HUM 2020 Final

Fragonard, The Swing

Fragonard painted The Swing in 1767. It depicts a young woman on a swing with a man laying the foliage below her in an overgrown garden. The statue of cupid with his finger to his lips, along with the erotic imagery of the woman's shoe falling off and the man holding out his hat suggests that the two people are lovers. This painting is significant because it is an example of the ornate decoration of the Rococo style and of the erotic images it often included. It is also significant because it inspired the series commissioned for the last of Louis XV's mistresses, which was Fragonard's most important work. It is also significant because the positioning of the man and woman echo Michelangelo's Creation of Adam in the Sistine Chapel. *This what the enlightenment art is reacting against

Francesco Petrarca

Francesco Petrarca, known as Petrarch, was a friend of Boccaccio and lived from 1304 to 1374. He was a traveling scholar and poet. He was significant because he translated and copied classic literature, saving it from death. Notably, he saved the work of Cicero, a Roman orator and statesman. His work in preserving classic literature was so great that he was considered the Father of Humanism. In addition to this, his own work made him significant, as his love poems perfected the Italian sonnet, which became known as the Petrarchan sonnet. These poems and their ability to express the complexity of love had a great influence on the poetry of the English Elizabethan Age.

Francis Bacon, New Method of Science

Francis Bacon wrote the New Method of Science in 1620. It is a piece promoting the use of the empirical method in scientific experimentation. This is significant because it brought attention to a a way of reasoning that was instrumental in the advancements we have seen in science ever since. The empirical method uses inductive reasoning to come to a conclusion that is based in facts. Inductive reasoning takes individual observations and combines them to make a final conclusion. This way of thinking helps ensure that conclusions are drawn based on logic and facts rather than assumed truths. Bacon's promotion of these idea resulted in the what is now known as the Royal Society-- an organization that has been a the leading-edge of science from its beginning.

Francis of Assisi: Canticle of Creation

Francis of Assisi was born in Italy to a wealthy family. He lived from 1181 to 1226 and was a soldier for a short time, until he came to realize his Christian faith and rejected his family's wealth along with his military career. He dedicated his life to helping those who needed it and spreading his love for God through the compassion he showed others. He was significant because he formed a new religious order: the Franciscans. He was also significant because he wrote the Canticle of Creation, which celebrates all the beautiful creatures that God has created. The Canticle of Creation encourages Christians to love all creatures equally, as Francis did.

Friedrich Nietzsche, Thus Spake Zarathustra,

Friedrich Nietzsche wrote his Thus Spake Zarathustra between 1883 and 1891. It is a book that reveals his philosophy through a story about a man named Zarathustra who tries to explain the overman to a town through a series of sermons. The overman is a person who has overcome all ideas of prejudices and morals as defined by society and lives by their own values. The townspeople are not as interested in achieving this as Zarathustra had expected because it is very difficult to achieve. Zarathustra becomes discouraged and questions the idea of eternal recurrence himself, but in the end he finds few people who exhibit overman qualities and he himself embraces the idea of eternal recurrence. This story is significant because Nietzsche's philosophy discourages the idea that a person should follow the ideas of a group without thinking for themselves first. His ideas had a great influence on the philosophers of the twentieth century. This work is significant because his ideas discouraging prejudice were ahead of his time; however, his work was misinterpreted and used to support the Nazi regime.

Ghiberti's doors of the Baptistery

Ghiberti's panel for the doors of the Baptistery was made during 1401 and 1402. He created a bronze relief panel in the shape of a quatrefoil that told the story from Genesis 22 of the Sacrifice of Isaac. His panel was the winner among seven in a competition to create the best panel to be used on the baptistery. In his depiction of the scene, Ghiberti sets Isaac and Abraham off to the right and the positioning of the figures creates a graceful feel for the piece. Everything except Isaac is cast as one piece, creating a sense of unity in the piece, while making Isaac a prominent figure in it. He uses the technique of foreshortening when sculpting the angel to create the effect that she is soaring down from heaven at a sharp angle. Ghiberti's door panel is significant because the competition that incited his work is telling of a major characteristic of the Italian Renaissance. Competitions like this encouraged people to produce the best work possible and shows a shift toward valuing individual achievement over collective efforts. It is also significant because they believed that if the artwork was good enough, God would help their suffering city and cause rival cities to envy them. This means the winning panel--Ghiberti's-- was considered so beautiful it was worthy of gaining God's mercy and instilling civic pride. The panel is also significant because of the transition into Renaissance art that it depicts. The foreshortening of the angel and line along which the scene is placed creates a realistic space for the panel, a technique used in Renaissance art. The draping of the cloth is also a technique common in Renaissance art. The figure of Isaac draws on techniques in classical sculpture such as the twisting of the torso, the stoic heroic facial expression, and the depiction of Isaac in his best physical state. This shows an appreciation for the artwork that came before him. The expression of humans in a crisis of faith in a manner realistic enough to allow the viewer to identify with the artwork reveals the humanist values behind the panel.

Giotto di Bondone's Madonna Enthroned with Angels and Prophets

Giotto di Bondone's, a student of Cimabue, painted the Madonna Enthroned with Angels and Prophets in 1310. It is very similar to Cimabue's Madonna Enthroned with Angels and Prophets as it features the Virgin Mary holding the Christ Child, surrounded by angels. This version is significant because it shows an even more drastic shift towards naturalism. Giotto mimics the spatial reality of life in very convincing way and his skill in painting the human face gives the figures a lifelike appearance. *competition between artists>> wanted to be better than his teacher *uses shading *human body is to be celebrated>> glorifies the human body >> they want to paint the holy figures as real humans >> unlike byzantine art where they felt like gods should not be portrayed like humans

Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina 's Missa Papae Marcelli

Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina composed the Missa Papae Marcelli in 1567. This mass is polyphonic and was composed around the the time the Council of Trent was revising the discipline of the church. This mass is significant because it was so powerful people believed it was the reason the Council allowed polyphonic music to remain in the church over a more simple plainchant. Palestrina was very influential at the time and was the first to have his complete works published. It is also significant because it carries out the requirements put in place by the Council in a beautiful way. The words stand out and are clear to the listener because the music is restrained. Intelligibility of the text was the most important thing to achieve, and Palestrina does this without making the music flat and boring. He does this by mixing sections featuring counterpoint, when voices imitate the main melody, and sections featuring homophony, when the subordinate voices just accompany the melody in unison. He also achieves this by using a combination of voices using a single note per syllable, and voices using many notes per syllable, known as melisma.

Goya, Saturn Devouring his Children

Goya painted his Saturn Devouring his children between 1820 and 1823. This mostly black painting shows Saturn, the Latin form of the Greek Kronos, eating one of his children, as he does in the ancient myths. This depiction is graphic, and made even more horrific by the image of Saturn as a crazed, wild looking beast. This painting is significant because it is a reflection of how Goya viewed society and Spain at the time. He believed the way society was functioning in Spain was, like Saturn, only destroying itself and ruining the hope for the future. This painting is an important insight into the state of disorder in Spanish society as Goya viewed it.

