History of Texas Exam 3-Review

"Hogg Laws"

(1) the law establishing the Railroad Commission (2) the railroad stock and bond law cutting down on watered stock (3) the law forcing land corporations to sell off their holdings in fifteen years (4) the Alien Land Law, which checked further grants to foreign corporations in an effort to get the land into the hands of citizen settlers (5) the act restricting the amount of indebtedness by bond issues that county and municipal groups could legally undertake.

Brig. Gen. John "Black Jack" Pershing

(September 13, 1860 - July 15, 1948) was a senior United States Army officer. His most famous post was when he served as the commander of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) on the Western Front in World War I, 1917-18. On December 20, 1913, Pershing received orders to take command of the 8th Brigade at the Presidio in San Francisco. With tensions running high on the border between the United States and Mexico, the brigade was deployed to Fort Bliss, Texas on April 24, 1914, arriving there on the 27th.

Francisco Madero

30 October 1873 - 22 February 1913) was a Mexican revolutionary, writer and statesman who served as the 33rd president of Mexico from 1911 until his assassination in 1913. He was an advocate for social justice and democracy. Madero was notable for challenging Mexican President Porfirio Díaz for the presidency in 1910 and being instrumental in sparking the Mexican Revolution.

Francisco "Pancho" Villa

5 June 1878 - 20 July 1923) was a Mexican Revolutionary general and one of the most prominent figures of the Mexican Revolution.

Lucy Fryer

53-year old wife of a well-to-do cotton farmer Fryer was found bludgeoned to death Accused murder, Jesse Washington On Monday, May 8, 1916, Ruby and George Fryer, Jr. noticed their mother, Lucy Fryer, was not in the house upon returning from pulling cotton. Ruby peered through the window and saw her mother in a pool of blood in the doorway of the seed house. She lay in the doorway "almost brained and criminally assaulted." Her skull had been bashed in at several points and her clothing was disheveled, p. 89.

"Cultural Conformity"

Agreement between an individual's behavior and a group's standards or expectations. A conformist is one who follows the majority's desires or standards. The act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms.[1] Norms are implicit, specific rules, shared by a group of individuals, that guide their interactions with others. This tendency to conform occurs in small groups and/or society as a whole, and may result from subtle unconscious influences, or direct and overt social pressure.

"Farmers' Improvement Society"

An accommodationist philosophy promoted by Booker T. Washington that sought self-help through cooperatives, educational fairs, the avoidance of sharecropping and credit arrangements, and the improvement of homes and farms.

"Texas Democrats in 1890's"/"Old School" Politics

Democrats: The democrats were splintered group of individual parties each gaining its character reflective of its state. According to Colquitt's assessment of the democratic party in Texas, the Democrats were the only serious forum for the discussion and resolution of the economic and social questions before the state in the early twentieth century "Old School" Politics: Since the mid-1890s, when depression and Grover Cleveland brought defeat and disaster, the national Democracy had struggled to find an alternative to outmoded policies. He believed that the party should maintain its traditional commitment to rigid economy, to weak government, and to state's rights. For the "true Democrats" reform programs like the initiative and referendum, prohibition, and woman suffrage were loathsome. The talk of amendments and extended rights to women meant the interference of the federal government in what was believed to be state affairs, "the amendment to the Federal Constitution pending in the Congress means more than mere extension of the franchise to women. It means that the federal government shall supervise our elections and of course in all the states of the South where the negroes are in the majority, the negroes will again be placed in control just as they were after the war when the white people were practically disfranchised,"

"Drys"/"Wets"

Drys: The "drys" had two candidates to choose from and was a predicament since it could split the vote. Colquitt benefitted from this discord. Drys centered around North Texas among the rural, old-stock residents that called themselves the "Anglo Saxon Democracy." They made it into a race issue. Wets: People who opposed prohibition

