HKR 2311 - Assignment 2

Blood Brain Barrier

(BBB) isolates neural tissue from the general circulation Incomplete in parts of the: 1. Hypothalamus 2. Pituitary Gland 3. Pineal Gland 4. Choroid Plexus

Third-Class Lever

(L) (AF) (F) or (F) (AF) (L) The applied force(AP) is between the load (L) and the fulcrum (F) Are the most common in the human body The effect is the reverse of the second-class lever system EXAMPLE: the biceps brachia muscle, which flexes the elbow)

First-Class Lever

(L) (F) (AF) or (AF) (F) (L) Load, fulcrum, applied force The fulcrum lies between the applied force and the load EXAMPLE: extension of neck

Isometric Contractions

(metric measure) The muscle as a whole does not change length and the tension produced never exceeds the load

Quadriceps Muscles - Extensors of the knee

1. Rectus Femoris 2. Vastus Lateralis 3. Vastus Medialis 4. Vastus Intermedius

Pons Functions

1. Relay Sensory Information to cerebellum and thalamus 2. Subconscious somatic and visceral motor senses Connects the cerebellum to the brain stem

Amygdaloid Body (amygdala)

Acts as an interface between the limbic system, the cerebrum, and various sensory systems. Plays a role in regulating heart rate, in responding to fear and and anxiety, controlling the "fight or flight" response by way of Autonomic Nervous System and linking emotions with specific memories

Supraspinatus

Adduction at the shoulder

Integrative Centers of Cerebral Cortex

Are the areas that receive information from many association areas and direct extremely complex motor activities Perform complicated analytical functions AREAS: 1. General Interpretive Area (Wernicke's Area) 2. Speech Center 3. Prefrontal Cortex 4. Brodmann Area

E-C C 5. Sarcomere Shortening

As the thick and thin filaments interact, the sarcomeres shorten, pulling ends of the muscle fiber closer together

White Matter Column Tracts

Axons share functional and structural characteristics A tract (fasciculus, bundle) is a bundle of axons in the CNS that is somewhat uniform in diameter, myelination, and propagation speed all axons within tract relay info in same direction SHORT TRACTS: carry sensory or motor signals between of the spinal cord LONG TRACTS: Connect the spinal cord with the brain ASCENDING TRACTS: carry sensory information toward the brain DESCENDING TRACTS: Convey motor commands to the spinal

fascicles

Bundles of muscle fibres

Semispinalis Group

Deep Layer of muscles of the erector spinae (vertebral column 1. Semispinalis Capitis - Together, the two sides extend head, alone, each extends and laterally flexes the head 2. Semispinalis Cervicis - Extends vertebral column and rotates toward opposite side 3. Semispinalis Thoracis - Extends vertebral column and rotates toward opposite side

Baroreceptors

Detect Pressure changes in the walls of blood vessels and in portions of digestive, respiratory, or urinary tracts.

Thermoreceptors

Detect changes in temperature

Multiple Sclerosis

Disease characterized by recurrent incidents of demylniation that affects axons in the optic nerve, brain, and spinal cord. There is intermittent and progressive damage to the myelin sheath of periphral nerves. Results in poor motor control of the affected area

Obturators (extremus and internus)

Dominant muscles, along with the piriformis in the LATERAL ROTATOR GROUP of muscles ACTION: lateral rotation at hip

Extensor Carpi Radialus Brevis

Extension and abduction at wrist

Extensor Pollicis Brevis

Extension at joints of thumb;abduction at wrist

Parallel Muscle

Fascicles are paired to the long axis of the muscle. Most muscles in body Pull in the same direction 1. Parallel Muscle ( Biceps brachii) 2. Parallel Muscle with Tendinous Bands (Rectus Abdominis) 3. Wrapping Muscle (Supinator)

Orbicularis oris muscle

Flat band around the upper and lower lips that compresses, contracts, puckers, and wrinkles the lips. Constricts the opening of the mouth ACTION: Maxilla and Mandible INSERTION: Lips ACTION: compresses; purses lips INNERVATION: Facial Nerve

Median Nerve

Innervates: 1.Flexor Muscles on the forearm a. Flexor carpi radialis b. Pulmaris Longus Muscles 2. Pronator Quadratus Muscles 3. Pronator Teres Muscles 4. Digital Flexors

Axillary Nerve

Innervates: 1. Deltoid 2.Teres Minor 3. Apart of posterior cord

Ulnar Nerve

Innervates: 1. Flexor Carpi Ulnaris Muscle 2. Flexor Digitorum Profundus Muscle 3. Adductor Policis Muscle 4. Small Digital Muscles by the deep branch

Iliohypogastric Nerve

Innervates: A. Abdominal Muscles 1.External Oblique 2. Internal Oblique 3. Transverse Abdominis

Infraspinatus

Lateral Rotation at the shoulder

Quadratus Femoris

Lateral Rotator Group of muscles that move the thigh Lateral Rotation at hip

Anterior White Columns

Lie between the anterior gray horns and the anterior median fissure

I bands

Light bands of the sarcomere that contain thin filaments but no thick ones. Extends from the A band of of one sarcomere to the A band of the next. The Z line bisects and marks the next sarcomere isotropic

Superior Cerebellar Peduncles

Link the cerebellum with nuclei in the midbrain, diencephalon, and cerebrum

Dendrites

Listeners

Auditory Association Area

Monitors Activity in the auditory cortex Word recognition

Somatic Sensory Association Area

Monitors activity in the primary sensory cortex. Allows you to recognize a tough

E-C C 2. Excitation

The action potential causes the release of ACh into the synaptic cleft, which leads to excitation - production of action potential in the sarcolemma

Nerve Plexus

Ventral rami of adjacent spinal nerves that blend their hair fibers and produce a series of compound nerve trunks. Four main plexuses: 1. Cervical 2. Brachial 3. Lumbar 4. Sacral

Biceps Brachii

Parallel Muscle that flexes the elbow and is a third-class lever ACTION: Flexion at elbow and shoulder; supination

Cardiovascular Centers in Medulla Oblongata

adjust the heart rate, the strength of cardiac contractions, and the flow of blood through peripheral tissues

Insula

an "island" of cortex, lies medial to the lateral sulcus

Compression

contrary to tension a push applied to an object, tends to force the object away from the source of compression.

Premotor Cortex (or Premotor Association Area)

coordinates learned movements. Does nothing on its own - neurons must be stimulated Repetition is stored here, so patterns are triggered Frontal Eye Field: area of premotor cortex that controls learned eye movement

Anterior Lobe of Cerebellum

coordination of movement of trunk and limbs

Aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

myofilaments

myofibrils contain two types of myofilaments 1. thin filaments 2. thick filaments composed of myosin

Parieto-Occiptal Sulcus

separates the parietal lobe from the occipital lobe

Cerebrospinal Fluid

Produced at the Choroid Plexus Reaches the subarachnoid space through the lateral and median aperatures, and diffuses across the arachnoid granulations into the superior saggital sinus

Palmaris Longus

Superficial Muscle ACTION: Flexion at wrist

Flexor Carpi Radialis

Superficial Muscle ACTION: flexion and abduction at wrist

Flexor Carpi Ulnaris

Superficial Muscle Flexes and adducts wrist

Supinator

Supinates the forearm That which turns palm of hand upward

Parallel Muscle - Wrapping Muscle

Supinator - Muscle of the forearm that rotates the radius outward and the palm upward.

Isotonic Contractions

Tension increases and the skeletal muscle's length changes. 2 Types: 1. Concentric 2. Eccentric

Sensory Homunculus

("little human") functional map of the primary sensory cortex The body features are distorted. Huge face, with enormous lips and tongue Relatively tiny back Proportional to the number of sensory neurons in that area.

Filum Terminale

("terminal thread") Slender strand of fibrous tissue that extends from the inferior tip of the conus medularis and continues along the length of the vertebral canal as far as the second sacral vertebra, where it provides support to the spinal cord as a component of the coccygeal ligament At the foramun magnum, the spinal meninges are continuous with the cranial meninges, which surround the brain

Second-Class Lever

(AP) (L) (F) or (F) (L) (AF) Applied force, load, fulcrum The load lies between the applied force and the fulcrum The weight is further from the fulcrum Few second-clas levers in the human body EXAMPLE: loaded wheel barrow Ankle extension (plantar flexion) by the calf muscles

Rotatores

Deep Muscle in semispinalis group of vertebral column ORIGIN: Transverse process of each vertebrae INSERTION: Spinous process of adjacent, more superior vertebrae ACTION: Extends vertebral column and rotates toward opposite side INNERVATION: Cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spinal nerves

Central Sulcus

Deep groove that divides the frontal love from the posterior parietal lobe

Anterior Median Fissure

Deeper groove along the anterior (ventral) surface of the spinal cord

Multipennate Muscle

Deltoid Muscle Fascicles are short and insert into one large tendon and is feather-like

Subclavius

Depresses and protracts shoulder Just below clavicle

Hernia

Develops when a visceral organ or part of the the organ protrudes abnormally through an opening in a surrounding muscular wall or partition. Can be caused by holding breath

What accounts for the banded appearance of each myofibril?

Differences in the size, density, and distribution of thick and thin filaments

Motor Homunculus

Distorted muscle map of the body, where more cortical area is devoted to muscles involved in skilled, complex, delicate movements. Indicates the degree of fine motor control available Determined by the amount of motor neurons in those areas

Rabies and Axoplasmic Flow

Dramatic example of RETROGRADE FLOW Virus particles enter axon terminals and peripheral axons. RETROGRADE FLOW carries the virus into the CNS, with fatal results

E-C C 6. Generation of Muscle Tension

During the contraction, the entire skeletal muscle shortens and produces a pull, or tension, on the tendons at either end.

Fibularis Brevis

EXTENSORS (PLANTAR FLEXORS) action at ankle AKA PERONEUS BREVIS ACTION: Eversion of foot and extension (plantar flexion) at ankle

Fibularis Longus

EXTENSORS (PLANTAR FLEXORS) action at ankle AKA PERONEUS LONGUS ACTION: Eversion of foot and extension (plantar flexion) at ankle

Rectus Femoris

EXTENSORS OF THE KNEE - muscles that move the leg ACTION: Extension at knee, flexion at hip Bipennate muscle Anterior thigh muscle Make up the Quadriceps Femoris or "quads"

Terminal Cisternae

Enlarged fused area of sarcoplasmic reticulum on either side of the T Tubule Combination of a pair of terminal cristernae plus a T tubule is known as a triad.

