of his leadership but did nothing to dissipate the disagreements over the legitimacy of his caliphate.

Umma

A group of people within the Muslim community that has established behavioral expectations or customs and similar foundations of government. While attempting to unify the residents of Medina, Muhammad initially wished the term to apply to all the inhabitants of the city. Later, the prophet determined that the term would only apply to those within the Muslim community. The first groups to establish Umma derived their policies regarding behavioral expectations and mandatory practices directly from the Qur'an, which supersedes all tribal customs and loyalties. These customs were believed to be commandments directly from God, and all individuals within the Muslim community, regardless of tribal affiliation, were expected to abide by them. These communities were the early beginnings of Islamic law, which has since developed to be much more complicated.

Zanj Rebellion

A major uprising against the Abbasid Caliphate which took place from 869 until 883. The Zanj Rebellion occurred in southern Iraq during the late ninth century. Driven by the horrible conditions which slaves worked harvesting natron in the region's extensive and virtually impenetrable marches. This was also heavily relied on Muhammad ibn 'Ali. Another important fact about this rebellion is that it happened during the same time that an active Isma'ili movement appeared, the Immas were recognized by the Shi'a were disappearing. The rebellion ended up being suppressed.

Mahdi

A messiah figure that would reveal himself to the world on judgment day in order to bring justice and eliminate the wickedness and oppression that exists. The literal translation is "guided one" but in a religious context this word roughly translates to "guided by God". By the first few decades of Islamic history, informal practices were created promoting the notion that the end of history would be brought forward by a Muslim Mahdi and Jesus. Yet there were variations to this idea. Some claimed that Jesus would appear before the Mahdi while others supported the thought that the Mahdi would come before Jesus. There were even claims that the Mahdi was Jesus himself. Several Muslims throughout history believed that the Mahdi was present in their lifetime; the Umayyad caliph Sulayman (reigned 715-717) supported the view that he was the Mahdi while numerous religious scholars believed that his successor, 'Umar II (r. 717-720), was the Mahdi and Mukhtar claimed that Ibn al-Hanafiya was the Mahdi in his rebellion against the Umayyad in Kufa (685-687). The belief in the Mahdi would become an important part of Shi'ism however it would only be a rather small feature of Sunni doctrine.

Ashura

A public ritual of self-beating and mourning to commemorate Husseins death every year. (Shia) Ashura- during the Buyid regime in Baghdad in 960s, they inaugurated two ceremonies that became central to the rituals life of subsequent Twelver Shi'ism. One of these ceremonies is the Ashura which memorializes the death of Husayn in Karbala. Ashura literally means tenth referring to the tenth day of the month of Muharram when Husayn was killed. The observance of the martyrdom eventually develop into an elaborate ten-day observance involving prayer, Koranic recitations, reenactments of the battle of Karbala, and in some localities, self-flagellation by the pious as a way to share in Husayn's suffering over the next several centuries.

Rawi

A rawi or reciter, was a professional reciter of poetry. The rawis preserved Islamic poetry orally until it was written down. Usually a rawi would attach themselves to a particular poet and they would memorize and learn the poems by heart. Then they would recite and explain the poems in front of an audience. The rawis were known for having great memories, and they were sought after in order to preserve the language and style of poetry of that time. But using rawis memory was not the best method and sometimes the poems would be changed and would have differences when compared later on. A famous rawi was Khalaf al-Ahmar, who worked with Abu Nuwas an important poet from that time.

Haram

A shrine utilized by Arabians of polytheistic faiths, before the rise of Islam, to honor local deities which centered on a location or feature thought to be inhabited by the deity, such as a tree or spring. A haram had very well defined boundaries that prohibited violence, thus allowing the location to be a center of peaceful mingling between families and tribes. These boundaries and rules of nonviolence were enforced by local families or worshipers of the local deity. A haram with a sizable water supply could develop into a large settlement as it attracted trade and people who sought to protect themselves and property within the protected boundaries. Therefore, the majority of large town and settlements in northern Arabia contained a haram as well as a steady and large supply of water.

al-Saffah

Abu al-'Abbas was the first Abbasid caliph. Instead of his name, he used the title al-Saffah, which is known as the Blood Shedder. There were two important reasons why he chose this label. He chose this title because it had been associated with the concept of the Mahdi in previous literature. The Mahdi was believed to be the ruler before the end of time. However, its literal translation is "guided one." Therefore, the title implied his divine status as a ruler. Additionally, this title revealed that much blood would be lost since they were in a revolution. Even leaders of the Abbasid movement were murdered for contesting the decision to have al-Saffah rule as caliph. Similarly, many Shi'ites who were believed to be dangers to his authority were persecuted. After al-Saffah's death, the following caliphs also decided to choose titles with a religious meaning.