James E. Ferguson

Ferguson sought to elevate the state's standards, especially the rural schools. Wanted to redirect funds from the University of Texas to common schools His experience as a rural pupil and his constituency. Pressured legislature to act: compulsory attendance law, eased restrictions on the use of local funds for textbooks, and the special $1 million allocation for rural districts. These actions paralleled what was going on in other parts of the South. Teacher salaries rose, illiteracy declined, and school terms were lengthened. However, it was still poor in comparison to the rest of the country. Impeachment: On July 27 1917, a Travis County grand jury indicted the governor and several aides on charges of misuse of public funds and embezzlement. He posted bond and announced his candidacy for a third term. Proceedings towards an impeachment peaked on August 6, 1917, when the House secured the services of M.M. Crane as prosecutor and organized a committee of the whole to act as a court His silence on revealing who helped him out of his loan with the Temple bank hurt his political future and made people weary and believing that there was more to hide. His impeachment became inevitable. Articles for impeachment were sent to the House which were than presented to the Senate. Ferguson left office and William P. Hobby became acting governor. The Senate found the governor guilty, in an attempt to escape the Senate's decision on punishment, Ferguson resigned on September 24, 1917. He was denied ever seeking office in Texas

James S. Hogg

First native-born Texan elected governor Elected Attorney General of Texas in 1886: As attorney general, Hogg encouraged new legislation to protect the public domain set aside for the school and institutional funds Hogg instituted suits that finally returned over a million and a half acres to the state. He sought to enforce laws providing that railroads and land corporations sell their holdings to settlers within certain time limits and succeeded in breaking up the Texas Traffic Association, which was formed by the roads to pool traffic, fix rates, and control competing lines, in violation of the laws. Elected Governor in 1890 (1891-1895) As governor he organized the Texas Railroad Commission, force the sale of corporate land holdings, Regulated railroads and corporations because he felt that they didn't help Texas. Also, he wanted to try and keep the Dems together in midst of great splintering. As the one-party system emerged, the Dems focused or emphasized organization, consolidation, and consensus.

Charles Culberson

Followed the Hogg route by serving as Attorney General. The Culberson campaign in 1894 operated on the principle of "active and energetic organization" across the state. Controlled the Dallas convention Served the customary two terms (four years) The People's party was at the height of its popularity in the 1890s, but Culberson, conservative and penny-pinching in a period of mostly national depression, and his efficient political allies easily beat back the Populist gubernatorial challenge in both 1894 and 1896.

"Texas Model" to Justice

Gangs: Were usually small and only grew during certain events or with the "mob mentality." Many of these gangs, like Jesse James' lot, were self-destructive and eventually killed each other off. The "Regulators" Billy the Kid's gang. Female outlaws: Myra Maybelle Shirley aka Belle Starr. Rode with Jesses James' gang and members and bore Cole Younger's love child and served in the Detroit House of Correction The women were much less violent than their male counterparts. One-on-one gun battles were rare an more of Hollywood creation. Government Response: Federal marshals were used but sometimes "Martial Law" was the most effective. The use of the Buffalo Soldiers out in West Texas to deal with the Texas Cattle rustlers. Texas Model: "no nonsense" justice. Judge Isaac Parker sent marshals and deputies into Texas and soon the courts were filled with 13500 trials in which 70 % were found guilty and 172 were executed. Needless to say, Parker became known as the "Hanging Judge."

Governor Sterling & August 17, 1931

Governor Sterling and other finally had enough with East Texas oilmen when the group could not agree to voluntarily curb production and in August 17, 1931 Sterling sent in the National Guard to enforce the decision to cease operations.

Gregorio Cortez

Gregorio Cortez, who became a folk hero among Mexican Americans in the early 1900s for evading the Texas Rangers during their search for him on murder charges, was a tenant farmer and vaquero who was born on June 22, 1875, near Matamoros, Tamaulipas. The event that propelled Cortez to legendary status occurred on June 12, 1901, when he was approached by Karnes county sheriff W. T. "Brack" Morris because Atascosa county sheriff Avant had asked Morris to help locate a horse thief described as a "medium-sized Mexican." Deputies John Trimmell and Boone Choate accompanied Morris in their search, and Choate acted as the interpreter. He was eventually captured after a Mexican seeking the reward money betrayed his trust and revealed his location to the Rangers. After a series of trials and imprisonment, Cortez was given a conditional pardon my Texas governor, Oscar B. Colquitt in 1913. Cortez died of pneumonia in 1916.

