HRSJ Human Rights

Declaration

A declaration is a formal and solemn instrument enunciating general principles and broad obligations. It is not a binding instrument and does not impose specific obligations to Member States

Meta-Micro Level

1st: An area of practice requiring interventions often divorced from professionalism per se, that take place, by and large, in a person's everyday interactions with the world, broadly defined.

Mezzo Practice

2nd: Sometimes referred to as secondary intervention, an area of practice requiring professional involvement with at-risk populations and reflecting a failure of whole-population approaches.

Micro Practice

3rd: Sometimes referred to as tertiary intervention, and area of practice requiring professional involvement with clinical populations, whose symptoms often reflect shortcomings of previous levels of intervention.

Quarternary Level

4th: The fourth level of the Advance Generalist Public Health Model. Research and evaluation level is quarternary intervention and *intersects with other four levels: the meta micro, mezzo, macro and metamacro.*

International Covenants on Human Rights

Adopted in 1966, the International Covenants on Human Rights developed out of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights. The two Covenants are: 1) the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and 2) the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.

Regional Instruments in the Field of Human Rights

Africa Charter of the Organization of African Unity: The Charter of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), drafted in 1963, reaffirms the attachment of the African States to the principles of the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The Charter also deals with the commitment of African States to eradicate colonialism and the creation of the economic conditions necessary for the advancement of African people (UN, 1994, p. 22). African Charter on Human and People's Rights: Drafted in 1981, the African Charter on Human and People's Rights deals with rights and duties, human and people's rights, safeguard measures, and the creation of the African Commission on Human and People's rights (UN, 1994, p. 22). African Commission on Human and People's Rights: The African Commission on Human and People's Rights promotes and sets standards regarding rights. The Commission receives communications from other groups dealing with human rights issues (UN, 1994, p. 22). The Americas Charter of the Organization of American States-American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man: Adopted in 1951, the Charter of the Organization of American States (OAS) proclaims the fundamental rights of the individual without distinction as to race, nationality, creed or sex (UN, 1994, p. 22). American Convention on Human Rights: The American Convention on Human Rights guarantees broad categories of civil and political rights, such as the right to judicial personality and the right to life, to humane treatment, to a fair trial, to property, and to freedom of association, among others (UN, 1994, p. 22). Supervisory Organs Inter-American Commission on Human Rights: The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights takes action on individual petitions and other communications regarding rights violations within the Americas that are not addressed at the State level (UN, 1994, p. 22). Inter-American Court of Human Rights: The Inter-American Court of Human Rights adjudicates cases involving charges that a State party has violated the American Convention on Human Rights. It also renders advisory opinions concerning the Convention and certain human rights treaties (UN, 1994, p. 22). Europe European Convention on Human Rights: The European Convention on Human Rights, originally adopted in 1950, guarantees rights such as the right to life, the right not to be subjected to torture, the freedom from slavery, the right to property, and the right to education, prohibits the deprivation of liberty for failure to comply with contractual obligations and guarantees the right to liberty of movement, requires the abolition of the death penalty and requires that aliens must be accorded various due procedural safeguards (UN, 1994, p. 23). European Social Charter: Prepared in 1961, the European Social Charter garentees civil and political rights by establishing a regional European system for the protection of economic and social rights. The Charter establishes a reporting system to monitor whether States are complying with their obligations (UN, 1994, p. 23). Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe: The Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe grouped all sovereign States of Eastern and Western Europe together with the United States and Canada. It is not binding of Governments but calls on States to recognize rights and fundamental freedoms (UN, 1994, p. 24). European Court of Human Rights: The European Court of Human Rights accepts petitions from States and the European Commission on Human Rights, not individuals, and has become the constitutional court for civil liberties in Western Europe (UN, 1994, p. 24).

Wronka's (2008) Advanced General Practice Model Meta-Macro Level

An area of practice requiring intervention on a global scale and possibly beyond, undercutting fundamental assumptions, such as the nation-state as a means of affiliation or a national currency as a means of exchange

Collective Rights

Collective rights are the third generation of human rights found in the 28th Article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Collective rights refer to equitable production and distribution of the world's resources and include peace, development, and a clean environment. TLDR: 3rd gen HR; equitable environmental rights.

Conventions

Conventions are international agreements containing provisions to promote or protect specific human rights or fundamental freedoms. A convention enters into force only after having been ratified by a number of States and is legally binding upon those States which ratify the particular convention.