Mudejars

After Andalus fragmented, Mudegars were the Muslims who stayed underneath Christian control. This term translates roughly into, "permitted to remain." Throughout the different kingdoms, their experiences differed. However, their experiences were very similar to those of dhimmis. Dhimmis were the Christians underneath Muslim control. Christian rulers began turning mosques back into churches. Muslims were still allowed to practice their religion. The Christians left small mosques untouched so they could continue their worship. They still continued to pilgrimage to Mecca, have Islamic marriages, practice Islamic burials, and practice their law in courts. However, they were still considered second-class subjects. Depending on the city, some Muslims had to live in separate quarters. Many Christians made Muslims wear clothes that set them apart. Christians were even executed for having sexual relations with Muslims or if they converted to Islam. Muslims living in these regions were clearly subjugated by Christians.

Qadi

An agent of the Sharia court whose job was to implement the body of administrative and fiscal regulations and laws. The "judge" so to speak, had wide discretionary powers. They would try to make their ruling based on the Qur'an, but they often had to utilize local legal traditions in order to make decisions. In the absence of a comprehensive Islamic legal system, the Qadis would often rely of Sasanian, Byzantine, Jewish, and orthodox canon law for many decisions. This made the legal administration in different areas very different from one another. With the advent of the Abbasids, the central government began pushing for a legal system explicitly based on Islamic values. The caliph encouraged officers to to rely on principles being articulated by the Ulama. The subsequent generations were critical to the approach of their elders and had different ideas of how the Qadi should base their rulings.

Mamluks

Arabic meaning for "own" or "belonged to." In reference to a private slave army, made mostly of Turks, under al-Muʿtaṣim rule. The obtained limited legal rights to property and marriage as free people after training. They formed a strong unity and shunned the civilian population out. They worked for the caliph and could moved up in rank achieving high social/economic status. However, as a united militia they stood counterpart to the rest of society. The ethnic divide surrounding language and custom lead to a divide in loyalty to the caliph as different ethnic groups were torn between their devotion to the court or their homeland.

The Enemies of God

As there are friends of God according to the Qu'ran, there are also enemies of God. For the most part, these individuals are people who do not accept God as the one and only being worthy of worship. Those who do not worship this God include people who follow other faiths, such as other monotheistic religions (ex: Judaism) or polytheistic faiths (lumped up as shirk). Other offenses to God include being a hypocrite in worship, idol worship, and "those who are astray" and "unbelievers". Punishment for these enemies of God are graphic and horrendous, specifically claiming that they will be "mustered to the Fire, duly disposed, till when they are come into it, their hearing, their eyes, and their skins bear witness against them concerning what they have been doing, and they will say to their skins, 'Why bore you witness against us?' (Q41:19-21)". However, those who are enemies of God do have a path toward redemption in His eyes and becoming friends of God.

Battle of the Ditch

Before the "Battle of the Ditch", the Muslims lost to the Meccans in the Battle of Uhud. Following this defeat, the Muslims were becoming doubtful of their cause. However, the "Battle of the Ditch" was a victory for the Muslims in 627 CE, which reinvigorated their perspective and cause. Even though the Meccans greatly outnumbered the Muslims, the Muslims foresaw the attack and had time to prepare. They were located in Medina at the time. Medina's geography granted an advantage to the Muslim forces. On three sides of the city, there were mounts and large boulders. Therefore, Muhammad decided to dig a ditch on the only flat side of the city. As a result, the Meccan cavalry was rendered useless and unable to enter the city, forcing them to retreat. This great victory led to a morale boost and they became more determined and successful than ever before. Muhammad then began utilizing his military's might and his power was finally being seen as an equal to that of the other dominant communities in the Arabian Peninsula.