Goya, The Third of May

Goya painted his the Third of May from 1814 to 1815. In this painting he commemorates the executions that occurred in Spain on May 3, 1808. He shows the line of Spaniards awaiting their execution by Napoleonic troops. The victim about to be executed stands in the light with his arms stretched out. The sky is dark and there is a dark church in the background. This painting is significant because it shows Goya's protest of Napoleon's empire and his attempt to conquer Spain. This view is representative of many Spaniards at the time. It is also significant because it shows how loyalty to one's state can be a bad thing when compared to loyalty to one's conscience. It does this by showing the victim in a cruciform pose to show that his suffering is similar to Christ's and by darkening the church to show that this execution is not in line with the morals of Christianity. These elements show that the executioners, who are serving their state, are doing the wrong thing. The Baroque use of light and dark contrast adds to the drama of this scene.

Aaron Copland, Fanfare for the Common Man (from Symphony #3)

Aaron Copland composed his Fanfare for the Common Man in 1942. This was one of ten fanfares composed for the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra during World War II, but this one has remained the most famous. Copland elaborated on the piece three years later to use in his Symphony No. 3. It has a light, open, simple and patriotic tone. This composition is significant because it represents the orchestral sound developed by Copland that is more spare and open than most. This style was so effective and well liked that it became associated with American music and has allowed American music to grow independently of Europe. It is also significant because the upbeat and patriotic tone was inspiring to the Americans at the time who were in the middle of fighting World War II. Additionally, the title is inclusive and invites everyone to relate to the piece.

Artemisia Gentileschi, Judith and Maidservant with Head of Holofernes

Artemisia painted the biblical story of Judith and Holofernes five times and the last on in 1625. The painting shows Judith and her maidservant just after she kills Holofernes. This painting is significant because it is an example of the Baroque style of art. The painting goes beyond the frame and invokes the feeling that everything around the painting is also a part of the artwork. Judith and her maidservant looking off to the left helps create this feeling. Judith puts her hand up to block the light, but it is almost as if she is gesturing for the viewer to be quiet, warning them of some impending danger. It is also significant because Florence identified with Judith just as they identified with David. She represented fortitude, so this painting was a celebration of that virtue and by association, that virtue in Florence as a city. This painting also holds great significance because of how much it relates to the personal life of the painter. The story of Judith and how she takes advantage of the lust of Holofernes connects to her past dealing with Tassi. *wanted to make art more emotional because they wanted it to connect to religion better *balance and order were no longer important like they were in renaissance

Augustus Caesar defeats Marc Antony and Cleopatra in the Battle of Actium

At the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE, Augustus--then Octavian--defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra. It was a naval battle and although Augustus was outnumbered in terms of ships, he fought hard enough that Cleopatra left the battle and Antony followed quickly behind. The remaining ships surrendered themselves to Augustus. This battle was significant because Augustus' victory secured him control of Rome, making him the new emperor, who was able to restore peace in the Roman empire.

Basilica of Maxentius

Basilica of Maxentius The Basilica of Maxentius was a Roman basilica built by Maxentius and added on to by Constantine. It was constructed from 306 to 313 CE. It is a large rectangular building with a large nave at the center, two apses, and a triple portico entrance. This structure is significant because it gives insight to how the Romans ran the administrative segment of their government, with the courthouse, council chamber, and meeting hall all in one place. It was also one of the last significant imperial buildings built by Rome, so it is one of our last insights into Roman life and architecture. It is also significant because the structure of it greatly influenced Christian churches later, who mimicked the large nave with an apse at one end and an entrance at the other.

Beethoven's 9th Symphony, 4th movement: the Ode to Joy

Beethoven's 9th Symphony, the 4th movement, "Ode to Joy" was part of Beethoven's final complete symphony. It was first played for an audience on on May 7th, 1824 and it included part of Friedrich Schiller's poem, "Ode to Joy". This movement was significant because it combined elements of Classical and Romantic music styles, effectively bridging the transition between the two musical periods. This movement combined traditional symphony with a chorus and solo vocal parts, which had never been done before. It was also unusually long and included a large number of musicians. The piece conforms to the basic idea of the Classical sonata form, but does not follow the exact pattern listeners were used to. These changes shocked the listeners--especially the addition of vocals-- and many were not pleased with it at first. He received criticism from his contemporaries for this revolutionary combination, but overall it has proved to be very successful. It is also significant because it was last, and often considered the greatest, composition of a nearly completely deaf Beethoven and has remained influential in popular culture to this day. *Beethoven is still considered a classical composer *more interested in the motion and the overall sweep of grandeur>> not as perfect at most classical music ws

Beowulf

Beowulf is the oldest english epic poem, written around 1000. It tells the story of a young hero who saves a nation from monster attacks and rules in his land until he dies in a battle against a dragon. This story is significant because it reveals the rigid hierarchical feudal system that was implemented at the time. It also revealed the important idea that no matter how strong and powerful a person is, they have to die eventually. It also supports the practice of having the courage to fight for the greater good despite potential danger, a Christian value even though this is not necessarily a Christian based poem.

Bernini's David

Bernini carved his statue of David in 1623. It shows David in the midst of killing Goliath. This statue is significant because it shows the Baroque style of artwork. This style uses theatrics to create a dynamic sculpture that seems to move and interact with the space around it. In contrast to Michelangelo's inward focused statue of David, Bernini's very much interacts with the external space. The space around the sculpture is known as the invisible complement because it seems to be just as involved in the overall presentation as the actual sculpture. By making the teeth clenched, the muscles strained and the body in a spiral position, Bernini creates a realistic illusion of motion.

Bernini's Rape of Proserpina,

Bertini sculpted the Rape of Proserpina in 1622. It shows a story from Greek mythology when Hades kidnaps Persephone and takes her into the underworld. This sculpture is significant because it represents the Baroque style of artwork beautifully. Bernini chooses to depict the most dramatic scene in the story: when Hades actually takes her to the underworld. The bodies are positioned in a way to realistically look like they are mid-struggle. The way Persephone looks over her shoulder and Hades over his, draws all parts of the room into the scene. Adding to this effect, the viewer would need to look at this piece from all sides to understand the full effect of it. The bodies look very idealized, but Bernini puts so much emotion in their faces that they also show individualization. *the movement is the most important aspect

Botticelli's Annunciation

Botticelli painted the Annunciation in 1489. It depicts the moment when the angel Gabriel tells the Virgin Mary she will be the mother of the Christ Child. The painting is significant because it is a great example of the use of perspective. The contrast between the color of the floor and the walls, along with the background seen through the window creates a convincing sense of depth. The draping of the robes on Gabriel in particular is also significant as it create a sense of movement and reality. That, along with her open mouth place the the viewer right in the moment when Gabriel delivers the news to Mary. There is emphasis placed on distance between Gabriel and Mary's hands as a way to represent the fact that Mary will conceive the Christ Child without actual touch. *Savonarola scares Botticelli away from focusing so much of greek mythology so he paints this very christian picture *the virgin looks afraid/sad >> kinda foreshadows the agony she will feel during the crucifixion