Edward M. House

He was a manager of Texas politics but not a major player. Strong advisor for Hogg, more of a Wilson player. House would move on to help Sayers and Lanham to the governor's chair but in 1911, he found his national candidate in Woodrow Wilson. House made sure his governors gave key state offices to loyal followers. Like most Democrats, he favored lower tariffs, currency reform, and a vague social justice. The state governments he helped establish pursued policies pleasing to the railroad attorneys, large planters, and town merchants with whom House usually associated. After Hogg, governors Charles Culberson, Joseph D. Sayers, and S.W.T Lanham, shared a common conservatism and distaste for reform instituted by Texas Progressives.

"Business Progressivism"

It endeavored to utilize the ideas of efficiency and public service to effect order and prosperity. Business progressives fought for administrative reorganization, good roads, and improved schools and health care; they seemingly ignored the demands of labor unions, tenant farmers, and proponents of civil rights

Sank Majors

It was the only lynching recorded (1905) in Waco between 1889 and 1916, despite nearly constant mob violence throughout East Texas. Clinnie Roberts was reportedly beaten and raped. Her husband and a mob assumed it was a young black man, Sank Majors. He was arrested and tried. The jury took a full three minutes to deliver the guilty verdict and sentenced him to death. Majors was granted a retrial; however, before it was set to begin August 9, 1905 a mob of about 200 men converged on the jail and demanded the jailer release Majors to them. The men forced their way into the jail and proceeded to tie him to a post in the middle of town square to be burned. Ms. Robert asked that he be hanged and not burned. He was dragged to the new bridge across the Brazos River and supposedly gave a confession of his crime.

"Characteristics between periods of Mexican lynchings"

Lynching Periods: The first of the three major outbreaks of violence took place in during the California Gold Rush of the 1850s. As gold miner Pringle Shaw recalled: "No sooner is a crime committed than suspicion falls immediately on some unfortunate Mexican or Chileno [who] is commanded to establish his innocence [in] but little time." The second period of indiscriminate violence took place in the 1870s along the Texas-Mexico border in reaction to rising livestock prices and subsequent theft on both sides of the border. The "Hora de Sangre" was thus the third era of riotous anti-Mexican violence along the border. (Mexican Revolution Era) Similarities: The first similarity to note is that the history of anti-Mexican violence contains earlier periods of intense, riotous violence. Mob violence against Mexicans followed a cycle of eruption and decline. A second similarity is that mob violence against Mexicans was almost always greatest during times of increased tension along the US-Mexican border. The third, and perhaps most obvious, similarity is that the Anglo mobs were consistently motivated by a deep-seated racial prejudice against Mexicans.

Porfirio Diaz

Modernized México Friend of the United States, Britain, Germany, and others Aging dictator

"Dan Moody"

Moody's platform supported prohibition, woman suffrage, and other anti-Ferguson positions. After winning the first 1926 primary with 49.9 percent of the vote, Moody defeated Ferguson 495,723 to 270,595 in a runoff. He was re-nominated for the governorship in the first Democratic primary of 1928 with a clear majority. As governor, Moody pursued a strong reform program. He halted a liberal convict-pardon policy initiated by the Fergusons; he also inaugurated a reorganization of prison management. He instituted a complete reorganization of the state highway system, including a program for a connected network of roads; the cost of highways was cut by almost half from that under the Ferguson administration.

Terrell Election Laws of 1905

Named for State Rep, Alexander Watkins Terrell. During his years in the legislature, he authored several acts: a bill requiring jurors to be literate; the enabling legislation for the Railroad Commission, and... the Terrell Election Law, which required candidates for public office to be nominated by direct primaries instead of by state or local conventions. By 1906 only the Democrats had the requisite money and organization to stage the primary in accordance with the Terrell Law specifications. Participation in the primary required the payment of a poll tax and the signing of a party loyalty pledge. These stipulations effectively removed many African Americans, Mexican Americans, and poor whites from the political process.

18th & 19th Amendment

Prohibition in Texas was enacted in the majority of the state by 1918. The 18th Amendment and the Volsted Act of 1919, made prohibition a nationwide law. Texas border cities and counties profited and suffered exponentially during this period. 18th Amendment: A statute or order forbidding a particular action. The time from 1920 to 1933 when alcoholic beverages were banned by the Eighteenth Amendment 19th Amendment: Gave women the right to vote in 1920.