Carmathians

Carmathians were a group of people from the Isma'ili religion. Formed in the early 890's as a response to the A Abbasids regime. They had their demographic support in Syria, Iraq, and Persian Gulf coast. They were a great threat to the Abbasids of which they vowed to destroy because of their proximity to Baghdad. The Carmathians captured the Bahrain from the Abbasids governor and maintained a prosperous state there for almost two centuries. Bahrain became the base for numerous raids against the Abbasids. The Carmathians gained publicity among the poor as a result of their policy of sharing goods equally whereas it gained disrepute among its detractor's for their notorious rumors. In 930, a group of the Carmathians raiders attacked Mecca and stoled the Black Stone from the Kaaba. This theft showed how irrelevant the Abbasid caliphate had become and also demonstrated that the caliphate had no power outside of the metropolis of Baghdad. Bahrain remained a regional power until the half of the eleventh century, when it began to experience political and economic problems. The Carmathians were finally defeated and destroyed in 1077.

Dhikr

Dhikr- was a devotional practice or the ritual recollection or remembering of the name of God utilize by Sufis. Many worshipers simply chanted "Allah" repetitively , others chanted the formula "There is no god but God", and some would also recite the ninety-nine names of God perhaps aided by a rosary. Others also utilize more complex invocation that was accompanied by movements of the body, rhythmic breathing, or even music. The purpose of the dhikr was to provide a focus for the soul to fix its gaze upon God and to free itself from the distraction of the world. The prayer reflected the idea that the name of God is scared and that the act of invoking it in so,e sense entails contact with the divine.

Futuwwa/Ayyar

Futuwwa- in Arabic literally means youth. The motivation for the earliest futuwwa orders was a moral one. The futuwwa were a source of security when central authorities were weak. Most of them had a code of behavior stressing altruism, generosity, patience, gravity, and justice. Many of their members were models for the best civic and moral behavior. As a result, Sufi orders often became linked , and Sufis as far Morocco later adopt their regimen as part of their own code of behavior. Some of the futuwwa orders promoted sports activities, others related to specific crafts, and others were mutual aid societies. The perceived obligation to help others contributed to the evolution of some futuwwa orders into militias when the power of the amir or sultan was weak and troops or police might not be reliable. Unfortunately, the young men could sometimes act more like youth gangs than discipline militias, and they could e more of a threat to the local residents than they were a source of security. As a result, the term ayyar is often used by the chroniclers to mean brigands or troublemakers.

Ghaza

Ghaza was an Arabic word that was used to refer to bedouin raids in the Arabian Peninsula. A raider in one of these attacks was known as a ghazi. Ghaza is very similar to Jihad, which was usually understood as a war of conquest for the propagation of Islam or a war in defense of Islam against an outside threat. Even though there is a slight difference between the two, the chroniclers who reported on the activities of the Arab-Byzantine frontier used the two words interchangeably. By the tenth century, this concept of a "Holy War" had become central to Muslim identity. This caused conflict between the two realms: Dar al-Islam and Dar al-Harb. Muslims had an obligation to attack dwellers, who were offered no protection. If dwellers made their way into the realm of Islam, they could be killed with no consequences.

Hijra

Hijra is the migration of prophet Muhammed and his follower from Mecca to Medina (Yathrib). Hijra has also been translated into English as flight and by doing so misses the important element of Islamic history. Although, the migration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina points out the danger that he and his followers were exposed to and that he left Mecca in time to avoid an attempt on his life. On the other hand Muslims have always seen the Hijra as a rejection of Meccan unbelief, rather that a fllight to escape danger. Muslims came to see that the Hijra was the decisive moment in Islamic history and they accepted the year in which it happened as the beginning of the Islamic calendar.