Cultural Relativism

Cultural relativism refers to a view that all cultures are equal and universal values become secondary when examining culture norms. No outside value is superior to that of the local culture. For example, when America fails to provide health care to citizens, the local culture and legal system accepts that result although the Universal Declaration and other United States documents state others. (TLDR: all cultures are equal; opposite of ethnocentrism which views one culture as superior.)

Other Human Rights Instruments

Declaration on the Right to Development: The Declaration on the Right to Development, adopted in 1986, proclaims that development is an inalienable right, entitling persons to participate in, contribute to and enjoy economic, social, cultural and political development in which all human rights and fundamental freedoms can be fully realized (UN, 1994, p. 23). Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Religious Intolerance: The Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Religious Intolerance, adopted in 1981, states that everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion and that no one shall be subject to discrimination on the grounds of religion or other belief (UN, 1994, p. 23). Declaration on the Protection of Women and Children in Emergency and Armed Conflict: Adopted in 1974, the Declaration on the Protection of Women and Children in Emergency and Armed Conflict prohibits attacks and bombings especially on women and children and states that those States involved in armed conflict spare women and children (UN, 1994, p. 23). Declaration on the Rights of Mentally Retarded Persons: Adopted in 1971, the Declaration on the Rights of Mentally Retarded Persons acknowledges the necessity of assisting persons with mental retardation to develop their abilities in various fields of activity, and of promo

United Nations Bodies Concerned with Human Rights

General Assembly and Subsidiary Bodies: One of the main functions of the General Assembly is to initiate studies and make recommendations regarding the promotion and implementation of human rights (UN, 1994, p. 19-20). Economic and Social Council and Subsidiary Bodies: The Economic and Social Council makes recommendations regarding human rights and fundamental freedoms (UN, 1994, p. 20), and includes the Commission on Human Rights: Commission on Human Rights: Established in 1946, the Commission on Human Rights studies, makes recommendations regarding, and drafts international instruments relating to human rights and can address specific situations in countries that require urgent attention, such as a situation of genocide (UN, 1994, p. 20). The Sub-Commission on Prevention and Discrimination and Protection of Minorities: The Sub-Commission on Prevention and Discrimination and Protection of Minorities was created in 1947 to undertake studies and make recommendations concerning the prevention of discrimination of any kind relating to human rights and fundamental freedoms and the protection of racial, religious, and linguistic minorities (UN, 1994, p. 20). Commission on the Status of Women: The Commission on the Status of Women, established in 1946, deals with issues related to women's rights in political, economic, civil, social, educational fields and makes recommendations and proposals for action on urgent problems in the field of women's rights, with the objective of implementing the principle that women and men shall have equal rights (UN, 1994, p. 20-21). Centre for Human Rights: The Center for Human Rights provides secretariat services to the United Nations bodies dealing with human rights. Main functions include assisting the General Assembly, the Economic and Social Council, the Commission on Human Rights and other organs of the United Nations in promotion and protection of human rights. The Centre carries out research on human rights at the request of other bodies, follows up and [prepares reports on the implementation of human rights, and administers the program of advisory services and technical assistance in the field of human rights (UN, 1994, p. 21).

Five Contexts of Social Work Practice

Geographical: All practice is located within some set of boundaries: agency, nation, State, region. Political: Every country has a political system. This sets the context for practice, whether the system is liberal or repressive, socialist, social democratic or capitalist. Socio-economic: An adequate livelihood, work, health and facilities, education, and if possible, access to social security and social services are basic human aspirations. **The social cohesion of any group or nation depends, to a large extent, on an equitable sharing of available resources.** Cultural: The practices, beliefs, aspirations and culture of individuals, families, groups, communities and nations have to be respected, though without prejudice to the evolution of certain practices and beliefs. Unless this is done, discriminatory acts that are destructive for society will occur. Spiritual: No society in which social work is practiced is value-free. It is central to social work/human practice that attention is paid to the *spirit, the values, the philosophies, the ethics, and the hopes and ideals* of those with whom social workers work and, at the same time, to social workers' own values. TLDR: G P S C S