Reform Democrats

Reform Democrats of the 1910s were concerned about regulation of industry and moral and social order. They sought the purification of the electoral process, the enfranchisement of women and, above all, temperance. Between 1911 and 1921 philosophical differences among Texas Democrats were expressed primarily in debate over the liquor issue. To the distress of the Conservatives and the delight of the progressives, the question of prohibition dominated political life

Judge Roy Bean

Roy Bean, a frontier justice of the peace known as the "Law West of the Pecos," was born in Mason County, Kentucky, the son of Francis and Anna Bean. Bean's fame as a bizarre interpreter of the law began in the 1880s. There was, however, a sort of common sense behind his unorthodox rulings. When a track worker killed a Chinese laborer, for example, Bean ruled that his law book did not make it illegal to kill a Chinese. Since the killer's friends were present and ready to riot, he had little choice. And when a man carrying forty dollars and a pistol fell off a bridge, Bean fined the corpse forty dollars for carrying a concealed weapon, thereby providing funeral expenses. He intimidated and cheated people, but he never hanged anybody. He reached the peak of notoriety on February 21, 1896, when he staged the Fitzsimmons-Maher heavyweight championship fight on a sandbar on the Rio Grande. Bean died in his saloon on March 16, 1903, of lung and heart ailments and was buried in the Del Rio cemetery. Roy Bean an eccentric justice of the peace and saloon - keeper in Val Verde county, Texas. He was the self proclaimed " Law West of the Pecos ". For granting divorces he would charge $10.00 dollars, and for weddings $5.00, at the end of all ceremonies he would proclaim " may god have mercy on your souls "

Colt .45

Samuel Colt invented the famous Colt .45 in 1872 but it was his five-shooter that became popular during the Mexican War and the Civil War. Former Texas Ranger Samuel Walker suggested the six shooter and the Colt became largely popular when the "peacemaker" was introduced in 1873 (the Army Colt).

Miriam A. Ferguson

Texas' first female governor Complex figure Ran for governor against KKK candidate Felix Robertson (Dallas) in 1924 and won in large part due to Klan excesses and her husband would be in the picture. Propped up for her husband, impeached governor James E. Ferguson Against women's suffrage During her campaign she opposed the Klan and her support came largely from a general understanding that her candidacy for governor was a surrogate campaign for her deposed husband. She boasted no reforms. Her administration was dominated by her husband who approved appointees and attended all important meetings (Husband controlled Texas behind wife's back.)

"Hora de Sangre"/"Bloody Hour"

The "Hora de Sangre" was thus the third era of riotous anti-Mexican violence along the border. (Mexican Revolution Era)

Columbus, NM Raid 1916

The Battle of Columbus (Burning of Columbus or the Columbus Raid), March 9, 1916, began as a raid conducted by Pancho Villa's Division of the North on the small United States border town of Columbus, New Mexico, located 3 miles (4.8 km) north of the border. The raid escalated into a full-scale battle between Villistas and the United States Army. Villa himself led the assault, only to be driven back into Mexico by elements of the 13th Cavalry Regiment stationed at the town. The attack angered Americans and President Woodrow Wilson ordered the Punitive Expedition in which the US Army invaded Mexico in an unsuccessful attempt to capture General Villa.

El Paso Race Riot 1916

The El Paso Race Riot of 1916 intensified racial divisions between Anglos and Mexicans in the city and negatively affected race relations in the border region for many years. On January 12, 1916, at approximately two o'clock in the afternoon, a group of 100 soldiers commanded by Villista Col. Pablo López attacked a "stalled" passenger train that was transporting the Cusi mining men. An eyewitness reported that the band shouted, "Viva Villa!" and "Death to the Gringos." Upon hearing shouts from the Villista band, five Americans jumped from the train, but the rebels quickly captured them and summarily executed the hapless miners. The soldiers marched to the "American coach" and ordered that "all Gringos step out" of the car, line up, and remove their clothing. López then commanded two troopers to kill the Americans; the soldiers walked down the line and shot each of the men. Americans that tried to escape fell prey to other rebels who mortally shot them in their tracks. The train carrying the remains of the eighteen Americans murdered at Santa Ysabel, Chihuahua, arrived in Juárez on the morning of January 13, 1916, and then crossed the river to the Santa Fe railway freight depot in El Paso, where citizens unloaded the corpses. An armed escort accompanied the bodies to various undertaking establishments. While the local police and military guard took precautions against any unrest, some enraged Americans marched in the streets and wanted retribution for the atrocities committed in Santa Ysabel. Approximately thirty men of various backgrounds, including well-known local businessmen, held a meeting in El Paso and proposed to assemble a volunteer "foreign legion" of 1,000 men for service in Mexico under the protection of the Carranza government. The men felt confident that this volunteer unit could be outfitted and funded by a majority of those present at the meeting as well as by mining interests in Mexico. Meanwhile, crowds filled the streets of El Paso.