Ilm

Ilm is religious knowledge. It was the central cultural staple of the Islamic tradition and social patterns in which the religion was experienced in the Middle Period. This knowledge was ingrained in the inter-related body of texts: the Qu'ran, hadith collections, legal treasties and textbooks. This knowledge was formed the basis for the training of ulama or religious scholars. The social uses of the ilm helped define Muslim identities and the parameters of the ulama authority. For the ulama, ilm was the active process of transmitting religious knowledge that was critical. Socially, the ulama were diverse. the only thing that identified them as a collective was their fluency in these highly valued texts and their access to them. Ilm was something those who were educated could use in order to ensure public recognition of their status, and secure appointments with others as well as inherited benefits and status for their hei

Quraysh

In Islamic history the Quraysh were always known as one of the stronger groups that gave Prophet Muhammad the most trouble in his attempt to spread Islam . They were not supporters of the change that Islam was bringing to Mecca and felt threatened to lose power by Prophet Muhammad. The Quraysh were known as the most dominant tribe in mecca bringing in a lot of the revenue had sources for trade. Abu Talib was prophet Muhammad's (swt) uncle that brought him up after the passing of his family and was the leader of the Quraysh tribe. He would sometimes reduce his followers attempt to harass and punish Muhammad for the spread of Islam. Before he died he commanded the Quraysh to follow the prophet but they did otherwise. When Abu Talib died the Quraysh now had no reason to withhold from the punishment of Muslims. Followers of Islam were starting to be beaten, had economic boycotts placed on them and had growing tensions. The people of Quraysh were a large part of Prophet Muhammad's emigration to Yathrib due to unsafe conditions. The Quraysh would start a war against the prophet called the battle of badr, where they were stunned by defeat. Prophet and his people were outnumbered but still found a way to win the battle

Madhhab

Madhhabs were Quranic schools of law that first started during the ninth century. The different schools were filled with scholars that would teach the methods from the ulama for the principles of law. All of the Madhhabs had their own rules and usually lasted a couple of generations. The Maddhabs would be different from each other due to the choice of hadiths they chose to follow and the different ways that each Maddhab would intercept certain surahs from the Qu'ran. In shar'ia Law each person was to choose the Maddhab they would follow and eventually the number of schools declined to a smaller number. A very popular Maddhab were the Hanbali which were in the area of Baghdad. They were heavily against the use of analogy with Qu'ranic interpretations, were against personal opinion and took a conservative approach. Only 4 out of 100 schools were in the modern era in different areas of Iraq, Syria, which were the Kufa, Hanifa, Malik Ibn Anas.

Madinat al-Salaam

Madinat al-Salaam is present-day Baghdad (Iraq). It was founded in the mid-8th century as the Abbasid Caliphate capital, following the Abbasid victory over the first Muslim dynasty, the Umayyad Caliphate. The city was founded by Abu Ja'far, also known as Al-Mansur. It was referred to as the "City of Peace" or round city of Baghdad. Situated along the banks of the Tigris River, the city became a center for international trade. Over time it evolved into a significant cultural, commercial, and intellectual center for the Islamic world. By the 9th century, Madinat al-Salam contained close to 500,00 people; growing to be the largest city worldwide by the beginning of the 10th century. It became one of the second or third greatest cities in the world.

Majlis

Majlis- is an arabic term meaning a place of sitting used in context of council to describe various types of special gatherings among common interest groups be it administrative, social or religious in countries with linguistic or cultural connections to Islamic countries. The term Majlis can refer to a legislature as well and is used in the name of legislative councils or assemblies in some of the states where Islamic culture dominates. This term is also used to refer to a private place where guests are received and entertained. Among the Shia community, the term Majlis is used as a verb meaning to the gathering who came to remember Ahl al Bayt and in particulsr Hussain ibn-e-Ali.

Masnavi

Masnavi was a poem written by Rumi who is also known as Jalal al-Din. The Masnavi contains 26,000 couplets. The Masnavi was inspired by the music of the world around Rumi formal music, the music of nature, and music of the everyday world of work, such as the ringing of the coppersmith's hammer. The Masnavi contains fables, stories, proverbs, and the poetic evocation of the spiritual nature of the everyday world. For the Sufis of the Persian-language world, it was the second in importance only to the Koran as an inspirational text.