Botticelli's Primavera

Botticelli painted the Primavera in the early 1480s. It depicts the goddess Venus as a nymph surrounded by Zephyrus god of the western winds, Chloris nymph of spring, Flora goddess of flowers, Cupid, the three Graces, and Mercury the messenger god. Zephyrus tries to capture Chloris, Flora spreads flowers across the scene, Cupid watches over the whole group, the three Graces dance, and Mercury wards off clouds. The whole scene appears to flow from right to left with Venus in the middle. This painting is significant because it reveals some of conclusions drawn during the humanist philosophical discussions that occurred at the Medici palace. Venus is central in the painting because they believed Venus represented the highest moral qualities: temperance, honesty, charm and splendor. The other figures represent the less perfect qualities of humanity. The painting reveals the loving and lighthearted spirit under which the people of Medici developed their humanistic thoughts. *the tastes of the medici family had a very strong influence on renaissance art overall because they were such a powerful banking family >> they liked classicism *painted for a private space>> probably a bedroom *has very little to do with christianity>> venus is made to look like the virgin mary though >> she has a halo made of vegetation *western wind starts to blow>> rape scene: western wind and chloris >> Chloris transforms into Flora>> Venus gives her blessing to the three graces (poetry music and dancing) >> cupid is aimed at the grace who is gazing at mercury>> Mercury is batting away the clouds (represents him beating away the clouds of ignorance)

Brunelleschi's dome of the Florence Cathedral (Duomo, Santa Maria del Fiore)

Brunelleschi completed the dome for the Florence Cathedral in 1436. He was able to build this dome that finally completed the cathedral long after it was originally built because he won the design competition proposed by the Opera del Duomo. He used eight large outer ribs and eight pairs of thinner inner ribs, along with nine sets of horizontal ties to support the weight of the dome. He also used an inner and outer roof to decrease the weight of the structure. He was able to do this without the aid of temporary scaffolding to support the dome vaulting during the building process. Brunelleschi's dome is significant because it was the achievement that made him known as one the greatest figures at the time and in history. This is because he was the one finally able to complete the cathedral that was supposed to be the most beautiful and grand in Tuscany, asserting the status of Florence, and because he was able to solve an architectural problem that no one had been able to overcome so far during the Renaissance period. He was able to overcome these technical problems because he studied the architecture of Ancient Rome and used calculations from their domes to create one that worked for this cathedral. It was not exactly like the Roman domes, but it was certainly his studies of those domes that allowed him to created the Dome of Florence Cathedral.

Caravaggio, The Calling of St. Matthew

Caravaggio painted his The Calling of St. Matthew between 1599 and 1600 for the Contarelli Chapel. It shows a tax collector named Levi and his four assistants around a table with Christ and St. Peter entering from the right. This painting is most significant because of its use of light. Caravaggio used a technique called tenebrism, which uses light to highlight small sections of a mostly dark picture. The light that comes in from an implied window on the right supplies almost all the light for the picture and creates a very realistic feeling. This light is what reveals the details of the painting, which is symbolic of how faith reveals the world to those who have it. This symbolism is reinforced by the fact that the light seems to rise with Christ's hand and he appears to be one with the illumination. The painting is also significant because Caravaggio paints the figures in modern dress doing ordinary work, which shows that he wanted to make the bible story feel relatable to his audience. It also implies that Christ himself is real because he fits into this ordinary scene so well. Levi's relatively unimpressed reaction to Jesus emphasizes the miracle that occurred when he became Saint Matthew.

Christine de Pizan's Book of the City of Ladies

Christine de Pizan was the first female in European history to make a career out of writing. She wrote the Book of the City of Ladies in 1404. The book features a debate between De Pizan, Lady Reason, Lady Rectitude, and Lady Justice and a dream of an Ideal City granted to her by God, in which the Virgin Mary is the Queen. This book was significant because it pointed out the misogyny that was so dominant in their culture and used the accomplishments of women throughout time to point out that this misogyny made no sense. The use of the Virgin Mary also makes it significant by drawing Christianity into the fight as proof against misogyny.

Cimabue's Madonna Enthroned with Angels and Prophets

Cimabue's Madonna Enthroned with Angels and Prophets is a painting of the Virgin Mary, holding the Christ Child, surrounded by prophets and angels. It was painted in 1285. This painting was significant because it made Cimabue the leading painter in Florence. It was also significant because it is very large and made this a trend in altarpieces, which in turn made altars central features in churches. The amount of detail in the painting reveals that he was skillful in the use of tempera. This painting is also significant because the individuality of the prophets shows a shift in the culture towards valuing the individual. It also reveals a shift toward naturalism in art through the expressions of the faces, the casual position of the Virgin, and the use of spatial volume.

Claude Monet, Cliff Walk at Pourville,

Claude Monet painted his Cliff Walk at Pourville in 1882. It shows two women walking on cliffs along the Normandy coast on a windy day. This painting is significant because it shows how Monet uses his painting technique of short, quick brushstrokes to describe a relationship to nature. This method of painting allows him to create the appearance of wind whipping through the scene. It affects the grass, the sea and the women all in the same way. It makes them all appear to move in the wind in a fashion so similar that the women appear to become a part of the natural landscape. The colors used in the dresses are the same ones used in the flowers on the cliff, which makes them blend even more into the landscape. This implies a close relationship to nature, but it also signifies the indiscriminate workings of nature. It seems to show that no human stands out in the vast, great landscapes that dominates the earth.

Claude Monet, Rouen Cathedral series,

Claude Monet painted his Rouen Cathedral series during the 1890s. It is a series of 30 depictions of the Rouen Cathedral. This series is significant because it showcases the impressionist focus on light and haze. The 30 different paintings each show the the cathedral at different times between dawn and dusk and under different weather conditions. When looked at together-- as they were originally presented-- it is clear how important light is to our perception of objects. This same Cathedral has a completely different tone when two paintings in this series are compared just because he represents the effect of the light so accurately. Monet's painting technique that uses small strokes of individual colors, rather than harsh lines, allowed him to portray the light so specifically, and it also causes the Cathedral to appear fuzzy and less sturdy than the stone would have been in reality. This expresses the idea that nothing is so permanent that our perception can not change it.

Constantine becomes Roman Emperor

Constantine became emperor of Rome in 312 CE, calming the period of instability after the retirement of Diocletian. He gained control of the empire after he won the battle of the Milvian Bridge. When he took control of the empire, it was becoming an increasingly more Christian place and this resulted in the persecution of the Christians because they were thought to be causing the problems in Rome. Constantine was significant because he settled the instability in Rome and put an end to this Christian persecution in 313 CE with the Edict of Milan. This order reinstated the religious freedom that had been a part of the Roman Empire from the beginning. He was also significant because his architectural program influenced the Christian architecture that followed it.

Islamic Spain, Library of Cordoba

Cordoba was the capital city of the Muslim kingdom in Spain. This city became a center of education and intellectual life. Because of this, an extensive library was formed in the city around 961. This library was significant because it amassed books from all over the kingdom, bringing knowledge from all parts of the empire into this one city. They also translated many books into Arabic, even further increasing their access to knowledge. It contained somewhere around 400,000 books, many of them with beautiful covers that made them works of art as well as sources of information.

Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri

Divine Comedy is a set of three books --the Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso--written by Dante Alighieri around 1308. It is a description of the Christian soul as it travels through Hell, Purgatory and Salvation. This poem is significant because it was written in vernacular, which means the majority of people could read and understand it. This was important because the story was very influential in spreading Christian messages. The Christian soul spends a good deal of time with Pagan souls, but they can not enter Paradise even if they were good people because in the end, faith is more important than reason. This idea influenced the reader to view Christianity as the correct religion and Paganism as the wrong one. The time spent in the Inferno was also a tool to discourage the reader from sinning because the descriptions of souls suffering would have made them afraid to end up there. The relationship between the soul and Beatrice in Paradise is an example of the courtly love between a man and woman that was believed to reveal God's love as well.