Implementation Mechanisms

Human Rights Committee: Established in 1977, the Human Rights Committee monitors the implementation of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The committee may consider communications and complaints of violations of rights violations among States who have signed the Covenant (UN, 1994, p. 21). Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights monitors the implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The committee considers reports from States parties to the Covenant on measures adopted and progress made in achieving observance of the rights in the Covenant (UN, 1994, p. 21). Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination: The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination monitors the implementation of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. The committee examines reports submitted by States parties on measures taken and success achieved in relation to the provisions of the Convention. The committee can also form ad hoc groups to consider individual situations and/or disputes (UN, 1994, p. 21). Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women: The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women oversees the implementation of the convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. The committee meets regularly to examine reports and any other information submitted by the States parties. Committee against Torture: The Committee Against Torture considers reports submitted by States parties to the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment on measures taken to honor their undertakings under the Convention. This body can make on-the-spot inquires if it receives information regarding the use of torture. (UN, 1994, p. 21). Committee on the Rights of the Child: The Committee on the Rights of the Child generates a permanent dialogue involving all parties concerned with the promotion of children's rights. The committee identifies dangers to the well-being of the world's children, looks for practical answers to specific problems, mobilizes the human and financial resources to solve these problems, and raises the level of public awareness and concern for the protection and promotion of the rights of the child (UN, 1994, p. 22).

Human Rights

Human rights are those rights that are inherent in our nature and without which we cannot live as human beings. Human rights and fundamental freedoms allow us to fully develop as use or human qualities, our intelligence, our talents and our conscience and to satisfy our spiritual and other needs. They are based on mankind's increasing demand for a life in which the inherent dignity and worth of each human being will receive respect and protection TDLR: inherent rights and fundamental freedoms, that respect and protect the dignity and worth of all people.

Indivisibilty

Indivisibility refers to the necessity that governments and individuals recognize human rights and not selectively promote some rights than others. (TLDR: gov must recognize ALL human rights, not just some)

Instruments Providing Particular Protection

International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination: The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination was adopted in 1965 and ensures the equality of and non-discrimination against all people. Parties to the Convention must seek to prohibit racial discrimination in all it's forms and guarantee the rights of everyone, without distinction to race, color, or national or ethnic origin, and to equality before the law (UN, 1994, p. 15-16). Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women: The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women was adopted in 1979 and requires signatories to end all forms of discrimination against women, take actions to realize equality between men and women, establish legal protections for women, take legal action to eliminate discrimination against women, and to abolish laws that discriminate against or harm women (UN< 1994, p. 16). Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment: The Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment was adopted in 1984 and provides that the State parties will outlaw torture in their national legislation and no order from a superior or exceptional circumstance may be invoked as a justification for torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment (UN, 1994, p. 16). Convention on the Rights of the Child: The Convention on the Rights of the Child was adopted in 1989 and calls on States which ratify it to create conditions in which children may take an active and creative part in the social and political life of their countries. It deals with the conditions needed to create the freedom a child needs to develop his or her intellectual, moral and spiritual capacities and protects children from all forms of exploitation (UN, 1994, p. 16-17). International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of all Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families: The International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of all Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families was adopted in 1990 and exists to extend protections to migrant workers and their families who are not usually citizens of the country in which they live and work (UN, 1994, p. 17). TLDR: Race, Women, Cruelty, Children, Migrants

Specialized Agencies

International Labour Organization: Established in 1919, the International Labour Organization is concerned with economic and social rights, such as the right to work, the right to the enjoyment of just and favorable conditions of work, the right to form trade unions and join the trade union of one's choice, the right to social security and the right to an adequate standard of living (UN, 1994, p. 17). United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization: The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) deals with issues of culture, cultural development, cultural cooperation, and international cooperation, seeks to make education and literacy universal, and assists countries with developing mechanisms of communication (United Nations, 1994, p. 18). World Health Organization: The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency, which deals with matters related to the right to health as set forth in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The WHO has extensive public health programs throughout the world (United Nations, 1994, p. 18). TLDR: ILO, UNESCO, WHO

Philosophical Values

Life: The profession of social work should resist violations of human rights but also affirm the positive aspects of life that make up human fulfillment. Freedom and liberty: This principle means that a human being has the right of freedom of choice in how to conduct his or her own life. Equality and non-discrimination: Equality is the cornerstone of human rights and social justice. Discrimination cannot coexist with equality. Justice: Forms of justice include legal, judicial, social, economic and other aspects which constitute the basis of a society upholding the dignity of its members and ensuring security and integrity of persons. Solidarity: Solidarity means understanding and empathizing with someone's pain and suffering and taking a stand with those suffering. Social responsibility: Social responsibility refers to actions taken on behalf of sufferers and victims. Evolution, peace, and non-violence: Peace is not just the absence of conflict but refers also to harmony within the self, with others, and with the environment. Peaceful evolution refers to society moving (evolving) beyond conflict as a means to problem-solve. Relations between human kind and nature: This principle refers to respecting and ending degradation of other species and the environment. TLDR: L F E J S S E R