Kharajites

Means those who defected from the group. This includes the Islamic group that rebelled against Uthman and ali the Caliphs. This group of people lasted for many years as the opposition of the new caliphs. They opposed the idea of arbitration. They believed that an Muslim any Arab even if not Quraysh could be the new leader or Imam. Some developed extreme doctrines that separated them from Sunni and Shiʿi Muslims. Kharijite comes from the term kharaja, meaning "to depart or leave". The groups that were called Kharijites were the minority under the Umma once the majority fell into error. Many believed this was a group who killed any non-Kharijite so in return, Kharijites were hunted down and killed. The Great Berber Revolt was influenced by the tendencies of the Kharijites. Kharijites gave religious sanction to the minority groups that live differently from the majority. A Kharijite assassinated caliph, 'Ali due to his belief in 'Ali not doing God's bidding correctly. Originally, this term referred to the belief that any caliph who did not adhere to the customs and commandments of the Qur'an was a sinner and should be exiled from the Muslim community. Groups who held this belief were referred to as Kharijites. However, in most cases, these groups were a minority and did not hold the authority to banish anyone from the Umma. The Kharijites believed that the larger community was in the wrong, so they broke off from the Umma. This term appeared after the battle at Siffin between the caliph Ali and his challenger Mu'awiya. Mu'awiya's followers requested to try and resolve their issues peacefully, and Ali agreed. However, some within Ali's army felt that this was unlike the character of a true Caliph. These soldiers defected from the army and were later called Kharijites, meaning "to depart or leave." Kharijites were hated and feared by other members of the Muslim community because its followers believed it was their duty to kill non-Kharijites. Because of the threat to the larger Muslim community, the Umma killed the Kharijites before they had the chance to kill others.

Malik-Shah

Most famous Seljuk Sultan, supported Persian artists and architects, beautified city of Isfahan, built mosques, favored Persian over Arabic. The term Malik is derived from the Arabic word meaning "king". The term Shah is derived from the Persian word meaning "emperor". The name Malik Shah was the name given to the son of Alp-Arslan, the leader of the empire of the Great Saljuqs. Like his grand-uncle, he was an able military leader, but also a patron of the arts, sciences, and higher education. His establishment of beautiful architecture, construction of beautiful buildings, and other cultural constructions reinforced the cultural identity of his empire. His name, being Persian and Arabic, is representative of the assimilation of the two cultures, and how that was represented in his leadership. When he died, the authority of his sultanate became decentralized, but eventually lay the groundwork for the Ottoman Empire.

Muluk al-tawa′if

Muluk al-tawa′if meant "party-kings." In 1002, a weak Umayyad caliph came into power in Andalus. There was a civil war between 1009 and 1031. By the end of this civil war, the Umayyad dynasty had already greatly weakened and then eventually dissipated. Instead of a united Andalus, there were over 36 independent Muslim city-states. Muluk al-tawa′if were the rulers of these city-states. These kings were able to take advantage of the weakening caliphate and establish their own city-states. Therefore, instead of one powerful caliph, Andalus had many different Muluk al-tawa′if that ruled. The rulers ranged from being Arab to Berbers to Slavs. Many of these new city-states became prosperous because they no longer had to give their surplus of money away to the capital of Cordoba. As a result, there was a cultural impact that generated a golden age for arts and letters. Cordoba eventually declined as it was no longer wealthy. However, in the following two centuries, Seville became the most important city of Andalus

ahl al-dhimma

Non Muslim inhabitants in Islamic States (people of protection, included Christians, Jews, etc.) When the Arabs were deciding on how to successfully execute their religious policy, they decided to follow the Sasanian model instead of the Byzantine model. They chose this model because they could not persecute every non-Muslim as Byzantium had persecuted members of other religions. At the time, the Islam religion itself was still a minority within the empire. It was not a plausible option for them to persecute other faiths. Therefore, the Arabs followed the Sasanian model which welcomed and accepted other religions to continue practicing their faith. However, the Arabs taxed them. In return, the people of other religions received protection. Ultimately, non-Muslims were still able to practice their faith, and the Arabs received a revenue from this group of people. This group of non-Muslims that paid the taxes were called the ahl al-dhimma, which means "protected peoples." A particular member of this group would be referred to as a dhimmi.