David of Donatello

Donatello created a bronze statue of David from the Hebrew Bible story in the 1440s. This statue is significant because it shows the influence of the Classical tradition on Donatello's work. Donatello used elements of classical sculpture such as the fully nude figure and the contrapposto stance in this statue. This was the first full-sized nude sculpture since the classical period and Donatello exaggerates the contrapposto stance to make it his own, making this a revolutionary take on the Classical tradition. This statue is also significant because Donatello's emphasises on the youthfulness of David reveals the value placed on vitality in Florence, in the people and the state itself. The youthful David does not look capable of triumphing over Goliath, but he does because of his virtue. This theme in the sculpture is viewed as a comparison to Florence and its ability to overcome enemies because of their vitality and virtue. By placing this statue in the courtyard of the Medici palace, the piece became secularized and thus functions as propaganda by comparing the city to a biblical hero. *use of bronze helps revive the classical roman culture *deliberately sensual>> feminine presentation>> femininity= weakness *hermes/mercury imagery >> David and mercury were both representative of florence *in the renaissance, artists were more highly regarded than during the medieval period *inscription gives a message of patriotism

St. George of Donatello

Donatello created a marble statue of the military figure and patron saint of the armorer's guild, St. George, between 1410 and 1415. This statue is significant because unlike many of his other statues, Donatello does not use a contrapposto stance from the Classical tradition, but instead uses a balanced, solid stance. This gives St. George a strong appearance as if he is ready to defend against enemies. He also stands with his shield in a position that appears to give him the mobility to quickly defend against an attack from any direction. These features are significant because they reveal a deeper concern in Florence at the time. They were often under attack by powerful neighboring cities, so the strong confidence and readiness to fight displayed in this statue was something the Florentines would have valued and strived to emulate. The facial expression of St. George is significant because the furrowed brow implies that he is thinking. This celebrates, in the humanist tradition, the ability of humans to use their minds and not just perform mindless actions of passion. *individualized face, thinks, plans and overcome his emotions

Saint Mary Magdalene of Donatello

Donatello created a wooden statue of Saint Mary Magdalene in 1455. In this depiction of Mary Magdalene, she is about to clasp her hands in prayer and she looks frail and weak, clothed only by her hair. This statue is significant because it is a great example of the effect of the humanist period on artwork. The intense look on Mary Magdalene's face along with the frail appearance of her body incites the viewer to relate her, to understand the weariness she must feel. By making Mary Magdalene's body look extremely thin and weathered and giving her nothing to wear but her hair, it suggests a spiritual purity found only when everything is given up except the necessities for life and worship. The muscular arms represent the spiritual strength gained. This sculpture is also significant because it represents a stage in the evolution of Donatello's work. This statue does not have the strict symmetry and careful details of classical traditions that his first works did, but instead focuses on the humanity and individuality of Mary Magdalene. *rejects outward appearance for spiritual strength *Donatello wants to push the envelope>> give you things you wouldn't expect

Hildegard of Bingen, Scivias

Hildegard was a woman who ran a monastery in Germany and wrote her Christian visions in the Scivias. She lived from 1098 to 1179. Hildegard is significant because she was one of the most accomplished woman of the time. She was knowledgeable in science and medicine, but most notably, she wrote about Christianity with such insight that the pope considered her Scivias to be divinely inspired. She used this status given to her by the pope to promote Church reforms. Because her words were believed to be divinely inspired, she could criticize the Church without the same fear everyone else had. She is also significant because she composed a large amount of music, some of which was very unique compared to the other music composed at the time.

Impressionism: Claude Monet, Le Gare St. Lazare

Impressionism: Claude Monet, Le Gare St. Lazare 1877 Claude Monet painted his Le Gare St. Lazare in 1877. It is an impressionist painting that shows a passenger platform at the Gare Saint-Lazare, which is one of the busiest and biggest train terminals in Paris. This bustling scene is dominated by the steam from the trains and the light that filters through it. This painting is significant because it is a good example of the impressionist focus on light. The use of light and dark in impressionism helps give shape and tone to the scenes, which are constructed without distinct shapes. The use of light is especially effective in this painting because the steam allows the light to have a medium to filter through and become a more dynamic element in the piece. This technique is significant because the brightness of the light combined with the overwhelming presence of the steam from the trains reveals the message of the painting. This painting celebrates the industrial side of modern life. Instead of focusing on the more picturesque things that came out of industrialization, this painting emphasizes the utilitarian side of industrialization. By placing these things in bright light it forces the viewer to consider it and creates a more positive tone.

Isaac Newton, Principia

Isaac Newton published his Principia in 1687. It was the work in which he described the way the universe operates. He explained-- by building off the work of his predecessors and through his own discoveries, like the law of universal gravitation-- that the universe works in precise, organized, and comprehensible ways. He explained how gravity has an effect on everything in the universe and allows every individual object to work together in perfect harmony. This work was significant because it transformed the way everyone understood the world around them. The findings became something that people applied to problems and their everyday lives and experiments involving them even became a form of entertainment. By proving that the operation of the entire universe could be explained logically, Newton's Principia gave merit to the Enlightenment focus on explaining things rationally.

J.S. Bach, Toccata and Fugue in D minor

J.S. Bach composed his Toccata and Fugue in D minor some time around 1708. It is a two-part composition for organ. It is significant because the combination of the two parts--toccata and fugue-- combine to create a dramatic sound. The driving rhythm created such an effect that it is still very well known today in western culture. The toccata is characterized by playing notes of a chord in a series rapidly. The fuge is characterized by taking a principal theme in different melodic lines and overlapping them repeatedly. The fugue was very popular when he composed this piece and the toccata was used to set up the more dramatic fuge aspect. *Baroque style

Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice

Jane Austen wrote her Pride and Prejudice in 1813. It is a story about the relationship between Elizabeth Bennet and Fitzwilliam Darcy, through which they learn about their own faults and the faults of their society. This story is significant because it reveals the problems with gender equality in English society. It points out the few options women have outside of getting married and it describes them as if they are property with value based on their attractiveness and status. It is also significant because it deals with the shortcomings of many people and of society as a whole. Austen discusses these problems based specifically around how pride and prejudice shape the way people act and how they see others. These messages added to the Enlightenment values that deal with self-improvement through reason and they spread these values effectively because of the popularity of the book.

John Locke's Essay on Human Understanding

John Locke wrote his Essay on Human Understanding in 1690. In this essay, he opposes the philosophy of Thomas Hobbes, which proposed that humans need to submit to a leader in order to maintain peace. He uses the concept of tabula rasa to explain how humans are capable of governing themselves. He explains that the human mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa) at birth and is thus shaped by the environment around it. By this theory, if the environment is reasonable, then the people will be reasonable and able to govern themselves. This essay is significant because it gives a well-informed opposition to the theory established by Hobbes that government is necessary to prevent society falling into chaos. It supports the capabilities of the individual human to be reasonable and govern themselves. It also served as fuel for the political revolutions to come later in the century.