Hypothalamus Components

Extends from the area superior to the optic chiasm, a crossover where the optic tract of the eyes arrives at the brain, to the posterior margins of the mammillary bodies 1. Mammillary Bodies 2. Infundibulum 3. Tuberal Area

Sternocleidomastoid

Extends from the clavicle of the sternum to the mastoid region of the skull. ORIGIN: Two bellies: clavicular head attaches to sternal end of clavicle; sternal head attaches to manubrium INSERTION: Mastoid region of skull abd lateral portion of superior nuchal line ACTION: Together, they flex the neck; alone, one side flexes head toward shoulder and rotates face to opposite side. INNERVATION: Accessory nerve (N XI) and cervical spinal nerves (C2-C3) of cervical plexus

Vastus Lateralis

Extends leg at the knee; part of the quadriceps group Lateral muscle apart of the extensors of the knee group

Vastus Medialis

Extends leg at the knee; part of the quadriceps group medial muscle apart of the extensors of the knee group

Extensor Digitorum

Extends the finger joints and is unipennate

Extensor Pollicis Longus

Extension at joints of thumb;abduction at wrist

Teres Major

Extension, adduction, and medial rotation at shoulder assists in starting the movements of the Latissimus Dorsi when the joint is at full flexion

Unipennate Muscle

Extensor Digitorum Muscle

Vastus Intermedius

Extensor of the knee, deeper that Vastus Lateralis, attached to femur

Popliteus

FLEXORS OF THE KNEE muscle group that move the leg Small muscle that originates on the femur near the lateral condyle and inserts on the posterior tibial shaft. When flexion is started, this muscle contracts to produce slight medial rotation of the tibia that unlocks the knee joint. ACTION: Medial rotation of the (or lateral rotation of femur); flexion at knee

Semitendinosus

FLEXORS OF THE KNEE muscle in muscles that move the leg ACTION: Flexion at knee; extension and medial rotation at hip

Biceps Femoris

FLEXORS OF THE KNEE muscle in muscles that move the leg ACTION: Flexion at kneem extension and lateral rotation at hip Contains a long head and a short head Other muscles that are flexors of the knee: Semimembranosus, Semitendinosus, sartorius, popliteus

Semimembranosus

FLEXORS OF THE KNEE muscle in muscles that move the leg Originate along the edges of the pelvis and insert on the tibia and fibula ACTION: Flexion at knee; extension and medial rotation at hip

Muscle Origin

Fixed end of the muscle End of muscle that is attached to relatively stationary bone Typically proximal to the insertion

Flexor Pollicis Longus

Flexes tip of thumb ACTION: Flexion at joints of thumb

Tibialis Anterior

Flexor (dorsiflexor) action at the ankle - Extrinsic muscles that move the foot and toes Action: Flexion (dorsiflexion) at ankle, inversion of foot Along the tibia

Sensory Neurons (afferent neurons)

Form the afferent division of the PNS Deliver information from sensory receptors to the CNS Cell bodies are located in peripheral sensory ganglia afferent fibers, extend between a sensory receptor and the CNS (spinal cord or brain) 10 million or so in the body Collect information about internal and external environments 1.Somatic Sensory Neurons: monitor the outside world and our position in it 2.Visceral Sensory Neurons: monitor internal conditions and the status of other organ systems The receptors are either the processes of specialized sensory neurons or cells monitored by sensory neurons

Dentate and Parahippocampal Gyri

Form the posterior and inferior portion of the limbic love

Motor Neurons (Efferent Neurons)

From the efferent division of the PNS Carry information FROM the CNS to peripheral effectors in a peripheral tissue, organ, or organ system. About half a million in the body Axons travelling away from the CNS are called efferent fibers 2 Major Systems: 1. Somatic Nervous System (SNS) 2. Autonomic (Visceral) Nervous System (ANS)

Tensor Fasciae Latae

Gluteal group muscle ACTION: Flexion and medial rotation at hop; tenses fascia latae, which laterally supports the knee

Gluteus Minimus

Gluteal group muscle Abductor of the hip joint and medial rotation at hip, along with the gluteus Medius

Gluteus Medius

Gluteal group muscle Abductor of the hip joint and medial rotation at hip, along with the gluteus minimus

Lumbar Enlargement

Gray matter segment of the spinal cord that provides innervation to structures of the pelvis and lower limbs

Cervical Enlargement

Gray matter segment that supplies nerves to the shoulder and upper imbs

Limbic System (AKA motivational System)

Groups of tracts and nuclei that function in emotion, motivation and memory Includes nuclei and tracts along the border beetween the cerebrum and the diencephalon FUNCTIONAL GROUPING: 1. Establishing emotional states 2. Linking the conscious, intellectual functions of the cerebral cortex with the unconscious autonomic functions of the brain stem 3. Facilitating memory storage and retrieval.

Slow Skeletal Fibers

Half the diameter of fast fibers and take 3 times as long to reach peak tension after stimulation. 1. Enabled to continue contracting long after fast fibers would have become fatigued. Support aerobic metabolism in numerous mitochondria Higher oxygen supply for mitochondrial activity. Contain myoglobin Hold substantial oxygen reserves as rest that can be used during contraction 1. Mitochondria contribute more ATP during contractions 2. Less dependent on aerobic metabolism 3. Smaller glycogen reserves because some mitochondrial energy production involves breakdown of lipids rather than glycogen

Bipolar Neurons

Have 2 distinct processes 1. One dendrite that branches extensively into dendritic branches at its distal tip 2. One Axon and the cell body is between the two Bipolar neurons are rare and occur in special sense organs, where they relay information about sight, smell, or hearing from receptor cells to other neurons. Small neurons

Multipolar Neurons

Have two or more dendrites and a single axon Most common neurons in the CNS. All motor neurons that control skeletal muscles are multipolar. Axons can be as long as unipolar neuron axons and the longest carry motor commands from the spinal cord to small muscles that move the toes.

Psoas Major

ILIOPSOAS GROUP of muscles that move the thigh ACTION: Flexion at hip or lumbar intervertebral joints POWERFUL HIP FLEXOR, along with the the iliacus

Iliacus

ILIOPSOAS GROUP of muscles that move the thigh Controls internal surface of the pelvis Nestles within the iliac fossa POWERFUL HIP FLEXOR, along with the Psoas Major ACTION: flexion at hip

Somatic Motor Nuclei in the Spinal Cord

In medial to lateral sequence, the nuclei control 1. Muscles that position the per 2. Muscles that move the arm 3. Muscles that position the movement of the forearm and hand 4. Muscles that move the hands and fingers Damage to a specific area of gray matter in the spine, predicts what muscles will be effected.. because the spinal cord is highly organized.

Prefrontal Cortex

In the frontal lobe Coordinates information related from the association areas of the entire cortex Preforms abstract intellectual functions as predicting the consequences of events or actions.

Deep Layer Muscles of the Erector Spinae

In various combinations, they produce slight extension or rotation of the vertebral column Make delicate adjustments in the positions of each vertebrae, and stabilize adjacent vertebrae Include: a) Semispinalis group 1.Semispinalis capitis 2. Semispinalis cervicis 3. Semispinalis Thoracis b) multifidus muscle INTERVERTEBRAL MUSCLES: c) Interspinales muscle d) intertransversarii muscle e) rotatores muscle

Conus Medularis

Inferior to the lumbar enlargement, where the spinal cord become tapered and conical

Brachial Nerves

Innervate arm and forearm

Fibular Nerve

Innervates Lateral Portion of the foot Deep Fibular Nerve Innervates: A. Dorsiflexors (action at ankle) 1. Tibialis Anterior 2. Fibularis Tertius 3. Extensor Digitorum Brevis 4. Extensor Hallucis Brevis B. Digitial Extensors (Action at the toes) 5. Extensor Digitorum Longus 6. Extensor Hallucis Longus Superficial Fibular Nerve Innervates: 7. Fibularis Brevis 8. Fibularis Longus

Gluteal Nerve

Innervates the Gluteal Group Superior Gluteal Nerve Innervates: 1. Gluteus Medius 2. Gluteus Minimus 3. Tensor Fascia Latae Inferior Gluteal Nerve Innervates: 4. Gluteus Maximus

Phrenic Nerve

Innervates: 1. Diaphragm Carries impulses to the diaphragm from the brain.

Femoral Nerve

Innervates: 1. Pectineus 2. Iliacus 3. Seratorius A. Extensors of the Knee 4. Rectus Femorus 5. Vastus Intermedius 6. Vastus Lateralis 7. Vastus Medialis

Obturator Nerve

Innervates: A. Obturators 1. Externus 2. Internus 3. Adductor Brevis 4. Adductor Longus 5. Gracilis

Sciatic Nerve

Innervates: Passes posterior to the femur, deep to the long head of the biceps femoris muscle and divides into two branches: (1) fibular nerve and (2) tibial nerve 1. Adductor Magnus 2. Biceps Femoris 3. Semimembranosus 4. Semitendinosus 5. Soleus 6. Tibialis Posterior 7. Flexor Digitorum Longus 8. Flexor Hallucis Longus

Tibial Nerve

Innervates: The heel and bottom of the foot and bottom of toes 1. Popliteus 2. Gastrocnemius 3. Plantaris

Musculocutaneous Nerve

Innervates: Flexor muscles on the arm 1. Biceps Brachii 2. Coracobrachialis 3. Brachialis Contributes to median nerve

Subcapularis

Medial rotation at shoulder

Medulla Oblongata vs. Spinal Cord

Medulla Oblongata resembles spinal cord because it has a narrow canal. It is also located above the spinal cord Differences: Medulla Oblongata: 1. gray and white matter organization is more complex

myofibrils

Microscopic protein filaments that make up muscle cells. anchored to the inner surface of the sacrolemma at each end of a skeletal muscle finer. Sutter surface of SACROLEMMA is attached to college fibers of the tendon or aponeurosis of the skeletal muscle

Folia in Cerebellum

(Leaves) are the folds of the cerebellum surface and are less prominent than the fold of the cerebral hemispheres

Myosin Tail

(Twisted golf club handles); points toward the M line in the center of the sarcomere; tails of neighboring myosin molecules lie parallel to one another, forming the shaft of the thick filament.

Arachnoid Mater

Middle Meningeal Layer - inner surface of the dura mater is in contact with the arachnoid mater separated by squamous epithelia The epithilium is included in the arachnoid mater and called the arachnoid membrane Arachnoid trebeculae, a delicate network of collagen and elastic fibers extends between the arachnoid membrane and the outer surface of the PIA MATER The spinal arachnoid mater extends inferiorly as far as the filum terminale, and the dorsal ventral roots of the cauda equina lie within the fluid-filled subarachnoid space.