Imad al-Din Zengi

Originally the leader of Mosul in 1127, Imad al-Din Zengi is famous for the conquest of Edessa from the Frankish crusaders and unifying northern Iraq and northern Syria. The capture of Edessa is important because it was the first crusader-held city to be retaken by the Muslims and was the catalyst for the disastrous second crusade against the Muslims. Zengi was not able to continue his war against the crusaders however, since in 1146 he was murdered by one of his Frankish slaves. After Zengi's death, his new state was divided between his two sons, forming the Zengi dynasty and continuing the war against the invading crusaders

Taqiyya

Taqiyya is the Shi'i practice of disguising or denying their religious when faced with the threat of persecution. Shi'ites held the belief that the rightful ruler of the kingdom had to come from descendants of the prophet Muhammad. As a result, they allied themselves with the Caliph Ali and members of his family. When the Abbasid leader al-Saffah came to power, he began executing all those who rejected his authority. As a result, many Shi'i Muslims were persecuted because of their belief that Ja'far al-Sadiq was the Imam and the rightful caliph. However, during Ja'far's imamate, he emphasized the acceptance of political realities to the Shi'i community. Unlike the Zaydi Shi'is, He did not attempt to raise a rebellion against Abbasid rule, which influenced the practice of later Shi'is of reconciling the authority of Imam with the acceptance of, to the Shi'is, illegitimate caliphs. This led to the practice of denying this belief of Ja'far and other Imams as the rightful rulers of the kingdom to prevent any assault or harm against the community.

Taqlid

Taqlid was a term in Islamic law that meant the imitation of previous scholars, or, "intellectual forebears" in their legal judgements. In other words, it was the acceptance of a choice, teaching, or belief without questioning the rationality or proof of how that doctrine came to be. Islamic lawyers were required to practice taqlid during the middle and late periods of the Islamic Empire. During the late fourteenth century, many Sunni scholars believed that faqihs and "modern" jurists should only use taqlid. There was debate over the practice of taqlid versus itjihad, in that it was thought that ijtihad would block the impact of taqlid both socially and intellectually. Taqlid also grew overtime as a factor of the "homogenization" of religious life during medieval Islam in that it played a role in uniforming legal discussion during this time.

Battle of Siffin

The battle of Siffin was clash between the supporters of Ali and Mu'awiya. This would have been the first main battle of this conflict, with only skirmishes between the two sides occurring in the months preceding the battle. before both of their armies clashed however, Mu'awiya's army asked Ali for arbitration of the issues that divided the two men. Ali agreed to the arbitration because the majority of soldiers on both sides of the conflict did not want to shed the blood of fellow Muslims. This was an important event because if both armies clashed, it would have been a decisive victory for the winning side. There was a group in Ali's army that viewed Ali's concession as uncharacteristic of a true caliph, choosing to defect from Ali's army and become the Kharijites, becoming one of the most feared and hated sects of Islam

The Garrison Towns

The garrison towns were communities that were designed to house Arab troops and their families. Umar wanted to create a basic framework fordealing with his soldiers, so he created the garrison towns. The 3 best known garrison towns were Kufa and Basra in Iraq, and Fustat in Eqypt. These towns were strategically located in many ways. One was that they were easily accessible from Arabia in order to help with the continuation of Arab migration. Another was that they were in forward positions that could help in any future conquests. FInally, they were far enough away from near towns, so interactions between Arabs and the local inhabitants was made distant. Garrison towns also prevented soldiers from assimilating into the conquered territories and not being able to respond instantly to duty. By creating garrison towns, soldiers were able to be contained and their military skills readily available.

jadal

The mode of argument congruent to Western Europe as the heart of Scholasticism. Synonymous to "rhetoric", was a form of active dialogue where a question was raised(real or hypothetical)by one person(often the professor)and the reasoned response to it by another, using precedent and logic. Then another student would attempt to rebuke the reply, resulting in a "disputation." The goal of this was to mentally organize and master large amounts of information and have the ability to recite it in light, or essence of the Qur'an and Hadith(244-245).