Langston Hughes, The Negro Speaks of Rivers and The Weary Blues

Langston Hughes published his poetry collection The Weary Blues, which includes The Negro Speaks of Rivers, in 1926. The Weary Blues is a collection of poetry published by Langston Hughes at the beginning of his career that includes seven thematic sections, including The Weary Blues and The Negro Speaks of Rivers. The Weary Blues deals with the experience of an aging blues singer and The Negro Speaks of Rivers expresses the strength of the black soul. These poems are significant because they establish Hughes' goals that he pursues throughout the rest of his career. He speaks about the issues facing African Americans in the United States on behalf of the entire community and celebrates their strength. The style he establishes is also significant because the lyrical pace that fits to a musical accompaniment turned the poems into performances and therefore widened the audience that was exposed to his words.

Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper

Leonardo da Vinci painted the Last Supper for the Dominican convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in 1495. In the wall panel, he depicts the moment when Christ announces that one of the apostles will betray him. This painting is significant because it is an example of da Vinci's great use of humanism. He paints each of the apostles in the unique way they would respond to this news. This puts focus on the humanity in their various agitated responses, especially when compared to calm, composed Christ. It is also significant because of the use of modified one-point perspective. The painting creates a realistic space, but the table is tipped slightly forward, which draws the viewer into the space, connecting them. It is also careful to place the vanishing point directly behind Christ, making him the focal point and allowing his arms to create a perfect equilateral triangle, representing the holy trinity. *very poor condition because leonardo liked to experiment with the way he painted *reminds us this the renaissance era was not all about rejecting christianity

Leonardo da Vinci's Virgin of the Rocks

Leonardo da Vinci painted the Virgin of the Rocks in 1483 for the church of San Francesco Grande in Milan. It show the Virgin Mary, the Christ Child, John the Baptist and an Angel sitting in a rocky wilderness. This painting is significant because of Leonardo's unique take on the common pyramidal arrangement. The four figures are arranged in a general pyramid shape, but the interesting aspect of this is in how they connect to each other. The angel gazes at the viewer, points at St. John and touches the Christ Child. The Virgin Mary gazes at the Christ Child and motions toward him while touching St. John. St. John leans toward and looks at the Christ Child. The variety of connections in this piece create a unified feeling between the figures, but with a specific emphasis on the Christ Child. The painting is also significant because of the work done by Leonardo to create a realistic space for them to sit in. He uses sfumato in the background to fade the furthest point into haziness, eliminating any unnatural cutoff point in the distance. *wanted to show nature the way it is>> something that moves and develops *the virgin sits on the ground showing humility>> not the untouchable queen of heaven, but just a woman *the rocky cave is a nod to the dark future if the two babies *by making a face somewhat shadowy and unclear, it allows the viewer to subconsciously supply the rest, making them part of the painting

Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa

Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa Leonardo da Vinci painted the Mona Lisa between 1503 and 1515. It is the portrait of a woman seated on a balcony between two columns. He used a technique known as sfumato to make the background appear hazy. He did this through a process known as glazing, which is the layering of transparent oil paint. This technique used on the background makes the woman in the foreground stand out and attract all the attention. This painting is significant because it is one of the best examples of da Vinci's skill in depicting humanity. The hazy background creates a mysterious feeling, but it is the mysteriousness depicted in the woman's face that made this one of his greatest works. The half smile and the gaze of her eyes creates a very specific expression that makes the reader question what she is thinking and gives the painting an incredibly humanistic quality. *loved it so much he would not give the painting to the man who commissioned it and continued to work on it until his death *increase in the popularity of portraits shows an increase the belief that individual people are important *the ambiguity of the facial expression allows the viewer to put a part of themselves in the painting through what they see in this face *the background is from two different perspectives >>subliminally unsettling *she is reminiscent of the virgin mary

Marc Chagall, The Green Violinist

Marc Chagall painted his The Green Violinist between 1923 and 1924. It is a painting of a man with green skin in a purple coat playing a violin on top of a house. He appears to be in a neighborhood and his body appears so similar to the buildings and background that it is difficult to distinguish between the background and his body. There is also another man flying above him and a man below him beating a broom. This painting is significant because it represents Chagall's nostalgia for his rural home in Russia, a feeling that many American immigrants can probably relate to. This is a theme seen throughout Chagall's work in the form of fiddlers on rooftops, which was a part of his memories from his home. This painting is also significant because it celebrates Jewish culture through the violinist who is supposed to be the prophet Elijah. The fact that he is playing a violin adds this because the Chabad Hasidim believed music and dance served as a communion with God. The violinist is a part of the buildings, his legs serving as pillars, which makes him literally a pillar of the community.

Marc Chagall, The White Crucifixion,

Marc Chagall painted his The White Crucifixion in 1938. It is a painting that shows a man crucified on a cross in the middle of a city that is being destroyed. The townspeople are fleeing from invaders and a synagogue is on fire, apparently emitting smoke that gives the whole painting a white background. This painting is significant because it shows the suffering of Jews who face anti-Semitism. The people are clearly suffering as their town is being destroyed for no reason other than their religion. The use of the Christian crucifixion symbol shows that the Jews are suffering the same way that Jesus did, which should have sent a strong message to the Christians. The use of this traditionally Christian symbol in a painting about Judaism shows that suffering is the same, no matter the religion.

Martin Luther's 95 Theses and the Protestant Reformation

Martin Luther, a priest and professor, posted his 95 Theses on the door of the Wittenberg Castle Church on October 31, 1517. The 95 Theses and the Protestant Reformation they ignited were significant because they caused social and political conflict for the following three centuries. Suggesting the pope needed to be reformed resulted in Luther being charged with heresy, but he so strongly against their corruption that that he continued to publish tracts against the pope. Luther opposed the indulgences and moral laxities that were taking over the cardinals in Rome and he proposed that people had the independence to praise God without the help of the pope. Luther's actions sparked action in Zurich and Geneva, and thus the ideas spread away from Germany. This Reformation was also significant because it showed how technology could be implemented to help a cause. They used the printing press to make the Bible available to more people than ever before. *very haunted by the medieval focus on judgement *found comfort in the fact that he is going to be a sinner no matter what, so he just has to have faith that god will save him *he did not set out to break away from the catholic church, it just happened because they were resistant to change *isolated the pope to prevent him from exerting power over all of europe>> allowed nations to form with individual identities>> religious but also political reformation *leading up to martin luther's reformation the music was becoming more complex>> wanted to change the music that was play>> he wanted it to be something the congregation could sing along to >>

Mary Wollstonecraft . A Vindication of the Rights of Woman.

Mary Wollstonecraft published her A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792. In this book, Mary discusses the ways women a treated unequally and why this is a problem. This is significant because it reflects the Enlightenment value of reason. She uses rationality to back up all the points she makes. For example, she explains that if women are not educated, there is no logical way to believe they can raise successful, educated children. It is also significant because it laid the groundwork for the feminist movement that we still see today. Some of her ideas have been implemented like the use of public school systems to educate all children for free.

Michelangelo's earlier work on the Sistine Chapel: Creation of Adam

Michelangelo painted a scene on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel of the creation of Adam in 1510. It shows Adam lounging on earth just before God--who is flying through the air with a womb like bulge of other humans with him--touches him and infuses him with life. This was painted at the beginning of his career, which is significant because his optimism is reflected in the way he depicts the scene. Overall, the interaction between Adam and God conveys a feeling a of hope and a positive outlook on humanity. Adam's body looks perfect--in a classical style-- because he has not sinned yet. The painting is significant because it celebrates the role they believed God played in humanity. Adam looks lifeless, but his finger is about to touch God's finger. The energy in God's face and crowd of people around him suggests that when their fingers touch, Adam with be infused with life and the future of humanity. The parallels between God's body position and Adam's body position adds to this significance because it suggests that in everything humans do, God is involved too.