Interoceptors (intero-, inside)

Monitor the digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular, urinary, and reproductive systems and provide sensations of distension (stretch), deep pressure and pain Pain receptors

Proprioceptors

Monitor the position and movement of skeletal muscles and joints Most structurally and functionally complex of the general sensory receptors

Visual Association Area

Monitors the patterns of activity in the visual cortex and interprets the results

Fast Skeletal Fibers

Most of the skeltal muscle fibers in the body 1. Large in diameter 2. Densely packed myofibrils 3. Large Glycogen Reserves 4. Few mitochondria Fatigue rapidly because their contractions use ATP in masive amounts, and because few mitochondria, can't produce ATP fast enough. Prolonged activity is supported by anaerobic metabolism

Speech Center (Broca's Area)

Motor Speech Area ; usually in the left temporal lobe Regulates the pattern of breathing and vocalization needed for normal speech

Motor and Sensory Areas of the Cortex

Motor: Primary Motor Cortex: Frontal Lobe Somatic Motor Associatin Area: Frontal Lobe Sensory: Primary Sensory Cortex: Parietal Lobe Somatic Sensory : Parietal Lobe Visual: Visual Association Area: Occipital Lobe Visual Cortex: Occipital Lobe Auditory: Auditory Association Area: Temporal Lobe Auditory Cortex: Temporal Lobe Smell: Olfactory System: Temporal Lobe

Muscle Insertion

Moveable end of the muscle the place where the muscle ends (inserts). It is the more moveable end and/or the portion of the muscle farthest from the midline of the body.

Convergent Muscle

Muscle fascicles extending ober a broad area come together, or converge, on a common attachment site. The muscle may pull on a tendon, an aponeurosis, or slender band of college fibres known as a raphe Muscle fibres typically spread out, like a fan or broad triangle, with tendon at apex Muscle fibers pull in different directions EXAMPLE: pectoralis muscles of the chest

Splenius (bandage)

Muscle of vertebral column on superficial layer includes: Splenius capitis, splenius cervicis ORIGIN: Spinous processes abd ligaments connecting inferior cervical and superior thoracic vertebrae INSERTION: Mastoid process, occipital bone of skull, and superior cervical vertebrae ACTION: Together, the two sides extend the neck; alone, each rotates and laterally flexes neck to the side INNERVATION: Cervical Spinal Nerves

synergist

Muscle that assists an agonist (prime mover) May provide additional pull near the insertion or may stabilize the point of origin In many cases, they are more useful at the start, when the agonist is stretched and unable to develop maximum tension FIXATOR: a synergist that assist an agonist by preventing movement at another joint, thereby stabilizing the origin of the agonist.

Brachialis

Muscle that lies underneath the biceps and is the strongest flexor of the forearm. opposed by the anconeus muscle and the triceps brachii muscle, respectively

Cerebral Peduncles

Nerve Fiber bundles on the ventrolateral surfaces of the midbrain Contain: (1) Descending Fibers that go the cerebellum by way of the pons (2) Dscending Fibers that carry voluntary motor commands issued by the cerebral hemispheres

Temporalis

ORIGIN: Along temporal lines of skull INSERTION: Coronoid process of mandible ACTION: Elevates mandible INNERVATION: Trigeminal nerve (N V), mandibular branch

Coracobrachialis

Only muscle that produces adduction and flexion at the shoulder

Pronator Qudratus

Opposes the actions of the supinator or biceps brachii muscles

Skeletal muscles

Organs composed mainly of skeletal muscle tissue, but they also contain connective tissue, nerves, and blood vessels. Each cell is a muscle fiber. Attach directly or indirectly to bone. 6 functions: 1. Produce skeletal movement 2. Maintain Posture and Body Positions 3. Support Soft Tissues 4. Guard Body Entrances and Exits 5. Maintain Body Temperature 6. Store Nutrients

Triceps Brachii

Originate on the scapula and insert on the bones of the forearm 1. Lateral head - extension at elbow 2. long head - as above, plus extension and adduction at the shoulder 3. medial head - extension at elbow

Nocireceptors

Pain receptors

Midbrain (or mesencephalon) Functions

Part of Brain Stem Contains Nuclei that process visual and auditory information and control reflexes triggered by these stimuli. Also contains centers that help maintain consciousness 1. Processing of visual and auditory data 2. Generation of reflexive somatic motor responses 3. Maintenance of consciousness

Radial Nerve

Part of Posterior Cord Innervates: 1. Brachialis 2. Brachioradialis 3. Anconeus 4. Triceps Brachii 5. Extensor Carpi Radialis Longus 6. Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevis Deep Radial Nerve Innervates: 7. Supinator 8. Extensor Carpi Ulnaris 9. Abductor Pollicis Longus 10. Extensor Digitorum 11. Extensor Pollicis Brevis 12. Extensor Pollicis Longus 13. Extensor Indicis 14. Extensor Digiti Minimi

Visceral Motor Neurons

Part of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) Do not have conscious control over these neurons, they are reflexes. Innervate all peripheral effectors other than skeletal muscles - that is, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glads, and adipose tissue The axons of VMN in the CNS innervate a second set of visceral motor neurons in the periheral autonomic ganglia. The neurons whose cell bodies are located in those ganglia innervate and control peripheral effectors

Chemoreceptors

(chemical concentration) specialized nerve cells that can detect small changed in the concentration of specific chemicals or compounds. Respond only to water-soluble and lipid-soluble substances that are dissolved in body fluid (interstitial fluid, blood plasma and CSF) included in the general sense, don't send information to the primary sensory cortex, so you are not consciously aware of the sensation they provide. Located in the carotid bodies, near catid arteries on each side of the neck, and the aortic bodies, between the major branches of the aortic arch. Receptors monitor the PH and carbon dioxide and oxygen levels in arterial blood

Cingulate Gyrus

(girdle or belt) sits superior to the corpus collosum

Electrical Synapses

(like immediate group text) Much more abundant in embryonic nervous tissue where they help guide neural development. As the nervous system matures, many electrical synapses are replaced by chemical ones. In the heart

Cerebellum Components

1. Folia 2.Primary Fissure 3. Anterior Lobe 4. Posterior Lobe 5. Vermis 6. Cerebellar Hemispheres 7. Flocculonodular 8. Purkinje Cells 9.Arbor Vitae A. Peduncles: 10. Superior Cerebellar Peduncles 11. Middle Cerebellar Peduncles 12. Inferior Cerebellar Peduncles

Plantar Flexor Muscles (EXTENSORS)

1. Gastrocnemius 2. Fibularis Brevis 3. Fibularis Longus 4. Plantaris 5. Soleus 6. Tibialis Posterior

Muscles that move the thigh - Gluteal Group

1. Gluteus Maximus 2. Gluteus Medius 3. Gluteus Minimus 4. Tensor Fascia Latae

Categories of Sensory Neuron Receptors

1. Interoceptors 2. Exteroceptors 3. Proprioceptors

Spinothalamic Pathway

1. Lateral Spinothalamic Tracts SENSATION: a. Pain and Temperature 2. Anterior Spinothalamic Tracts SENSATION a. Crude touch and pressure

Cerebral Cortex Components

1. Longitudinal Fissure 2. Central Sulcus 3. Frontal Lobe 4. Parietal Lobe 5. Lateral Sulcus 6. Temporal Lobe 7. Insula 8. Parieto-occipital sulcus 9. Occipital Lobe

Muscles that move the thigh - Lateral Rotator Group

1. Obturators ( externus and internus) - dominant 2. Piriformus - dominant 3. Gamelli (Superior Gemellus, Inferior Gemellus) 4. Quadratus Femoris

Lateral Rotators of the Thigh (6 total)

1. Obturators (Externus and Internus) 2. Piriformus 3. Gamelli (Superior Gemellus, Inferior Gamellus) 4. Quadratus Femoris 6 TOTAL

Four Patterns of Skeletal Muscle Fascicle Organization

1. Parallel Muscles 2. Convergent Muscles 3. Pennate Muscles 4. Circular Muscles

Spinocerebellar Pathway

1. Posterior Spinocerebellar Tracts SENSATION: a. Proprioception 2. Anterior Spinocerebellar Tracts a. Proprioception

Medulla Oblongata Functions

1. Relay Sensory information to thalamus and to other portions of the brain stem 2. Autonomic centers for regulation of visceral function (cardiovascular, respiratory, and digestive system activities) Connects brain to the spinal cord Posterior wall is thin and membranous Inferior portion resembles spinal cord (has narrow central canal) --------------------- Connects the brain and the spinal cord Contains" 1. olivary nuclei 2. reflex centers - cardiovascular and respiratory rhythmicity centers Reticular formation begins in the medulla oblongata and extends into the superior portions of the brain stem

Lateral Pathway

1. Rubrospinal Tracts ACTION: a. Subconscious regulation of upper limb muscle tone and movement

3 Functions of Nervous System

1. Sensory Input 2. Integration - process info 3. Motor Output Highly integrated System Levels: Central And Peripheral PNS: Sensory(afferent) and Motor (Efferent) Motor: Somatic and Autonomic System Autonomic: Sympathetic (fired up), parasympathetic(calm down)

Functional Classification of Neurons

1. Sensory Neurons 2. Motor Neurons 3. Interneurons

3 Types of Muscle Tissue

1. Skeletal Muscle 2. Cardiac Muscle 3. Smooth Muscle

What happens to a sarcomere when a skeletal muscle finer contracts?