Punitive Expedition, 1916-1917

The Pancho Villa Expedition—now known officially in the United States as the Mexican Expedition,but originally referred to as the "Punitive Expedition, U.S. Army"—was a military operation conducted by the United States Army against the paramilitary forces of Mexican revolutionary Francisco "Pancho" Villa from March 14, 1916, to February 7, 1917, during the Mexican Revolution of 1910-1920. The expedition was launched in retaliation for Villa's attack on the town of Columbus, New Mexico, and was the most remembered event of the Border War. The declared objective of the expedition by the Wilson administration was the capture of Villa. Despite successfully locating and defeating the main body of Villa's command, responsible for the raid on Columbus, U.S. forces were unable to achieve Wilson's stated main objective of preventing Villa's escape. The active search for Villa ended after a month in the field when troops sent by Venustiano Carranza, the head of the Constitutionalist faction of the revolution and now the head of the Mexican government, resisted the U.S. incursion. The Constitutionalist forces used arms at the town of Parral to resist passage of a U.S. Army column. The U.S. mission was changed to prevent further attacks on it by Mexican troops and to plan for war in the eventuality it broke out. When war was averted diplomatically, the expedition remained in Mexico until February 1917 to encourage Carranza's government to pursue Villa and prevent further raids across the border.

Plan of San Diego 1915

The Plan of San Diego (Spanish: Plan de San Diego) was drafted in the Texas town of San Diego in 1915 by a group of unknown Mexican rebels, hoping to create social unrest and obtain political and economic gains. Raids resulting from attempts to implement the plan led to the Bandit War with the United States. The real goal of the plan is debated. The plan stated a supposed "attempt to overthrow the government in Southern United States". However, some theories state that the true goal of the plan was to create the conditions that forced the US into supporting one of the battling factions in the Mexican Revolution (which ultimately occurred). The plan called for things such as "the killing of all adult Anglos in the Southwestern states"[citation needed] and the "return of land to Mexicans", but was exposed before it could be fully executed. Although there was no uprising, there were raids into Texas that began in July 1915. The raids were countered by Texas Rangers, the U.S. Army and local self-defense groups. In total, 30 raids into Texas destroyed large amounts of property and killed 21 Americans. It is not known who was responsible for drafting the Plan of San Diego, but there are theories that Mexican revolutionary leaders took part in sponsoring the plan.

El Porvenir Massacre 1918

The Porvenir Massacre was one of a series of clashes between Mexican-descent men and the Texas Rangers set off by the Mexican Revolution and accompanying events. The massacre was one of the most serious acts of Ranger misconduct cited in the Texas Ranger investigation of 1919, organized by state legislator José T. Canales. On December 25, 1917, bandits perpetrated the Brite Ranch Raid, in which several Mexicans and Anglos were killed, horses were stolen, and the ranch store was robbed. Several weeks later, on about January 28, Company B of the Rangers-which included eight men under Captain Fox; Troop G, Eighth U.S. Cavalry, from Camp Evetts, under Capt. Henry H. Anderson-arrived at Porvenir. When the party left Porvenir, fifteen men of Mexican origin had been killed, all of whom evidently resided in Texas. Family members and friends fled across the Rio Grande and buried the dead at Pilares in Mexico. Of nine Porvenir widows who filed affidavits, five claimed that the civilians had masks on their faces. Felipa Mendez Castañeda noted that three days before the massacre, three masked Anglos had come to her house. Anderson stated that three days before the massacre, the Rangers went to a house, found arms, and arrested three "Mexicans" who were thereafter released. The grand jury of Presidio took no action for the killings. On June 4, 1918, Governor William P. Hobby disbanded Company B of the Texas Rangers and dismissed five Rangers for their actions. In 1919 Canales highlighted the Porvenir Massacre in the investigation of the Rangers. About 140 Porvenir residents abandoned their homes and fled to Mexico, and the community ceased to exist for several years.