Michelangelo's later work on the Sistine Chapel: Last Judgment

Michelangelo painted the Last Judgement for the altar in the Sistine Chapel between 1534 and 1541. It shows Mary and Christ in the center near the top of the painting with saints and martyrs surrounding them. In the bottom right, angels welcome souls rising from the dead. Separated from the right by the River Styx, the bottom left shows a demon dragging souls down to hell. In the middle of the bottom, angels announce the arrival of the Last Judgement. He painted this towards the end of his career, which is significant because it does not show the same optimism as seen in his paintings like the creation of Adam. The figures in this painting look heavy and less hopeful. This painting is also significant because it caused a lot of controversy over the nudity of the religious figures. Most people felt the nudity was okay in most scenarios but in such a holy place, it was completely wrong. This feeling was so strong that the successor of the pope who commissioned it had artists paint clothing on the figures. It is also significant because the shape of Mary's body is an example of the serpentine pose that Michelangelo was beginning to use in his artwork. This serpentine positioning was an evolution of the contrapposto stance and adds even more movement to the artwork. Another significant component of this piece is the flayed skin, which is supposedly a self portrait of Michelangelo. This is significant because it reveals his feelings about all the work he has been commissioned to do by the Pope. *bodies are ugly to make a point>> his pessimism *he repents because his early worked praised beauty too much>> needed to focus more on faith

Michelangelo's Pieta,

Michelangelo sculpted his Pieta between 1498 and 1499. It is a marble sculpture with an overall feeling of sadness that shows the Virgin Mary holding her son after he was crucified. This sculpture is significant because it is an example of Michelangelo's great skill in making the hard marble look like real drapery. His ability to make the drapery look so realistic is impressive, but it also allows him to make the Virgin appear womb like around her son, emphasizing their relationship. It is also significant because it shows that during the renaissance era religion was still very important. They were putting more value on the importance of individual people, but as this sculpture proves, religion was still a central aspect of their life. It was not all consuming anymore, but it was still important to relay scripture messages through artwork. The virgin's facial expression and hand gesture convey a feeling that many people would understand; one of the feeling that they do not understand why they have to experience pain, but that it is okay because they trust God's plan. The way Jesus lays in her lap is in reference to the fact that he will be resurrected because his leg and hands fall in a way that a sleeping body might, but not a dead body. Michelangelo depicts her face as far more youthful and perfect than it would be in reality, which emphasizes the fact that her virginity has kept her pure for her whole life and allowed her inner beauty to radiate out.

Michelangelo's David

Michelangelo sculpted his statue of David between 1501 and 1504. It is a giant marble statue of David that emulates, but builds on, Donatello's bronze statue of David. It is significant because it shows how influential ancient Greek and Rome were in Michelangelo's artwork. The nude sculpture, idealized marble body, and contrapposto stance make it look like it is from classical times. Although it is putting a lot of value on classical culture, it still conveys the importance of Christianity because the subject is from the Bible. The fact that he shows a biblical figure nude makes this artwork significant too because this was not something people did at the time. It was revolutionary and horrified some people so much that they had to make a skirt for the sculpture to wear. It is also significant because it represents the belief people had in the importance of humans through the confidence in his face and posture as well as the fact that Michelangelo makes the hands and head enlarged to emphasize that those are things humans use that make them superior to animals. The statement that this statue makes about Florence also adds to its significance. David's ability and confidence in facing oppressors is conveyed to make a statement against the Medici and other tyrannical forces whom Florence had overcome.

Moses Window, Abbey church of Saint-Denis

Moses Window, Abbey church of Saint-Denis The Moses Window in the Abbey church of Saint-Denis is one of the original stained-glass windows from sometime between 1140 and 1144. It is significant because it one example of how they used light in gothic architecture. This element was unique to these cathedrals and important because they believed the use of light displayed the Divine Spirit. It is also significant because it shows the way they viewed Moses as a as a model for leadership. This window would have been a reminder of his leadership of the Israelites and thus, a reminder of the French royalty of how they should lead their people.

Pablo Picasso's Les Demoiselles d'Avignon

Pablo Picasso painted his Les Demoiselles d'Avignon in 1907. It is a depiction of five nude women on a flat plane. Their faces reflect elements of Iberian sculpture and African masks. It is a representation of the brothels that were common on the street in Barcelona that it is named after. It is significant because it is an important example of a break from the traditional artwork that had always been made before it and was the beginnings of Picasso's movement toward Cubism. These beginnings of Cubism are evident in the way he compresses everything in the scene into a single plane, rather than using the typical perspective. It is also significant because the threatening elements such as the masks and weapon-like melon warn of the dangers of prostitution.

Mannerism and Parmigianino's Madonna with the Long Neck

Parmigianino began painting the Madonna with the Long Neck in 1535. He painted it for a family chapel and it shows the Virgin holding the Christ Child with Saint Jerome in the bottom right and five people to her left. This painting is significant because it is an example of how the Mannerists liked to paint things that would make the viewer been a little unsettled. The mannerist technique of using elongated proportions instead of the perfectly symmetrical proportions used before can be seen in the swan-like neck of the Virgin, the elongated legs of the person standing beside her and the oddly long body of the Christ Child. It can also be seen in the oval amphora being offered to the Virgin and in the overall oval shape of the Virgin. Saint Jerome stands in an impossible place in the picture, which fits into the mannerist style and is also a comment by Parmigianino on his commissioner's requirements. By painting the Virgin's foot so it appears to come out of the painting, Parmigianino again creates an uncounted-for space.

Pico della Mirandola's Oration on the Dignity of Man

Pico della Mirandola's Oration on the Dignity of Man Pico della Mirandola wrote the Oration on the Dignity of Man in 1486. It was supposed to be an introduction for the debate he wanted to have to defend his work; however, the pope banned the debate so it lives on only as a one of the great humanist manifestos. This manifesto is significant because Pico studied works from many different cultures and discussed humanism with the Lorenzo's court; thus, he was very knowledgeable in the philosophy of humanism, making his manifesto an important tool in understanding the philosophy. He claims that is humanity is a part of the "great chain of being" and is generally in a middle position. He believed, however, that humans have free will, so they are not stuck in a specific position in the chain. He expressed his belief that humans were the most wonderful thing created by God because they were pure potential. Humans are awarded the ability to change themselves and move their position in life if they choose. These ideas were so revolutionary at the time and so important to share in Pico's opinion that he was willing to face the pope's charge of heresy and jail time.

Prima Porta Augustus

Primaporta is a statue of Augustus found at his wife's home in Primaporta. It is dated back to the beginning of the 1st century CE (1 CE). This statue is significant because it is an example of Roman propaganda. The statue portrays Augustus as larger than life, his features are idealized, he is always portrayed as youthful, and his stance asserts authority. These are all things that make the emperor look like someone who should be respected, even worshiped. Including Cupid in the sculpture reminds the viewer that Augustus claims to have descended from Venus and thus his status has part god. The ties to the Aeneid also support the rule of Augustus because the constituents would have known that Aeneas stood for duty above all else and they would have equated Augustus to those values, earning him their trust.