1. The H bands and I bands narrow 2. The zones of overlap widen 3. The Z lines move closer together 4. Width of A band remains constraint

Gray Matter

Integrates information and initiates commands Forms and H or butterfly shape and surrounds the narrow central canal HORNS are the areas of grey matter on each side of the spinal cord. Dominated by by the cell bodies of neurons, neuroglia, and unmyelinated axons POSTERIOR GRAY HORNS: contain somatic and visceral sensory nuclei ANTERIOR GRAY HORNS: Contain somatic motor nuclei LATERAL GRAY HORNS: located in the thoracic and lumbar segments, contain viscreal motor nuclei GRAY COMMISURES: ( commisura, a joining together) posterior and anterior to the central canal, contain axons that cross from one side of the cord to the other before they reach an are in the gray matter

Association Fibers

Interconnect areas of the cerebral cortex within a single cerebral hemisphere SHORTER: arcuate fibers - they curve in an arch to pass from one gyrus to another LONGER: organized into discrete bundles fasciculi a. LONGITUDINAL FASCICULI : connect the frontal love to the other lobes of the same hemisphere

Myosin molecule Hinge

C. The connection between the head and tail of myosin that lets the head pivot

Substantia Nigra

Is the largest midbrain nucleus and lies lateral to the red nucleus. The gray matter in this region contains darkly pigmented melanin cells, giving it a black colour. Melanin here is a byproduct of dopamine synthesis FUNCTION: Inhibits activity of the basal nuclei in the cerebrum. The basal nuclei are involved in the subconscious control of muscle tone and learned movements. Parkinson's Disease is characterized by loss of neuron activity here

Piriformis Superior Gemellus Inferior Gemellus

LATERAL ROTATOR GROUP All located under the Gluteus maximus Piriformis ACTION: lateral rotation and abduction at hip Gemelli ACTION: Lateral rotation at hip

Trunks

Large bundles of axons from several spinal nerves

Lattisimus Dorsi

Large trunk muscle that extends, adducts, and medially rotates the arm at the shoulder joint

Gluteus Maximus

Largest and most posterior muscle of the gluteal muscles Shares an insertion with the tensor fasciae latae muscle Massive muscle produces extensions and lateral rotation at the hip joint

Teres Minor

Lateral Rotation at shoulder

Anatomy of Spinal Nerve

Layers: 1. epineurium 2. perineurium 3. endoneurium

Posterior White Column

Lie between the posterior gray horns and the posterior median sulcus

Respiratory Rhythmicity Centers

Located in the Medulla Oblongata Set the basic pace for respiratory movements. Regulated by inputs from the apneustic and pneumotaxic respiratory centers of the pons

Extensor Carpi Radialus Longus muscle

Long muscle along the radial (lateral) border of the forearm ACTION: Extension and Abduction at wrist

Sartorius

Longest muscle in the body and is active when crossing your legs The name is derived from 'sartor' , the latin word for "tailor" because they used to sit on the floor cross-legged.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Made up of the brain and spinal cord Responsible for 1. Integrating 2. Processing 3. Coordinating sensory data 4. Motor Commands Higher Functions 1. Intelligence 2. Memory 3. Learning 4. Emotion

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Made up of the cranial nerves and spinal nerves and includes all tissues outside the CNS 1. Delivers Sensory Information to the CNS 2. Carries Motor Commands to Peripheral Tissues and Systems Divisions: 1. Afferent (afferens, meaning "to bring to") a) brings information to the CNS from receptors in peripheral tissues and organs 2. Efferent (effero, meaning "to bring out") a) Carries motor commands from the CNS to muscles, glands, and adipose tissue b) Somatic Nervous System (SNS) c) Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Brachial Plexus

Major Nerves of the Arm and Forearm Innervates the pectoral girdle and upper limb, with contributions from the ventral rami of spinal nerves C5-T1 Can also have fibers from C4-T2, or both Originate from trunks and cords Nerve and Distributions: 1. Musculocutaneous (C5-T1) Flexor muscles of the arm (biceps brachii, brachialis, and coracobrachialis); senesory from skin over the lateral surface of the forearm through the lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve 2. Radial (C5-T1) Many extensor muscles of the arm and forearm (triceps brachii, anconeus, extensor carpi radialis, extensor carpi ulnaris, and brachioradialis) ; and abductor policis muscle by thr deep branch ; sensory from skin over the posterolateral surface of the limb through the posterior brachial cutaneous nerve, posterior antebrachial cutaneous nerve, and the superficial branch (radial half of the hand) 3. Median (C6-T1) Flexor muscles on the forearm (flexor carpi radialis and palmaris longus muscles ); pronator quadratus and pronator teres muscles; digital flexors (through the anterior interossesous nerve); sensory from skin over the anterolateral surface of the hand 4. Ulnar (C8-T1) Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle, flexor digitorum profundus muscle, adductor policis muscle, small digital muscles by the deep branch; sensory from skin over medial surface of the hand through superficial branch

Anconeus muscle

Major lateral stabilizer of the elbow Small, triangular muscle on posterolateral aspect of the elbow. It helps the triceps extend the forearm and tenses the capsule of the elbow joint to prevent pinching it during extension

Major Sensory (Ascending) Pathways - Somatic Sensory Pathways

Make up the afferent Division of the Nervous System 1. Posterior Column Pathway 2. Spinocerebellar Pathway 3. Spinothalamic Pathway

Lumbar Plexus

Contains axons from the ventral rami of spinal nerves T12-L4. Major Nerves: 1. Genitofemoral Nerve 2. Lateral Femoral Nerve 3. Femoral Nerve

Neuron - Cell Body

Contains nucleus and major organelles A typical neuron has a large cell body with a large nucleus and nucleolus

Cell Body (Soma)

Contains nucleus, dan etc

Coccygeal Ligament

Continues along the sacral canal, blending into the periosteum of the coccyx

Wernicke's Area (General Interpretive Area)

Controls language reception. Damage creates inability to comprehend language; usually in the left temporal lobe Analytical center receives information from all other sensory association area Personality by integrating information and coordinating access to complex visual and auditory memories

Tropomyosin

Cover the active sites of G-actin and prevent actin-myosin interaction. Double Stranded protein that covers seven active sites. Bound to one molecule of troponin

Platysma

Covers the anterior surface of the neck. Extends from the base of the neck to the periosteum of the mandible and the fascia at the corner of the mouth. ORIGIN: Superior thorax between cartilage of 2nd rib and accordion of scapula INSERTION: Mandible and skin of cheek ACTION: Tenses skin of the neck; depresses mandible; pulls lower lip down INNERVATION: Facial Nerve (N VII)

Pronator Teres

Pronates the forearm Turns palm of hand downward

Intermediate Fibers

Properties are intermediate between fast and slow fibers. Appearance resembles more closely the fast fibers 1. contain little myoglobin and are relatively pale. Intermediate capillary network and mitochondrial supply around them and are more resistant to fatigue than fast fibers.

Neuroglia

Protect Neurons and are considered supporting cells AKA glial cells 1. Maintain Physical Structure of Tissues 2. Repair Tissue Framework After Injury 3. Perform Phagocytosis 4. Provide Nutrients to Neurons 5. Regulate the Composition of the interstitial fluid surrounding neurons

Serratus Anterior

Protracts shoulder; rotates scapula so glenoid cavity moves superiorly (upward rotation)

Exteroceptors (Extero-, exterior)

Provide information about the external environment in the form of touch, temperature, or pressure sensations and the more complex sense of taste, smell, sight, equilibrium, and hearing.

Neuron - Dendrite

Receive information, typically from other neurons

Parallel Muscle with Tendinous Bands

Rectus Abdominus Muscle

Bipennate Muscle

Rectus Femoris Muscle Insert into tendon at opposite sides and is feather-like

Diaphragm

Rectus Group of Oblique Muscle Group Contraction expands thoracic cavity and compresses abdominopelvic cavity

Rectus Abdominus

Rectus Group of Oblique Muscle Group Depresses ribs, flexes vertebral column, compresses abdomen

Cerebellar Hemispheres

Region of cerebellum that when injured causes intention tremor, limb ataxia, and loss of balance with ipsilateral deficits

Association Areas of the Cerebral Cortex

Regions of the cortex that interpret incoming data or coordinate motor response 1. Somatic Sensory Association Area 2. Visual Association Area 3. Auditory Association Area 4. Premotor Cortex, Somatic Motor Association Area

Anterior Nucleus of Thalamus

Relays information from the mammillary body (of hypothalamus) to the cingulate gyrus on that side.

Erector Spinae

Responsible for posture

Thalamus

Right and Left Thalamus contain most of the neural tissue in the diencephalon final relay point for sensory information ascending to the primary sensory cortex Acts as a filter, passing on only a small portion of the arriving sensory information Coordinates activities of the basal nuclei (in cerebrum) and the cerebral cortex by relaying info between them contains a rounded mass of thalamic nuclei INTERTHALAMIC ADHESION: Extends into the ventricle from the thalamus on either side, but no fibers cross the midline

Plantaris

Right behind knee EXTENSORS (PLANTAR FLEXORS) action at ankle ACTION: Extension (plantar flexion) at ankle; flexion at knee

Epithalamus

Roof of the diencephalon superior to the third ventricle ANTERIOR portion: contains extensive area of choroid plexus that extends thought the interventricular foramina into the lateral ventricles POSTERIOR portion: contains the pineal gland, and endocrine structure that secretes melatonin.

Rotator Cuff Muscles

SITS Supraspinatus Infraspinatus Teres Minor Subscapularis and associated tendons form the rotator cuff

Longus Colli

Spinal Flexor ORIGIN: Anterior surface of cervical and superior thoracic vertebrae INSERTION: Transverse process of superior cervical vertebrae ACTION: Flexes and rotates neck, limits hyperextension

Quadtratus Lumborum

Spinal Flexor ORIGIN: Illiac crext and illiolumbar ligament INSERTION: Last rib and transverse processes of lumbar vertebrae ACTION: together, depress ribs, alone, laterally felxes vertebral column

endomysium

Surrounds individual muscle fibers loosely interconnects adjacent muscle fibres. This flexible elastic connective tissue contains 1. capillary networks that supply blood to muscle fibres 2. myosatellite cells - stem cells that help repair damaged muscles 3. nerve fibres that control the muscle.

E-C C 4. Contraction Cycle Begins

THe contraction cycle begins when the calcium ions ( CA2+) bind to troponin, resulting in the exposures of the active sites on the thin filaments. This allows cross-bridge formation and will continue as long as ATP is available.

Chemical Synapses

Take more time to receive and read (Certain person text) Much more abundant and slower, more precise. Use neurotransmitters Advantage: effectively convert from electrical to chemical back to electrical which allows different ways to control the signals. Two principle parts

Axon

Talker Transmit electrical impulses away from the cell body to other cells

Thigh Abductor Muscles

The Gluteus muscles are abductors 1. Gluteus Maximus 2. Gluteus Medius 3. Gluteus Minimus 4. Tensor Fascia Latae

E-C C 3. Release Calcium Ions

The action potential travels along the sarcolemma and down T tubules to the triads. This triggers the release of Calcium Ions (CA2+) from the terminal cristae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum

Tectum

The roof of the midbrain (mesencephalon), posterior to the cerebral aqueduct Contains 2 pairs of sensory nuclei known as the Corpora Quadrigemina a. Superior Colliculi - (1) receives VISUAL inputs from the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus on that side (2) Control the reflex of the eyes, head and neck in response to visual stimuli b. Inferior Colliculi - (1) receives AUDITORY inputs from nuclei in the medulla oblongata and pons. (2) Controls reflex movements of the head, neck and trunk in response to auditory stimuli

Glenoid Cavity

The socket portion of the shoulder joint

Cerebral Cortex

The surface of the cerebral hemispheres that are highly folded and made up of gray matter White matter lies deep in the cerebral cortex Forms a series of elevated ridges (gyri) which increase the surface area

Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ) ( or myoneural junction)

The synapse between a neuron and a muscle fiber. Made up of 1. axon terminal (synaptic terminal) of a neuron 2. Specialized region of sarcolemma called the motor end plate 3. Synaptic Cleft

Lumbar Puncture (Spinal Tap)

The withdrawal of cerebrospinal fluid with a needle extracted from the subarachnoid space in the inferior lumbar region.