Houston Race Riot 1917

The Stage: Shortly after declaring war on Germany in the spring of 1917, the War Department opened two military installations in Harris County- Camp Logan and Ellington Field The Third Battalion of the black 24th US Infantry was ordered to guard the construction and arrived in July by train from Columbus, NM The Cause: Although many of the black servicemen were familiar with Jim Crow many expected equal treatment and respect because of their service. Many soldiers openly resented their treatment. On August 23, 1917, two policemen arrested a black soldier for interfering with their arrest of a black woman in the Fourth Ward (aka "Freedmen's Town"). Cpl. Charles Baltimore inquired about the soldier's arrest and was assaulted and shot at by a policeman. A rumor circulated at Camp Logan that they shot and killed Cpl. Baltimore despite the contrary. Soliders marched on the police station in the 4th Ward demanding justice. Backlash: Maj. Kneeland S. Snow, battalion commander ordered the first sergeants to collect all rifles and search the camp for loose ammunition. Black soldiers suddenly alarmed by the action screamed that a white mob was approaching the camp and gathered their rifles and firing wildly in the direction of the supposed mob. More than 100 armed soldiers made their way to the Fourth Ward and chaos ensued resulting with 15 whites killed, including four policemen. Four black soldiers also died with two of them killed by "friendly fire." On August 25, the army moved the battalion back to New Mexico and between Nov. 1, 1917 and March 26, 1918 the army held three separate courts-martial indicting 118 enlisted men of I Company for participating in mutiny and riot, and found 110 guilty. No white civilians were brought to trial and two white officers were released.

Vigilante Commitees

The West was overrun by thugs and gangs who took advantage of the movement west to find Gold. The text features the "Sydney Ducks." They demanded alcohol and shot up windows and terrorized customers. People formed "vigilante committees," composed of citizens who organized without legal authorization to enforce the law and maintain order. Vigilante Committees: created laws, established their own courts, police force, etc.

Texas Progressivism

The election of Thomas M. Campbell marked the beginning of progressivism in Texas. Campbell convened the Thirtieth Legislature in January 1907 and prohibited the wholesale granting of railroad passes, enacted an anti-nepotism law, and created the Department of Agriculture in response to agrarian demands. Historian Louis Gould argues that in Texas, those who fought alcohol in Texas, like many in other states, saw the battle as simply one phase in a larger struggle for a better nation. liquor laws were left to counties and municipalities and by 1903, much of North Texas was dry with only South Texas and other border counties as wet.

Texas Democratic Heritage

The heritage of the Civil War and the presence of the Negro kept the majority of adult male Texans to the doctrines and dogma of "the party of the fathers," Since 1873, the GOP was irrelevant and no longer played out the charade of meaningful opposition Major obstacles for the Democratic party were discontented farmers. The Farmers' Alliance in the mid 1870s was active in asking for free silver, railroad regulation, all the same stuff.

Fitzsimmons-Maher Prizefight

The most talked-about event of his administration was the proposed prizefight featuring James J. Corbett, heavyweight champion of the world, and Bob Fitzsimmons, challenger (1895). An old political foe from East Texas, Dan Stuart, and others had already expended a fortune promoting the fight in Dallas when Culberson called the legislature into special session and passed a law making prizefighting a felony. Corbett later described the action as nothing but a grandstand play for the voters, but the fight was cancelled. The next year Roy Bean staged an outdoor "championship" fight just across the border in Mexico, Bob Fitzsimmons and Peter Maher.