Rembrandt, Return of the Prodigal Son

Rembrandt painted the Return of the Prodigal Son in 1668. It shows the biblical story of the father who forgives his son after he runs off with his inheritance, only to spend it all and end up sick and in poverty. This painting is significant because it uses the Baroque style to convey the drama and intense emotion of the scene. The purposeful stillness of all the figures along with soft warm glow creates a sense of quiet that seems to radiate out of the frame. The emotions that are involved with the human display of mercy are represented not only through the realism of the interaction of the father and the son but through the use of the light as well. The majority of the painting is dark with the light falling just on the scene of the father and son. This reflects the fact that in the overall darkness of humanity, there is light found in the mercy of others.

René Descartes

René Descartes was a French philosopher and mathematician who lived from 1596 to 1650. He produced many works that explained his inventive ideas about the world around him, spanning from proof of the existence of God to the angular radius of a rainbow. He was significant because he used his belief that science did not threaten religion to establish deism. Deism was a type of faith that believed God can be explained in a rational way. This is important to the Enlightenment era because the "superstitions" that most religions are traditionally based in were ridiculed by the intellectuals. Descartes used deductive reasoning to lay out a logical chain of ideas that led to the fact that God is real. His ideas are based in Cartesian dualism, which refers to the idea that the physical body and metaphysical soul are distinct, but work in harmony. He is also significant because of his contributions to mathematics. He founded analytical geometry, which was necessary to connect algebra and geometry and eventually create calculus. *saw human bodies as machine subject to natural laws with an indwelling non-material soul that acts in harmony with them

Richard Strauss, Also Sprach Zarathustra

Richard Strauss composed his Also Sprach Zarathustra in 1896. It is a symphony that is supposed to reflect the ideas in Friedrich Nietzsche's Thus Spake Zarathustra. It does this by creating a feeling of vast, powerful openness to reflects the freedom humans have to believe whatever they want, regardless of the limited beliefs they have been taught by organizations. This piece is significant because the use of such forceful opening notes shocked the listeners when it was first composed. They had never heard something quite like it before, which was fitting because Friedrich Nietzsche's Thus Spake Zarathustra had the same revolutionary impact on its readers. The significance of this power is clear due to the fact that it is still used often today to make movies and other productions have an even more striking impact. It is also significant because it is another adaptation of Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophy, which helps people understand his complex ideas.

Birth of Gothic Cathedral: Abbey church of Saint-Denis

The Abbey church of Saint-Denis is a Cathedral in France that was designed by Abbot Suger. Work began on it in 1137 and was finished almost a century after his death in 1151. This Cathedral was significant because it was used as inspiration for all the gothic cathedrals that were built after it. Suger built it with this goal in mind, hoping that it would be the most beautiful and elaborate piece of architecture around and thus, serve as a model for the territories he hoped to rule. It is also significant because it uses light for the first time as an element to display the Divine Spirit. The beauty of the cathedral and especially the light used in it was supposed to elevate the soul and make it feel closer to God. *enlightenment, Jesus being the light of the world *flying buttress used to hold up the weight of the ceilings>> when you use such big portions of stained glass windows, you need something to support the weight

Ara Pacis Augustae

The Ara Pacis Augustae is a monument commissioned by Augustus to celebrate his return from Gaul and his restoration of peace in Rome. It is dated back to between 13 and 9 BCE and features a retinue of his family on the southern wall. This monument is significant because it is evidence of the push for a revival of family values in Rome at the time. Augustus wanted his citizens to have a stronger families, so his monument displays his own family as a model for them to follow. Beyond supporting their individual families, the monument encourages the viewer to feel like they are a part of a bigger Roman family by making the figures appear to be stepping out of the frame as if they are actually a part of the viewer's world. The family also shows a peaceful continuity through the generations, which reminds the citizens that there can also be a peaceful exchange of rule from ruler to ruler. Additionally, the important role that Livia plays in her family is depicted, which reveals the role women played in Roman society. Although they did not have the same rights as men, they still were respected and able to exert influence over their own lives and families.

Arch of Titus

The Arch of Titus is an arch that was built to celebrate the victory of Titus over the Jews and to honor his death. It is dated back to 81 CE. This arch is significant because it shows how the Romans used monuments to display their power. These arches were supposed to be built for victorious armies to march through, so the more they had, the more militarily powerful they appeared. They also featured sculptures of the army carrying the things they got from defeating the Jews, which is a reminder of their military might. It is also significant because the style of the arch--the simple barrel vault enclosed within a rectangle that had decorative sculptures and columns-- was influential in Renaissance cathedral architecture.

Bronze She-Wolf

The Bronze She-Wolf is a sculpture of a wolf suckling two infant boys, Remus and Romulus. The wolf is dated back to 500 BCE and the two boys date back to Renaissance times. This sculpture is significant because it is a physical depiction of the Roman foundation story, which shows that they placed a lot of value on where they came from and what their values are. It also uses bronze, which came to be associated with Rome, making it a uniquely Roman sculpture. The contrast between the very realistic elements of the wolf and the abstract representation of the mane also reveal an element of Roman artwork.

Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Civil Rights Movement

The Civil Rights Movement was most prominent during the 1960s and Martin Luther King, Jr. was an important leader in the movement. The Civil Rights Movement was a series of protests, boycotts and legal quests for equal rights for African Americans in the United States. Martin Luther King, Jr. was a minister who took a leading role in the movement and taught a nonviolent approach. This movement was significant because it resulted in many new freedoms for African Americans. They fought against de facto and de jure segregation and made a lot of progress towards the equality, especially against de jure practices. The fight really still extends to today because de facto discrimination is still a problem we face, but the Civil Rights Movement was a significant step in the right direction. The nonviolent approach proved to be effective and they made it clear that they would not back down and submit to the awful treatment they had endure for so long.

Colosseum

The Colosseum is a giant arena on the eastern side of the Roman Forum. It was built by Vespasian starting in 72 CE and ended in 80 CE. This structure is significant because it is one example of how the Romans took ideas from other people and perfected them. Their use of cement and arches in the Colosseum were concepts invented by other groups, but they proved they had mastered them with this building. The complexity of the structure--the maze of rooms below ground, the awning system to shade the audience, and the different architectural order on the outside--showed the advanced abilities of the Roman architectures. *one way to perform executions

Empire of Charlemagne

The Empire of Charlemagne was the period of time beginning in 768 and ending in 814 when "Charles the Great" ruled a large portion of western Europe. He ruled the areas that are now France, Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, northern Italy, Corsica, and northern Spain. His vast empire was significant because it unified the various types of pagan Christianity in the area into one type of Christianity based on the Roman Nicene Creed. The empire's contribution to the unification of Christianity was so significant that Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor on Christmas day and the empire became known as the Holy Roman Empire. The Empire of Charlemagne was also significant because the military was unmatched at the time and was the basis of many works of poetry. Charlemagne also promoted education in his empire, setting up a school in his court as well as across the empire.