Ghulam

The term Ghulam was meant for an older boy considered to be a young man. This was applied to Abu Nuwas because he preferred these type of men. The Ghulam was described as a young male slave like figure that was beardless. The coming of a beard was considered to be the making of a man and in many traditions, at this time the beard would not be shaved. Abu Nuwas preferred the Ghulam but still had temptations to go for others that had beards. He believed that the young men not having their beards was more valuable to their youth

Ulama

The term ulama basically means 'the ones that know', it is used to refer to or describe people who have a lot of knowledge in Islamic history, tradition, and law. The ulama were the first interpreters of the Qur'an and transmitters of the hadith. They also were the ones who first outlined the principles of Islamic law. The ulama also played a large role in Islamic education, they regulated all levels of instruction, and were instrumental in the training of all the Islamic scholars. They developed rigorous curriculum centered around law, instructing and training future jurists and theologians. Through this they became liked to political authority in the Islamic world.

Isnad

Translated as "chain of transmitters", the isnad was the most crucial standard for figuring out how legitimate a hadith was in the development of a legal system strictly based on Islamic values starting under Abbasid rule. These chains would allow a scholar, such as al-Bukhari (d. 870) and Muslim (d. 875), to trace a phrase or certain behavior of the Prophet through a succession of well-known individuals back to the original source. The hope was that the succession would lead to a source close to the Prophet when he was alive. This focus on the isnads was part of the movement of new jurists to focus solely on the words and actions of the Prophet instead of garnering guidance from the sunna, "way", "custom", or "practice" of first generation Muslims. Though numerous Western scholars question the legitimacy of the isnads, most Muslims believe them to be as authoritative as the Qu'ran.

Uthmanic Codex

Uthman was informed of all the discrepancies with Koranic recitations. If he wanted the Muslims to be unified, then he needed to create a single Koran for people to follow. He then asked one of Muhammad's widows, Hafsa, to give him the leaves she had. A group of five then copied these leaves into one Koran. The five that 'Uthman chose usually worked out disagreements amongst themselves. However, when they did have a disagreement, 'Uthman was the one to resolve it. When they finished the copy, 'Uthman returned the leaves to Hafsa. Another plausible part of this story is that 'Uthman had sent out a copy of the Koran to each of the provinces. He also commanded that the previous Korans needed to be destroyed to ensure that there was only one edition of the book. However, these older copies still outlived 'Uthman's order.

Ridda Wars

Wars that followed Muhammads death in 632 C.E.; resulted in defeat of rival prophets and some of larger clans; restored unity of Islam. The Ridda Wars occurred in response to the rise of Abu Bakr as the first Caliph to take power after the death of Muhammad. Two things happened during these wars. The tribes around the Hijaz declared that their loyalty still existed for Muhammad and that they would not follow Abu as their new religious or political leader, as he was not a prophet like Muhammad was. As a result, a group of the leaders of this movement posed as prophets and political leaders in a similar manner as Muhammad. The second thing that happened was that the tribes refused to pay tribute to Abu Bakr's Unitarian platform. This refusal took the form of a tax rebellion against the Islamic state. The Ridda Wars was an act of the tribes denying Abu Bakr as their new leader, yet they were not successful long term and would signal pivotal changes to the tribal communities, as Abu would eventually bring the tribes back and enforce their commitment and service to him.

Abd al-Malik

a Muslim ruler who became caliph in A.D. 685 and made Arabic the official language of government in all Muslim lands The 5th Caliph of the Umayyad caliphate who ruled from 685-705 CE. Ascended after fighting a civil war for power in the wake of the death of Mu'awiya in 680 CE. He is credited with the "Arabizing" Umayyad society and culture. In the late 7th century, Islam was still relatively new and only half a century had passed since the passing of Muhammad. The Caliphate was geographically situated between their Byzantine and Sasanian enemies. Naturally, cultural diffusion occurred. The cultures of both empires influenced their military, policies, economy, and linguistic diversity. Although Abd al-Malik valued much of the cultural exchange, he enacted policies to make Islamic society more distinguished. He minted the first coins with Arabic inscriptions, ordered the constructed great monuments, and made Arabic the language of administration within the caliphate. His accomplishments "...allow us to identify the 690's as a watershed in the cultural history of the area"