Flocculonodular Lobe

This portion of the cerebellum contributes to equilibrium and balance

Intercostals

Thoracic Region of Oblique Muscle Group 1. External Intercostals - Elevate Ribs 2. Internal Intercostals - Depress Ribs

Serratus Posteriors

Thoracic Region of Oblique Muscle Group 1. Serratus Posteriors Superior - Elevates ribs, enlarges thoracic cavity 2. Serratus Posteriors Inferior - Pulls ribs inferiorly; alos pulls outward, opposing diaphragm

Muscle Cells

can use energy to shorten and generate tension through interactions between thin and thick filaments, but NOT lengthen and generate compression. Muscle cells can pull but they cannot push.

Dura Mater

Tough fibrous meningeal layer that forms the outermost covering of the spinal cord. Contains dense collagen fibers that are oriented along the longitudinal axis of the cord Cranially, the out layer of the spinal dura mater fuses with the periosteum of the occipital bone around the margins of the foramun magnum, where it becomes continuous with the cranial dura mater. Areolar connective tissue adipose tissue within the epidural space support the spinal dura mater

Fornix

Tract of white matter that connects the hippocampus and the hypothalamus

Transverse Tubes

Tunnel- like extensions of the sarcolemma, pass through muscle fiber from side to side

Inferior Cerebellar Peduncles

communicate between the cerebellum and nuclei in theMedulla Oblongata and carry ascending and descending cerebellar tracts from the spinal cord

Neuron - Mitochondrion

contain their own DNA

Posterior Lobe of Cerebellum

coordination of voluntary movement

Actions

When a muscle contracts, it produces a movement Describe actions using the terms 1.flexion 2.extension, 3. adduction 4. abduction 5.protraction 6.retraction 7.elevation 8.depression 9.rotation 10.circumduction 11.pronation 12. supination 13. inversion 14.eversion 15.lateral flexion 16.opposition 17.reposition (p. 269 - 273)

Anterior White Commisure

Where axons cross form one side of the spinal cord to the other

Lateral White Column

White matter between the anterior and posterior columns on each side

Mentalis

Wrinkles chin and protrudes lower lip ORIGIN: incisive fossa and mandible INSERTION: skin of chin ACTION: Elevates and protrudes lower lip INNERVATION: Facial Nerve (N VII)

sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)

a membrane complex that forms a tubular network around each individual myofibril, fitting over it like lacy shirtsleeves

Troponin

a molecule that consists of three globular sub units. 1. one binds to tropomyosin, locking them together to form a troponin-tropomyosin complex 2. Second binds to one G-Actin, holding the troponin-tropomyosin complex in position 3. Has a receptor that binds two calcium ions In a resting muscle, intracellular Ca 2+ concentrations are very low and that binding site is empty.

Reticular Formation

a network of cells in the medulla oblongata that regulate vital autonomic functions Receive inputs from cranial nerves, the cerebral cortex, and the brain stem.

Subarachnoid space

a space in the meninges beneath the arachnoid membrane and above the pia mater that contains the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Z lines

bisect and mark the next sarcomere contains actinins, which interconnect thin filaments of adjacent sarcomeres.

A bands

dark bands of the sarcomere anisotropic Contains regions of overlapping thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments. Thick are at the centre of each sarcomere, in the A band Contains 1. M(middle) line - center - Proteins of M line connectt central portions of each thick filament to neighbouring thick filaments 2. H band - contains only thick filaments and is the lighter region on either side of the M line 3. The Zone of Overlap - dark region where thin filaments are located between thick filaments.

Levator Scapulae

elevates scapula

Extensor Digiti Minimi

extends little finger

Extensor Indicis

extension of index finge

Superficial muscles of the Erector Spinae

immediately deep to the skin and superficial fascia Splenius capitus GROUPS: 1. Spinalis 2. Longissimus 3. Iliocostalis Included in those groups: a) Longissimus Capitis b )Spinalis Cervicis c) Longissimus Cervicis d) Iliocostalis Cervicis e) Illiocostaslis thorocis f) Longissimus Thoracis g) Spinalis Thoracis h) Illiocostas lumborum

Resting Sarcomere

in absence of calcium the muscle is relaxed because the myosin heads can't form cross-bridges with actin 1. myosin head is "energized" 2. Myosin head points away from M line

Limbic Lobe

in the cerebral hemisphere consists of superficial folds, or gyri, and underlying structures adjacent to the diencephalon gyri cureve along the corpus collosum and continual on the medial surface of the cerebrum, lateral to the diencephalon there are 3 gyri: 1. Cingulate Gyrus 2. Dentate Gyrus 3. Parahippocampal Gyrus

Somatic Motor Neuron

innervate skeletal muscles Cell body lies in the CNS, and its axon extends into the Periphery within a peripheral nerve to innervate skeletal muscle fibers at neuromuscular junction

Antagonist

is a muscle whose action opposes that of a particular agonist EXAMPLE: triceps brachii muscle is an agonist that extends the elbow So it is an antagonist of the biceps brachia muscle likewise, the biceps brachia is an antagonist of the triceps brachii

agonist (or prime mover)

is a muscle whose contraction is mostly responsible for producing a particular movement EXAMPLE: the biceps brachii muscle that produces flexion at the elbow

intercalated discs

Play a vital role in the function of cardiac muscle The sarcolemmas of two adjacent cardiac muscle cells are extensively intertwined and bound together by gap junctions and desmosomes. Help stabilize the position of adjacent cells and maintian 3D structure of tissue Allow ions and small molecules to move from one cell to another Create direct electrical connection between two muscle cells Action potential can travel across Two muscle cells can "pull together" with maximum efficiency because of their myofibrils are essentially loked together intercolated discs. The myofibrils of two interlocking muscle cells are firmly anchored to their plasma membranes

Parietal Lobe

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

Muscles that move the thigh - Iliopsoas Group ( often referred to as the iliopsoas)

Powerful Flexor of the hip 1. Iliacus 2. Psoas Major

Masseter

Prime mover of jaw closure Elevates the mandible Strongest Jaw muscle ORIGIN: Zygomatic Arch INSERTION: Lateral surface of mandibular ramus ACTION: Elevates mandible and closes the jaws INNERVATION: Trigeminal Nerve (N V), mandibular branch

Mammillary Bodies

Process Information, including olfactory sensations, and contains motor nuclei that control reflex movements associated with eating, such as chewing, licking and swallowing Also involved in memory

Extensor Carpi Ulnaris

Produces extension and ADduction at wrist

Interneurons (association neurons)

located between sensory and motor neurons 20 billion or so neurons outnumber all other types of neurons combined Most are located within the brain and spinal cord, but some are in autonomic ganglia 1. Distribute sensory information and coordinate motor activity 2. The more complex the response to a given stimulus, the more interneurons involved Higher functions such as memory, planning, and learning

Endoneurium

loose connective tissue that encloses axons and their myelin sheaths The fibers of the endoneurium extend from the perineurium and surround individual axons. Capillaries that leave the perineurium and penetrate the endoneurium.

Gracilis

means slender ADDUCTOR GROUP of muscles that move the thigh ACTION: Flexion, medial rotation, and adduction at hip

Orbicularis oculi

muscles that closes eyelids,used in blinking, winking, and squinting lowers eyebrows

Buccinator

muscles that compresses cheeks inward; whistling or kissing. translates as "trumpet player" During chewing, it cooperates with the masticatory muscles by moving food back across the teeth from the vestibules (space inside cheek) In infants, provides suction for sucking at the breast ORIGIN: Alveolar process of maxilla and mandible INSERTION: Blends into fibres of orbicularis oris ACTION: Compresses cheeks INNERVATION: Facial Nerve (N VIII)

Amitotic

non reproducing; neurons are this because they cannot regenerate or divide.

Brachioradialus

opposed by the anconeus muscle and the triceps brachii muscle, respectively ACTION: Flexion at elbow

Sarcolemma

plasma membrane of a muscle fiber, surrounds the sarcoplasm, or cytoplasm of the muscle fiber. Has a characteristic membrane potential, aka transmembrane potential, due to more negative charges on its cytoplasmic side and more positive charges on its extracellular side

Myoglobin

red pigment globular protein similar to hemoglobin (red blood cells) Reversibly bind oxygen molecules Most abundant in slow fibers

Vermis

separates the cerebellar hemispheres

Dermatome

the specific bilateral region of the skin surfaced monitored by single pair of spinal nerves. Each pair of spinal nerves supplies its own dermatome. Note the boundaries of adjacent dermatomes overlap to come degree Clinically important because damage or infection of a spinal nerve or dorsal root ganglion produces a loss of sensation in the corresponding region of the skin. characteristic signs appear on the skin supplied by the specific nerve.