"New" Ku Klux Klan

The perceived decline in American morals Migration to cities disrupted rural America and "broke" up extended families. Cities in Texas were perceived as "hotbeds" for disloyal foreigners, religious modernism, illegal speakeasies, organized crime, and loose women. The 1920s KKK was different than the Reconstruction KKK in that it expanded its targets and was slightly more sophisticated in its organization. Began in 1915 in Georgia by William Joseph Simmons teamed up with Edward Young Clarke, who paid field organizers (kleagles) to organize KKK chapters (Klaverns) throughout the country. Founded near Atlanta, GA in 1915 by William Joseph Simmons Klan goals: preservation of patriotism, the purity of women, white supremacy, and law & order It opposed radicals, Catholics, Jews, blacks, Mexicans, the wearing by women of short skirts, the consumption of "demon rum", and continued foreign immigration. Was organized in Texas in 1920. Its core strength lay in the Dallas-Fort Worth area, East Texas, and Central Texas. Motivated by racism and nativism, as well as the imposition of moral conformity. Black confidence growing out of World War I and the establishment of the NAACP chapter in eastern Texas acted to prompt a response to the so-called insolence of African Americans. Texas newspapers reported 80 incidents of flogging in 1921. Klan victims included doctors accused of performing abortions; businessmen charged with corrupting young women; oil filed workers rowdy behavior; men leaving their wives, etc. Evidence indicates that the Klan dominated Austin, Waco, and Dallas police forces as well as school boards throughout the state, such as El Paso.

"Majors" & "Independents"

The two competing parties for oil in the region were "majors" and "independents." Majors: Commercially, capital heavy companies Independents: Start up companies, owners of the land Problems: The immense output of oil brought prices down and this brought intense criticism from the majors. Some independents agreed but others maintained their cash flow by selling at whatever price and hitting other wells. However, the majors would win out as they could afford to keep oil reserves on hold until the price went up. Prorated oil supply laws were already in place in the late 1910s and when legislature tried to enforce and place these policies on East Texas many procured injunctions or simply ignored the order. Majors controlled the refineries and refused to buy East Texas crude. So, they built their own but many were known as "teakettle" refineries that were of low quality and produced low-quality gasoline that could be sold at independent gas stations below market price.

"Lynching"

Varied definition Scholar William Carrigan understands lynching as a summary execution committed by a self-appointed group without regard for established legal procedures. In the 19th century, people were more likely to understand lynching as an extralegal killing broadly supported by the community. Between 1880 and 1930, approximately 4,697 lynchings took place in the United States. About 3,344 of those lynched were black. Nearly 500 of these lynchings took place in Texas. Lynchings and attempted lynchings of black people were common, and some of the most hideous lynchings on record took place in East-Central Texas area.

"Home Guards"

Visualities who kill Mexicans guilty or innocent

Jesse Washinton

Washington was arrested on May 8 of that year for the rape and murder of Lucy Fryer, the 53-year old wife of a well-to-do cotton farmer. Fryer was found bludgeoned to death. Washington was spared for a week by the Waco sheriff, who successfully took him into custody before a pre-trial mob got their hands on him; Washington was then sent to Dallas for holding to prevent a local incident. To appease the mob, he was transferred back to Waco and tried for the crime just one week later. On May 15, the well-attended trial ended, and in four minutes, the jury reached its guilty verdict. Before the 17-year old could be sentenced, and with little or no resistance offered by any of the various legal entities in the courthouse, several hundred of the onlookers (some brandishing weapons) rushed Washington and carried him out the doors. Outside, a larger crowd waited to beat and castrate him. A chain was thrown around Washington's neck, and he was dragged to the town square, where he met an immense crowd as well as the pile of dry goods boxes that was to be his end. By some estimates, up to 15,000 (mostly white, though not exclusively white) people watched the horrible events unfold; without question, Waco's mayor as well as several other public officials watched from their second-story perch at town hall on one side of the square. Sheriff Flemming, Constable Leslie Stegall, Deputy Sheriffs Lee Jenkins, and others arrived on the scene to begin the investigation. It was Lee Jenkins who immediately found evidence pointing to a suspect, p. 90. The "evidence" may simply have been that the neighbor saw Jesse Washington planting cotton some 250 yards from the Fryer house. Washington was supposedly seen coming from the field and going to the mule lot near the seed house just a few minutes before the body was discovered. Jesse, his parents and brother had been living and working on the Fryer farm for only five months or so. Jesse Washington was a physically impressive young man but was illiterate and thought to be slightly retarded. Teachers were unable to teach him basic lessons. Washington's family was also arrested so that "no avenue of obtaining information may be lost by the officers." The real reason was probably to apply more pressure on Washington (i.e. Gregorio Cortez). Jesse Washington (JW) was questioned by Lee Jenkins and County Attorney John B. McNamara. JW at first "denied stoutly" the crime but later admitted to beating her to death according to McNamara.