Alamut

a fortress in the Elburz range that proved to be impregnable for more than a century and a half. Hasan began a campaign against the Saljuqs, who were doubly despised as advocates of Sunnism and as outsiders. Recognizing that winning pitched battles against the Saljuq army was not a realistic goal, he began a policy of assassinating Saljuq officials. The legend arose that the agents who were sent out from Alamut for the purpose of murdering officials were administered hashish during a ritual. No evidence supports the idea that the drug was used in this way, but the agents nevertheless gained the nickname of hashishin, or hashish users. The English word assassin derives etymologically from this word, with the result that Hasan's followers have been known as the Assassins for centuries. Hasan and his seven successors were commonly referred to as the Lords of Alamut. Alamut itself developed a reputation not only for terror, but also for being an intellectual center. As we shall see, Nizaris were remarkably active in the cultural life of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Alamut housed one of the world's greatest research libraries of the period and hosted many scholars. Twelver Shi'ites and Sunnis were as welcome there as Isma'ilis.

Yathrib/Medina

city to which Muhammad traveled. migration became known as Hijrah. he became military leader here against Mecca. A city Muhammad and his followers visited after death threats to Muhammad Medina is celebrated as the place from which Muhammad conquered all of Arabia after his flight from Mecca (622 CE), and a pilgrimage is made to his tomb in the city's chief mosque. Only Muslims are allowed to enter the city. Medina became the administrative capital of the steadily expanding Islamic state, a position it maintained until 661, when it was superseded in that role by Damascus, the capital of the Umayyad caliphs.

Constitution of Medina

document drawn by Muhammad. constituted a formal agreement between Muhammad and all of the significant tribes and families of Yathrib. The document was drawn up to bring an end the bitter inter-tribal fighting between the clans. instituted a number of rights and responsibilities for the Muslim, Jewish, and pagan communities of Medina bringing them within the fold of one community—the Ummah. Legal document, also referred to as the Medina Charter, created between the prophet Muhammad and the tribes residing in Medina. This agreement established Yathrib's separate tribes as one community called an umma, and names Muhammed as their political leader. At the time of Muhammad's arrival in Medina (formally named Yathrib), it was inhabited by many different tribes of people, including Jews, Christians, Pagans, and Arabs. The Arab tribes were in constant conflict with each other, causing much distress within the community. in 620 C.E., a group of people from Yathrib came to Mecca and converted to Islam. They requested that Muhammed come to their community and act as a negotiator between the warring tribes. Muhammed agreed, and in 622 C.E., the followers of Muhammed emigrated to the city in a movement called the hijra. The document outlines certain expectations that the Muslim and Jewish community must abide by, such as the paying of bloodwit - a monetary penalty for killing or injuring someone.

Black Stone

meteorite thought to be the site where Abraham almost sacrificed his son Isaac; was a pilgrimage site prior to the creation of Islam The Black Stone is an islamic relic, which has been very important since before Muhammad came to be, but Muhammad is credited with the placement of the stone currently. The black stone is now nailed into the eastern corner of the Kaaba, which is the ancient building where Muslims pray, the building is located in the center of the Grand Mosque in Saudi Arabia. The Black Stone of Mecca is a stone that, according to legend, was given to Adam originally as a white rock but has since been turned black. It is believed that the stone has the power to cleanse people of their sins by absorbing them into itself, and it has absorbed the sins of the thousands of pilgrims who have kissed and touched it making it black. The stone has since been damaged and broken into multiple pieces and fragments, but it is now cemented into a silver frame protecting it from any further damage.

Muhtasib

originally an inspector of markets who supervised or policed business transactions and practices; the office was latter expanded to include the monitoring of public morality in general Muhtasib was a supervisor of bazaars and trade in the medieval Islamic countries. The muhtasib served as a market inspector, as well as the astynomos, a public health official whose primary function is to maintain streets in passable condition. The muhtasib's duties included the prohibition of the disposal of market and household refuse in the streets and the encroachment of buildings into public space. As a market inspector, he made sure that scales were accurate and that customers were not cheated by unscrupulous merchants. He also inspected public eating houses and could order pots and pan to be replaced. This official was so critical to the maintenance of a smoothly functioning urban society that the office remained active for over a thousand years. The first muhtasib office appeared in Syria, but Muslim societies all the way to the Atlantic soon had one.