Sliding Filament Theory

thin filaments sliding toward centre of each sarcomere, alongside thick filaments theory that actin filaments slide toward each other during muscle contraction, while the myosin filaments are still widely accepted theory of muscle shortening during contraction, thick & thin filaments slide past one another

Filamentous Actin ( F-Actin)

twisted strand composed of two rows of 300-400 globular molecules of G-actin Long strand of Nebulin extends along the F-Actin strand in the cleft between the rows of G-Actin Molecules. Hold F-Actin Strand together

Arbor Vitae

white matter of the cerebellum that looks like a tree , "tree of life" Cerebellar nuclei is embedded within the arbor vitae Connects the cerebral cortex and nuclei with the cerebellar peduncles

Dyslexia

word blindness; learning disorder marked by impairment of the ability to read

Rhomboid Minor

A muscle that positions the Pectoral Girdle Adducts scapula and performs downward rotation

External Oblique

Abdominal Region of Oblique Muscle Group Compresses abdomen, depresses ribs, flexes or bends spine

Internal Oblique

Abdominal Region of Oblique Muscle Group Compresses abdoment, depresses ribs, flexes or bends spine

Trapezius

Act as fixator by stabilizing and preventing the movement of the scapula Appendicular muscle A muscle that positions the Pectoral Girdle ACTION: Depends on active region and state of other muscles ; may (1) elevate, retract, depress, or rotate the scapula upward, (2) elevate clavicle, or (3) extend neck

Cerebral Spinal Fluid

Acts as a shock absorber and diffusion medium for dissolved gases, nutrients, chemical messages and waste

Synaptic Activity

Communication occurs among neurons or between neurons and other cells Involves 2 Cells: 1. Presynaptic Cell - sends messages to axon terminal 2. Postsynaptic Cell - receives the message SYNAPTIC CLEFT separates the two cells Steps: (in Cholinergic Synapse) 1. An arriving action potential depolarizes the axon terminal of presynaptic neuron 2. Calcium ions enter the cytosol of the axon terminal. Results in ACh release from the synaptic vesicles by exocytosis 3. ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. Sodium channels open, producing a graded depolarization 4. Depolarization ends as ACh is broken down into acetate and choline by ACHe. The axon terminal reabsorbs choline from the synaptic cleft and uses it to resynthesize ACh

Gyri

Conceal the Hippocampus

Neuron - Axon

Conducts information to other cells. Tend to be very long and slender AKA nerve fiber

Spinal Nerves

Connected to the spinal cord ad pass through intervertebral foramina MIXED NERVES - contain both afferent and efferent fibers. 31 pairs of spinal nerves, each identified by adjacent vertebrae Spinal nerve L1, passes between Vertebra L1 and L2 Can form a complex network called a plexus after exiting the spinal cord.

tendon

Connects muscle to bone

Pia Mater

Consists of a meshwork of elastic and collagen fibers that is firmly bound to the underlying neural tissue The connective tissue fibers are interwoven with these that span the subarachnoid space, firmly binding the arachnoid to the pia mater. The blood vessels servicing the spinal cord run along the surface of the spinal pia mater, within the subarachnoid space.

Gyri in Cerebral Cortex

Contain: 1. Sulci - shallow depressions in gyri 2. Fissures - Deeper Grooves

Thin Filament

Contains 4 1. Filamentous Actin (F Actin) 2. Nebulin 3. Tropomyosin 4. Troponin

Sacral Plexus

Contains axons from the ventral rami of spinal nerve L4-S4 2 Major Nerves arise at this plexus: 1. Sciatic Nerve passes posterior to the femur, deep to the long head of the biceps femoris muscle, as it approaches the knee, it divides into two branches: a) fibular nerve (or peroneal) b) tibial nerve 2. Pudendal Nerve

Cerebral Aqueduct

Slender canal that connects the third ventricle with the fourth ventricle

Anaxonic Neuron

Small and have numerous dendrites, but no axon. Located in the brain and in special sense organs. Function = poorly understood Found only in the CNS

Cords

Smaller branches that originate at trunks

Difference between smooth and skeletal muscle tissue - Functional

Smooth Muscle Tissue: 1. Forms sheets, bundles or sheaths around other tissues in almost every organ 2. Around blood vessels regulate blood flow through vital organs 3. In digestive and urinary systems, rings of smooth muscle called sphincters, regulate the movement of materials along internal passageways. Variety of other roles in body systems: a) Integumentary system - regulate flow of blood to the superficial dermis: smooth muscles of arrector pili elevate hairs b) Cardiovascular System - encircling blood vessels control the distribution of bloos and help regulate blood pressure c) Respiratory System - Smooth muscles contract or relax to alter the diameters of the respiratory passageways and change the resistance of airflow d) Digest System - Extensive layers of smooth muscle in the walls of digestive tract play an essential role in moving material along the tract. In walls of galbladder contracts to eject bile into the digestive tract e) Urinary System - In the walls of small blood vesseld alter the rate of filtration in the kidneys Layers of smooth muscle in the walls of the ureters transport urine to bladder, and contraction forces urine out. f) Reproductive System - Layers of smooth muscle help move sperm along the reporductive tract of males and cause ejaculation of glandular secretions from the accessory glands into the reproductive tract. In females, the laters of smooth muscle help move oocytes ( and perhaps spem) along the reproductive tract, and contractions of the smooth muscle in the walls of the uterus expel the fetus at delivery

Epidural Space

Space between the dura mater and the wall of the vertebral canal Areolar connective tissue adipose tissue within the epidural space support the spinal dura mater

agonist and antagonist pairs

1. Flexion and Extension 2. Abduction and Adduction 3. Medial and Lateral Rotation

Posterior Cord

1. Axillary Nerve 2. Radial Nerve

Steps that initiate muscle contraction

1. ACh released 2. Action Potential Reaches T Tubule 3. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Releases Ca2+ 4. Active Site Exposure and cross-bridge formation 5. Contraction Cycle Begins

Steps that End Muscle Contraction

1. Ach is broken down 2. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum reabsorbs Ca2+ 3. Active Sites Covered, and cross-bridge formation ends 4. Contraction Ends 5. Muscle Relaxation Occurs

Muscles that move the thigh - Adductor Group

1. Adductor Brevis 2. Adductor Longus 3. Adductor Magnus 4. Pectineus 5. Gracillis

Groin Muscles (Adduct the thigh)

1. Adductor Brevis 2. Adductor longus 3. Adductor Magnus 4. Gracilis 5. Pectineus

Major Components of the Limbic System

1. Amygdaloid Body (amygdala) 2. Limbic Lobe 3. Cingulate Gyrus 4. Dentate Gyrus 5. Parahippocampal Gyrus 6. Hippocampus 7. Fornix

Structural Classification of Neurons

1. Anaxonic Neurons 2. Bipolar Neurons 3. Unipolar Neurons 4. Multipolar Neurons

Functional Characteristics of Cardiac Muscle Tissue

1. Automaticity 2. NS can alter pace or rate set by pacemaker cells and adjust the amount of tension produced during a contraction 3. Contracts last about ten times longer than skeletal muscle fiber contractions. 4. longer refractory periods and do not readily fatigue 5. Properties of cardiac muscle sarcolemmas differ from those of skelatal muscle fibers. - individual twitches cannot undergo wave summation, and cardiac muscle tissue cannot produce tetanic contractions A HEART IN A SUSTAINED TETANIC CONTRACTION COULD NOT PUMP BLOOD

Muscles that move the forearm and hand

1. Biceps Brachii 2. Brachialis 3. Brachioradialus 4. Anconeus 5. Triceps Brachii 6. Pronator Quadratus and Teres 7. Supinator 8. Flexor Carpi Radialis and Ulnaris 9. Palmaris Longus 10. Extensor Carpi Radialis Longus and Brevis 11. Extensor Carpi Ulnaris 12. Abductor Pollicis Longus 13. Extensor Digitorum 14. Extensor Pillicis Brevis and Longus 15. Extensor Indicis 16. Extensor Digiti Minimi 17. Flexor Pilicis Longus 18. Flexor Digitorum Superficialis 19. Flexor Digitorum Profundus

Hamstring Muscles

1. Biceps Femoris 2. Semimembranosus 3. Semitendinosus

Mesencephalon (Mid Brain) Components

1. Cerebral Aqueduct 2. Tectum 3. Tegementum 4. Substantia Nigra 5. Cerebral Peduncles 6. Reticular Activation System (RAS)

Cerebrum Functions

1. Conscious thought processes 2. Memory Storage and Processing 3. Conscious and Subconscious Regulation of Skeletal Muscle Contractions

Muscles that move the arm

1. Coracobrachialis 2. Supraspinatus 3.Infraspinatus 4. Subcapularis 5. Teres Major 6. Teres Minor 7. Triceps Brachii 8. Lattisimus Dorsi 9. Pectoralis Major 10. Deltoid

Corticospinal Pathway

1. Corticobulbar tracts ACTION: a. conscious motor control of skeletal muscles 2. Lateral Corticospinal Tracts ACTION: a. conscious motor control of skeletal muscles 3. Anterior Corticospinal Tracts a. conscious motor control of skeletal muscles

Principle Descending (Motor) Pathways

1. Corticospinal Pathway 2. Medial Pathway 3. Lateral Pathway

Cerebral Lobe Points:

1. Each cerebral hemisphere receives sensory information from, and sends motor commands to the opposite side of the body. 2. The two hemispheres have different functions, even though they look almost identical 3. The correspondence between a specific function and a specific region of the cerebral cortex is impreceise

Diencephalon Components

1. Epithalamus 2. Thalamus 3. Hypothalamus 4. Third Ventricle

Posterior Column Pathway

1. Fasciculus Gracilis SENSATION: a. Proprioception and fine touch b. Ventral Pressure c. Vibration from inferior half of body 2. Fasciculus Cuneatus SENSATION: a. Proprioception and fine touch b. Ventral Pressure c. Vibration from superior half of body

Pectoral Girdle Muscles

1. Trapezius 2. Rhomboids (minor, major) 3. Levator Scapulae 4. Serratus Anterior 5. Subclavius

Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers (3)

1. fast fibers 2. Slow fibers 3. Intermediate Fibers

Elbow Flexor Muscles

1.Biceps Brachii 2. Brachialis 3. Brachioradialis

Spinal Flexors

1.Longus Capitis 2.Longus Colli 3. Quadratus Lumborum

Medial Pathway

1.Vestibulospinal Tracts ACTION: a. Subconscious regulation of balance and muscle tone 2. Tectoospinal Tracts ACTION: a. Subconscious regulation of 1. eye 2. head 3. upper limb in response to visual and auditory stimuli 3. Reticulospinal Tracts ACTION: a. Subconscious regulation of reflex activity

Rhomboid Major

A muscle that positions the Pectoral Girdle Below Rhomboid Minor and bigger than minor Adducts scapula and performs downward rotation

Infundibulum

A narrow stalk, immediately posterior to the optic chiasm. Extends inferiorily, connecting the floor of the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland.