Negative Rights

Negative rights refer to the first generation of human rights and refer to civil and political rights as set forth in articles 2 to 21 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. These are rights devised to ensure freedom from any curtailment of individual liberty TLDR: 1st gen or HR; civil and political rights

United Nations Bodies

Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees: The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees was established in 1949 to provide international protection to refugees including non-discrimination, equal treatment, and religious freedom. The Office deals with juridical issues, employment rights issues, housing, public education, public relief, labor legislation and social security. The office deals also with questions of asylum, assimilation, and naturalization (UN, 1994, p. 18-19). United Nations Children's Fund: First established in 1946, the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) addresses children's needs in developing countries. This body seeks to extend provisions of the Convention on the Rights of the Child to all children. United Nations Environment Program: Created in 1972, United Nations Environment Program monitors the environment and encourages sound environmental practices. This body works with governments, scientific organizations and non-governmental organizations on issues such as desertification control, genetic resources and water conservation (UN, 1994, p. 19).

Positive Rights

Positive rights are the second generation of human rights found in articles 22 to 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. These are the economic, social and cultural rights. TLDR: 2nd gen HR; economic, social and cultural rights.

*Universal Declaration of Human Rights*

Preamble Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world, Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people, Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law, Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations, Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal rights of men and women and have determined to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom, Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in co-operation with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms, Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization of this pledge, Now, Therefore THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY proclaims THIS UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction. Article 1. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. Article 2. Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty. Article 3. Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person. Article 4. No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms. Article 5. No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. Article 6. Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law. Article 7. All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination. Article 8. Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law. Article 9. No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile. Article 10. Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him. Article 11. (1) Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defence. (2) No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed. Article 12. No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks. Article 13. (1) Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each state. (2) Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country. Article 14. (1) Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution. (2) This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations. Article 15. (1) Everyone has the right to a nationality. (2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality. Article 16. (1) Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution. (2) Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses. (3) The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the State. Article 17. (1) Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others. (2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property. Article 18. Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance. Article 19. Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers. Article 20. (1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association. (2) No one may be compelled to belong to an association. Article 21. (1) Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives. (2) Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country. (3) The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures. Article 22. Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality. Article 23. (1) Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment. (2) Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work. (3) Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of social protection. (4) Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests. Article 24. Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay. Article 25. (1) Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control. (2) Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection. Article 26. (1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. (2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace. (3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children. Article 27. (1) Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits. (2) Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author. Article 28. Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully realized. Article 29. (1) Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his personality is possible. (2) In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society. (3) These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations. Article 30. Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein.

Rules Regarding Protection and Treatment of Offenders

Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners: In 1955, the UN first issued the Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners which set forth standard minimum rules for the treatment of prisoners and the management of penal institutions (UN, 1994, p. 17). Principles of Medical Ethics: In 1982, in conjunction with the World Health Organization and other world health bodies, the United Nations developed the Principles of Medical Ethics against torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment relevant to the role of health personnel, particularly physicians in the protection of prisoners and detainees (UN, 1994, p. 17). United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice: The United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice, adopted in 1985, relate to such things as the minimum age of criminal responsibility, the objectives of juvenile justice, the features of effective, fair and humane juvenile justice administration and the human rights principles to be applied (UN, 1994, p. 17).

Charter of the United Nations

The Charter of the United Nations was adopted in 1945 and signified an attempt to develop a framework of international law and regulation which would limit the sovereignty of individual States to protect individuals, communities, groups and, communities whose rights were threatened by governmental action. TLDR: 1945; created international law to protect rights of individuals across the world

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The Universal Declaration was adopted in 1948 and represents the highest aspirations of humankind. In its 30 articles, it details the basic rules and freedoms for all people, and covers civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights. Because it is a declaration, it is not legally binding. TLDR: 1948, 30 articles, covers civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights; as a declaration, it is not legally binding.

Universality

Universality refers to the idea that *human rights belong to everyone*