Myosin Head

13 The free head, which projects outward toward the nearest thin filament, has two globular protein subunits When interacting with thin filaments during contraction, they are known as cross-bridges. When it pivots, swings or away from M line. - key step in muscle contraction All point to the M line H band includes a central region where there are no myosin heads. arranged in a spiral, each facing one of the surrounding thin filaments

Gastrocnemius

A prominent calf muscle in the leg Extends from the distal portion of the femur to the calcaneus Contracts and pulls the calcaneus towards the knee Important plantar flexor

Myosin

A protein present in muscle fibers that aids in contraction and makes up the majority of muscle fiber protein that makes up the thick filaments in striations in skeletal muscle cells

Frontal Lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgement

Mechanoreceptors

A sensory receptor that responds to mechanical disturbances, such as shape changes (being squashed, bent, pulled, etc.). Mechanoreceptors include touch receptors in the skin, hair cells, in the ear, muscle spindles, and others. 1. Tactile Receptors 2. Baroreceptors 3. Proprioceptors

E-C C 1. Neural Control

A skeletal muscle fiber contracts when stimulated by a motor neuron at a neuromuscular junction. The stimulus arrives in the form of an action potential at the axon terminal

Soleus

A small calf muscle below the Gastrocnemius Better suited than the Gastrocnemius for making continuous postural adjustments against the pull of gravity ACTION: Extension (plantar flexion) at ankle

Reticular Activation System (RAS)

A specialized component of the reticular formation Stimulation of RAS makes you more allert and attentive; damage: produces unconsciousness

Longus Capitis

A spinal flexor ORIGIN: Transverse processes of cervical vertebrae INSERTION: Base of occipital bone ACTION: together, the two sides flex the neck, alone, rotates head to that side

Functional Syncytium

A tissue in which the cytoplasms of the cells are connected by gap junctions, allowing the cells to function as a unit. Cardiac and smooth muscle tissues are examples.

Neurons

Are nerve cells specialized for intercellular communication Have excitable membranes, plasma membranes that can propagate electrical impulses, or action potentials

Polio

A virus attacks motor neurons in the spinal cord and brain, causing muscular paralysis and atrophy Infected neurons would be in the anterior gray horns of the spinal cord, where the cell bodies of somatic motor neurons are located.

Triad

A combination of a pair of terminal cristernae plus a T tubule.

Hippocampus

A curved forebrain structure that is part of the limbic system and is involved in learning and forming new memories.

Axia

A disturbance in muscle coordination. Severe cases, the person cannot sit or stand without assistance

Myelin Sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

Afferent Neuron

AKA Sensory neurons From the Afferent Division of the PNS, they deliver information from the sensory receptors to the CNS. Cell body is located in peripheral sensory ganglia

Levers in the body

A lever is a rigid structure that moves on a fixed point called a fulcrum. Bone = lever joint= fulcrum Moves when an applied force is sufficient to overcome the load that would otherwise oppose or prevent movement LEVERS CAN: 1. change the direction of applied force 2. change the distance and speed of movement produced by an applied force 3. change the effective strength of an applied force CLASSES OF LEVERS: 1. First-class lever 2. Second-class lever 3. third-class lever

Pectoralis Minor

A muscle that positions the Pectoral Girdle ACTION: Depresses and protracts shoulder, rotates scapula so glenoid cavity moves inferiorly (downward rotation) ; elevates ribs if scapula is stationary

Extensor Hallucis Longus

A Digital Extensor - Action at the toes Cross the ankle joint ACTION: Extension at joints of great toe

Extensor Digitorum Longus

A Digital Extensor - action at the toes Cross the ankle joint ACTION: Extension at joints 2-5

Flexor Hallucis Longus

A Digital Flexor - action at the toes ACTION: Flexion at joints of great toe

Flexor Digitorum Longus

A Digital Flexor - action at the toes ACTION: Flexion at joints of toes 2-5

Limbic System Grouped Components

A. Diencephalon Components: 1. Thalamus 2. Hypothalamus B. Cerebral Components: B.1. Limbic Lobe Cortical Areas 3. Cingulate Gyrus (superior portion of limbic lobe) 4. Parahippocampal Gyrus (inferior portion of limbic lobe) 5. Dentate Gyrus C. Tracts 6. Fornix D. Nuclei 7. Amygdaloid Body (Amygdala) 8. Hippocampus (with dentate gyrus) E. Other Components 9. Reticular Formation

Efferent Neuron

AKA motor Neurons From the efferent division of the PNS, they carry instructions from the CNS to peripheral effectors in a peripheral tissue, organ, or organ system About half a million motor neurons in the human body

Tibialis Posterior

ACTION: Adduction and inversion of foot; extension (plantar flexion) at ankle

Flexor Digitorum Profundus

ACTION: Flexion at distal interphalangeal joints and , to a lesser degree, proximal interphalangeal joints and wrist

Flexor Digitorum Superficialis

ACTION: Flexion at proximal interphalangeal, metacarpophalangeal, and wrist joints

Pectoralis Major

ACTION: Flexion, adduction and medial rotation of shoulder flexes the shoulder join and latissimus dorsi extends it

Abductor Pollicis Longus

ACTION: abducts and extends thumb. ORIGIN: posterior surface of radius and ulna; INSERTION: metacarpal 1 and trapezium.

Adductor Longus

ACTION: adduction, flexion, and medial rotation at hip

Adductor Brevis

ADDUCTOR GROUP of muscles that move the thigh ACTION: Adduction, flexion, and medial rotation at hip

Pectineus

ADDUCTOR GROUP of muscles that move the thigh ACTION: Flexion, medial rotation, and adduction at hip

Transverse Abdominus

Abdominal Region of Oblique Muscle Group Compresses Abdomen

Difference between smooth and skeletal muscle tissue - Structural

All three types of musclle tissue contain actin and myosin Smooth Muscle Cells: 1. Are relatively long and slender 2. Each cell is spindled shaped and has a single, centrally located nucleus 3. No T Tubules and the sarcoplasmic reticulum forms a loose network throughout the sarcoplasm 4. Lack myofibrils and sarcomeres - NO STRIATION (nonstriated muscle) - hence it being smooth... duh! 5. Thick filaments are scattered throughout the sarcoplasm of smooth muscle cells Myosin proteins are organized differently than in skeletal and muscle cells, and smooth have more myosin heads per thick filament 6. Thin filaments are attached to DENSE BODIES ( structures distributed throughout the sarcoplasm in a network of intermediate dilaments composed of desmin (protein) Some of the dense bodies are firmly attached to the sarcolemma The dense bodies are intermediate filaments anchor thing filaments such that when sliding occurs between thick and thin filaments, the cell shorten. Dense bodies are not arranged in straight lines, so when contraction occurs, the muscle cell twists like a corkscrew 7. Adjacent smooth cells are bound together at dense bodies 8. Smooth cells are surrounded by connective tissue, the collagen fibers never unite to form tendons or aponeuroses, as they do in skeletal muscles

Occipital Lobe

An area at the back of each cerebral hemisphere that is the primary receiving area for visual information.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) - AKA Visceral Motor System

An efferent division of the PNS that automatically regulates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glandualr secretions, and adipose tissue at the subconscious level. Includes: Sympathetic Parasympathetic

Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

An efferent division of the PNS that controls skeletal muscle contractions. Voluntary Contractions and Involuntary Contractions (Reflexes)

Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

An efferent division of the PNS that controls skeletal muscle contractions. Voluntary Contractions and Involuntary Contractions (Reflexes) Includes all somatic motor neurons that innervate skeletal muscles Have conscious control over the activity of the SNS

Diencephalon Functions

Apart of Brain Stem Contains 1. Thalamus a. Relay and processing centers for sensory information 2. Hypothalamus a. Centers controlling emotions, autonomic functions, and hormone production

Middle Cerebellar Peduncles

Are connected to a broad band of fibers that cross the ventral surface of the pons at the right angles to the axis of the brain stem. Also connected to the cerebellar hemispheres with sensory and motor nuclei in the pons

Ganglion

Collection of neuron cell bodies in the PNS

Glial Cell Types

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM: 1. Astrocytes - support, regulate ions a) most abundant 2. Microglial Cells - defend a) smaller, brain and spinal cord b) defend against invasion 3. Ependymal Cells - line cavities a) create, secrete, and circulate cerebrospinal fluid 4. Oligodendrocytes - wrap and insulate, form myelin sheath PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM: 1. Satellite Cells - surround neutron cell bodies a) like astrocyte cells in the central system 2. Shwann Cells - insulate, help form myelin sheath b) similar to oligodendrocytes in central nervous system

Adductor Magnus

Can produce either adduction and flexion or abduction and extension, depending on the region stimulated Can also produce medial or lateral rotation at the hip

Difference between skeletal and cardiac muscle tissue

Cardiac muscles are found only in the heart Have excitable membranes like skeletal muscle fibers and neurons Cardiac muscle cells are : 1.relatively small 2. have a single centrally placed nucleus, although a few may have two or more nuclei 3. Typically branched ( unlike skeletal muscle) 4. T Tubules are short and broad and there are no triads. T tubules encircle the sarcomeres at the Z line rather than at the zones of overlap 5. The Sarcoplasmic reticulum lacks terminal cristae, and its tubules contact the plasma membrane as well as the T tubules. 6. Action potential also makes the sarcolemma more permiable to extracellular calcium ions. 7. More sensitive to changes in the extracellular calcium ion concentration than skeletal muscle fibers. 8. Almost totally dependent on aerobic metabolism for continuing contracting. 9. Energy reserves in the form of glycogen and lipid inclusions. 10. sarcoplasm contains large amounts of mitochondria as well as abundant reserves of myoglobin, which store the oxygen needed to break down energy reserves during times of peak activity. 11. Contains several other specialized sites known as intercalated discs

Automaticity

Cardiac muscles tissue contracts without neural stimulation Pacemaker cells normally determine the timing of contractions

White Matter

Carries information from place to place The superficial white matter contains large numbers of myelinated and unmyelinated axons The white matter on each side of the spinal cord is divided into 3 regions called columns (or funiculi) 1. Posterior white column 2. Anterior white column 3. Lateral White Column

Two Major Anatomical Division of the Nervous System

Central Nervous System (CNS) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Scalenes

Cervical Region Oblique Group of Muscles Includes: Anterior Middle Posterior ACTION: elevate Ribs or Flex Neck

Longitudinal Fissure

Deep Fissure that almost completely separates the cerebral hemispheres

Interspinales

Deep Layer of Erector Spinae ORIGIN: Spinous process of each vertebrae INSERTION: Spinous processes more superios vertebrae ACTION: Extends vertebral column

Multifidus Muscle

Deep Layer of Erector Spinae that extends the vertebral column and rotates toward opposite side

Cerebellum

Second largest part of the brain has hemispheres covered by a neural cortex (cerebellar cortex) FUNCTIONS: 1. Coordinates Complex Somatic Motor Patterns 2. Adjusts Output of other somatic Motor Centers in the brain and spinal cord 3. Compares arriving sensations with previously experienced sensations, allowing you to perform the same movements over and over. Tentorium Cerebelli : Protects the cerebellum and separates the cerebral hemispheres from the cerebellum. ----------------------- 2 Main Functions 1. Adjusting the Postural Muscle of the Body a. Coordinates rapid, autonomic adjustments that maintain balance and equilibrium. b. Makes alterations in muscle tone and position by modifying the activities of motor centers in the brain 2. Programming and Fine-Tuning Movements Controlled at the Conscious and Subconscious Levels a. Refines learned movement patterns b. Performs indirectly by regulating activity along motor pathways at the cerebral cortex, basal nuclei, and motor centers in the brain stem. c. Compares the motor commands with proprioceptor info (position sense) and stimulates any adjustments needed to make the movement smooth

Receptors

Sensor that is sensitive to a particular stimulus or environmental change Sensory structures that that either detect changes in the environment (internal or external) or respond to specific stimuli Range from slender cytoplasmic extensions of single cells to complex receptor organs, such as the eye and ear. May be neurons or specialized cells of other tissues

Sural Nerve

Sensory nerve formed by branches of the fibular nerve innervating the lateral portion of the foot Section of this nerve is often used in nerve grafts

Primary Fissure of Cerebellum

Separate the anterior and posterior lobes

Third Ventricle

Separates the Left thalamus and the Right thalamus

Lateral Sulcus

Separates the frontal lobe from the temporal lobe

Spinal Meninges

Series of specialized membranes surrounding the spinal cord and provides the necessary physcial stability and shock absorption Consists of 3 layers: 1. Dura Mater 2. Arachnoid Mater 3. Pia Mater

Posterior Median Sulcus

Shallow longitudinal groove of the posterior (dorsal) surface of the spinal cord

Hypothalamus Functions

Stimulated by : 1. Sensory information 2. Changes in composition of the CSF an interstitial fluid 3. Chemical stimuli in the circulating blood that move rapidly across highly permeable capillaries to ender the hypothalamus (where there is no blood-brain barrier) FUNCTION: 1. Subconscious Control of Skeletal Muscle Contractions 2. The Control of Autonomic Functions 3. The coordination of activities of the Nervous and Endocrine Systems 4. The Secretion of 2 Hormones - antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and Oxytocin (OXT) a. SUPRAOPTIC NUCLEUS: produces ADH which restricts water loss in kidneys b. PARAVENTRICULAR NUCLEUS: produces oxytocin, which stimulates smooth muscle contractions in the uterus and mammary glands of females and the prostate gland of males. Pass through the infundibulum to the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland where they are released into the blood for distribution 5. Production of Emotions and Behavioural Drives a. Feeding Center b. Thirst Center c. Satiety Center (regulates food intake) 6. Coordination between Voluntary and Autonomic Functions 7. Regulation of Body Temp. a. in the preoptic area 8. Controls of Circadian Rhythm a. Suprachiasmatic nucleus coordinates daily cycle of activity that are linked to the 24 hour cycle. b. received from retina of the eye

Stroke (Cerebrovascular accident - CVA)

Sudden loss of consciousness, sensation, and voluntary motion caused by rupture or obstruction (as by a clot) of a blood vessel of the brain. Affected neurons begin to die in a matter of minutes Cerebellum can be permanently damaged

Longissimus Group

Superficial Mucle layer of vertebral column in between the Spinalis Group of muscles and the Illiocostalis group of muscles 1. Longissimus Capitis - Together, the two sides extend head; alone, each rotates and laterally flexes neck to that side 2. Longissimus Cervicis - Together, the two sides extend head, alone, each rotates and laterally flexes neck to that side 3. Longissimus Thoracis - Extends vertebral column; alone, each produces lateral flexion to that side

Spinalis Group

Superficial muscle layer of vertebral column, closest to spin 1. Spinalis Cervicis - extends neck 2. Spinalis Thoracis - Extends vertebral column

Epineurium

The outermost layer of a spinal nerve that consists of a dense network of collagen fibers The fibers of the perineurium (middle layer) extend inward from the epineurium. These connective tissue partions divide the nerve into a series of components that contain bundles of axons, or fascicles. Arteries and veins penetrate the epineurium

Eccentric Contraction

The peak tension developed is less than the load, and the muscle elongates due to contraction of another muscle or the pull of gravity

Temporal Lobe

The portion of the cerebral cortex that is just above the ears and that is involved in hearing, language processing, and memory.

Tension

The pull, an active force : Energy must be expended to use it. Applied to some object. Tension applied to an object tends to pull the object toward the source of tension Must overcome the object's load ( resistance) When tension exceeds load, the object moves

Pennate Muscles (penna, feather)

The fascicles form a common angle with the tendon Muscle fibers pull at an angle and do not move tendons as far as parallel muscles Contains more muscle fibers (and therefor more myofibrils) so it produces more tension. 1. Unipennate Muscle ( Extensor Muscle) - contains extended tendon 2. Bipennate Muscle ( Rectus Femoris muscle ) 3. Multipennate Muscle ( Deltoid Muscle)

Tuberal Area

The floor of the hypothalamus between the infundibulum and the mammillary bodies. Contains: nuclei that are involved with the control of pituitary gland functions

Iliocostalis Group

The group of superficial muscles of the erector spinae furthest away from the spine 1. Iliocostalis Cervicis - Extends or laterally flexes neck, elevates ribs 2. Iliocostalis Thoracis - Stabilizes thoracis vertebrae in extension 3. Iliocostalis lumborum - Extends vertebral column, depresses ribs

White Matter of Cerebrum

The inferior of the cerebrum consists of white matter Axons of white matter: 1. Association Fibers 2. Commissural Fibers 3. Projection Fibers

Perineurium

The layer of connective tissue that surrounds a fascicle within a peripheral nerve (spinal nerve) Arteries that penetrate the epineurium penetrate the perineurium. Capillaries leave the perineurium and penetrate the endoneurium.

Excitation- Contraction Coupling

The link between the generation of an action potential in sarcolemma and the start of a muscle contraction. Occurs at the triads 1. Releases calcium from the cristernae and the Sarcoplasm Reticulum (SR) 2. Change in permiability lasts 0.03 seconds, although within miliseconds reaaching 100 times resting levels. 3. Troponin is the LOCK that keeps the active sites inaccessible - AND Calcium is the KEY ** Troponin binds to actin and tropomyosin, and tropomyosin molecules cover the active sites and prevent interactions between thick and thin filaments. ** 4. Calcium binding changes the shape of the tropomin molecule and weakens the bond between tropomin and actin 5. Troponin changes positions, rolling the attached tropomyosin strand away from the active sites CONTRACTION CYCLE BEINGS ---------------------------------------------- 1. Neural Control 2. Excitation 3. Release of Calcium Ions 4. Contraction Cycle Begins 5. Sarcomere Shortening 6. Generation of Muscle Tension

Deltoid

The major abductor but supraspinatus muscle assists at the start of this movement. Originate at scapula A large triangular muscle covering the shoulder joint and serving to abduct and flex and extend and rotate the arm.

Axoplasmic Transport

The movement of materials between the cell body and axon terminals Known as the "slow stream" From cell body to axon terminal is ANTEROGRADE (forward) FLOW, carried by kinesin At the same time, other substances are transported from the axon terminal toward the cell body in RETROGRADE(backwards) FLOW.

Concentric Contraction

The muscle tension exceeds the load and the muscle shortens

Tegementum

The area anterior to the cerebral aqueduct that contains a red nucleus and the Substantia Nigra RED NUCLEUS: (1) contains numerous blood vessels (2) Receives information from the cerebrum and cerebellum and issues subconscious motor commands that affect upper limb position and background muscle tone

Brain Protection

The brain is protected and supported by: 1. Cranial Meninges 2. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) 3. Blood Brain Barrier

Tactile Receptors

The closely related sensation of touch, pressure, and vibration. Provide information about shape or texture, whereas pressure sensations indicate the degree of mechanical distortion

perimysium

The connective tissue that surrounds fascicles. Divides the skeletal muscle into a series of compartments. Each compartment contains a bundle of muscle fibers (fascicles) Contains college and elastic fibers, and blood vessels and nerves that supply the muscle fibers within fascicles

Unipolar Neurons

The dendrites and axons are continuous - basically, fused - and the cell body lies off to one side Initial segment lies where the dendrites converge. The rest of the process which carries action potentials, is usually considered an axon Most sensory neurons in the PNS are unipolar May extend a meter or more, ending at synapses in the CNS The longest carry sensations from the tip of the toes to the spinal cord

epimysium

The external connective-tissue sheath of a muscle. Is a dense layer of college fibres that surrounds the entire muscle. It separates the muscle from nearby tissues and organs. connected to deep fascia

Circular Muscle (or sphincter)

The fascicles are concentrically arranged around an opening. When contracted, the opening becomes smaller EXAMPLE: Orbicularis oris muscle of the mouth

Contraction Cycle & Cross-Bridge Formation

series of molecular events that enable muscle contraction 1. Contraction Cycle Begins - the contraction cycle involves a series of interrelated steps. Begins with arrival of CA2+ within the zone of overlap in a sarcomere 2. Active-Site Exposure - Calcium ions bind to troponin, weakening the bond between actin and the troponin-tropomyosin complex. Troponin changes positions, rolling the attached tropomyosin strand away from the active sites on actin allowing interactions with the energized myosin head. 3. Cross- Bridge formation - once the active sites are exposed, the energized myosin heads bind to them, forming cross-bridges. 4. Myosin Head Pivoting - After cross-bridge formation, the energy that was stored in the resting state is released as the myosin head pivots toward the M line. This action is called the power stroke, when it occurs the bound ADP and phosphate group are released 5. Cross-Bridge Detachment - When another ATP binds to the myosin headm the link between the myosin head and the active site on the actin molecule are broken, The active site is now exposed and able to form another cross-bridge. 6. Myosin Reactivation - Myosin reactivation occurs when the free myosin head splits ATP in ADP and P. The energy released is used to recock the myosin head.

sarcomeres

smallest functional units of the muscle finer. interactions between thick and thin filaments within sarcomeres are responsible for muscle contractions 10,000 sarcomeres in myofibril contains 1. thick filaments 2. thin filaments 3. proteins that stabilize positions of the filaments 4. Proteins that regulate the interactions between filaments

Brodmann Areas

specific functions of the body are assigned to specific regions of the brain

Titin

strands of elastic protein that extend from the tips of the thick filaments to attachment sites at the Z line Helps keep thick and thin filaments aligned and aids in restoring resting sarcomere length after contraction. Helps muscle finer resist extreme stretching that would otherwise disrupt the contraction mechanism. Each thick filament has a core of titin On either side of the M line, a strand of titin extends the length of the thick filament and then continues across the I band to the Z line on that side. Exposed portion is elastic and become tense only when some external force stretches the sarcomere.

aponeurosis

strong sheet of tissue that acts as a tendon to attach muscles to bone