The Encyclopédie of Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond D'Alembert

The Encyclopédie was first written in 1751 and finished in 1777. It was a collection of entries pertaining to all different kinds of knowledge, edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert. It is significant because it shows how the idea of rational humanism influenced the work of these philosophes during the Enlightenment era. Through the idea of rational humanism, they believed that by using logical, careful thought, progress would come naturally to their society. To help achieve this, they published works like the Encyclopédie to take knowledge from all different places and preserve it in a contained and systematic way. This would allow the knowledge to be more easily consumed and understood by all different people. It is also significant because it added to the political tensions at the time. It promoted ideas of human liberty and was viewed as a danger to morality and religion. These things upset the French court and resulted in its banning.

The "Enlightenment" in England

The Enlightenment began in England around 1685 and ended around 1815. The Enlightenment refers to the time when people in England began using rational thinking to inform the decisions they made about most aspects of their lives. This new age was led by the intellectuals at the time, but especially by the discoveries made by Isaac Newton in 1687. His description of the systematic workings of the universe were the inspiration to seek a systematic way of operating everything else. The Enlightenment was significant because it revolutionized the way so many aspects of society functioned. The Enlightenment changed the organization of everything from government, towns, and families to the manufacturing industry and arts. These things had been governed by the irrational, superstitious and tyrannical methods of thinking and organizing that were common before. This change to rational thinking allowed them to make changes in their cities and societies that we still benefit from today. *critical thinking

Rediscovery of the Hellenistic statue of Laocoön and His Sons

The Hellenistic statue of Laocoon and his sons was discovered in fragments in the ground in a vineyard in 1506. It was put back together and in the end was only missing the right arm of Laocoon and the right hands of both the boys. This rediscovery was important because it fueled the renaissance zeal to emulate the culture of ancient rome. By uncovering an authentic statue from that time that was as highly regarded as this one was, artists were able to study the work first hand and emulate it more precisely. Michelangelo was particularly influenced by this piece of artwork, which can be seen in the way he uses aspects of it in his work.

Giotto de Bondone's The Lamentation, Scrovegni Chapel

The Lamentation is a painting in the Scrovegni Chapel by Giotto de Bondone, depicting the scene of Jesus's death. It was painted in 1305 to 1306. It is significant because De Bondone's skill in depicting human emotion through facial expressions is featured in this painting, making it appear very realistic and humanizing the religious figures. The pain that he expresses on the faces of the crowd and the angels humanizes them and shows that they feel the pain of Jesus's death despite the salvation that it grants them. He uses subtle things like the gaze of the Virgin Mary down an abyss, a blue void, and a leafless tree to magnify the sorrow that Jesus' death is inflicting on everyone. He also uses details like painting someone with their back to the viewer to provide a level of realism that had not been used before. *famous for arousing emotion in viewer *byzantine art wasn't supposed to look human, this is, so emotion is necessary >> affirms human emotion, humanism

Last Judgment, detail of west portal tympanum from the Cathedral of Sainte-Foy

The Last Judgment is a piece of artwork in the Cathedral of Sainte-Foy from around 1065 that depicts the judgement of Christ. It shows the people who go to heaven and those who go to hell, with Christ at the center. This artwork is significant because it was a reminder to the viewer why they are striving to live without sin. The contrast between the order and serenity of those in heaven with the chaos and pain of those in hell is a visual way to remind the viewer how terrible it would be to spend eternity in hell. It is also significant because it reinforces the themes of Pope Innocent III's most famous sermon. In the sermon he reminds the listener of all the awful things humans can do and details the experience they will have in hell. The Last Judgment is a visual representation of these themes.

Myth of Romulus and Remus

The Myth of Romulus and Remus is a foundation myth for the city of Rome. It was Etruscan and can be dated back to 753 BCE. It tells the story of two orphaned boys who were saved by a she-wolf and raised by a shepherd. They eventually grew up to build the city of Rome and fight for power over it. Romulus kills his brother Remus when Remus jumped over the walls of the city. This story is significant because the fact that this myth is considered to be the foundation of the city shows the values of the Romans. Romulus and Remus survive and end up doing quite well, despite the bad start to their lives. This shows that the Romans believed you should never give up in the face of hardship. In the end, Romulus chooses to kill his own brother rather than see the strength of his city mocked. This shows that they valued the good of the city over personal feelings.

Notre Dame de la Belle Verriere, Chartres Cathedral

The Notre Dame de la Belle Verriere is a stained-glass window in the Chartres Cathedral of that survived the fire of 1194 and was refitted to a new window in 1220. It depicts the Virgin Mary holding the Christ Child on her lap. It is significant because it was one of very few pieces that could be saved from the fire and because it depicts a trend in the 13th century of reusing old panels of stained-glass in belief that their age added to their sanctity. It is also significant because it is an example of the gothic architecture trend of featuring light as it was believed to display the Divine Spirit. It also uses nimbuses around the Virgin Mary's head and the Christ Child's head to signify their divinity. *fixation on Virgin Mary during this time because they really focused on Jesus as the judgement maker>> he was scary and the Virgin Mary was the face of pity, love, acceptance >> she is the link between humanity and God>> she is always associated with the color blue

Pantheon

The Pantheon is a massive domed Roman Temple that was built by Hadrian around 120 CE. This temple is significant because it is an excellent example of what made Roman architecture unique. They focused on creating wide open spaces. The inside of the Pantheon with the massive domed roof creates such a vast feeling that it is as if they created a miniature cosmos. This emphasis in their architecture reflects the goals for their empire as a whole. They wanted to conquer as many lands as they could to make their empire as vast and continuous as possible, which they accomplished as their empire spanned from England to Africa to Asia. It is also significant because it shows their devotion to the gods and reflects how they believed the gods influenced their life. The oculus in the top of the dome looks like the eye of Jupiter watching over everything inside. This shows that they believed he was always watching and influencing their lives. It also has sculptures of all the gods and is clearly one of the greatest work of architecture at the time, expressing their respect and devotion to all the gods.

The Rape of Lucretia and the Birth of the Roman Republic

The Rape of Lucretia is the story of a married woman, Lucretia, who is raped by the Etruscan king of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius, just because he wanted to dishonor her. She was able to maintain her honor and her family's honor, but still wanted punishment because she did not want to be used as an excuse for future adulterers. No one was able to convince her that she had not sinned and she killed herself. This story is significant because it upset the people of Rome and was the final action of the king that resulted in a rebellion that dove him out, causing the birth of the Roman Republic. The end of monarch rule and the beginning of representative based government changed Rome and made it the great empire that it was. This development is the legacy that it left on the world. This event was dated back to 509 BCE. It is also significant because shows that the Romans valued the honor of themselves and their families over their own physical life.

Fall of Rome

The Roman empire fell in 476 CE. The empire had expanded so much that it was increasingly more difficult to rule effectively because the sheer size made it difficult to communicate quickly. Emperor Diocletian split the empire into East and West in an attempt to fix this problem, but it ended up just driving the two halves apart. Christianity was also spreading through the empire, which contributed to a loss of the unique Roman culture. The financial situation in Rome was also falling apart due to overspending, increased taxation and inflation and a lack of new slave labor. Additionally, they were being attacked by outsiders and their military was not as strong as it had once been. All of these factors led to the Fall of Rome, which is significant because it shows that even the greatest empires cannot last forever. The Roman culture was incredibly influential, so without this empire, it gave way for new cultures to grow and influence the world. With the fall of the Roman Empire came the Dark Ages and a decentralized region.

The Summa Theologica of Thomas Aquinas

The Summa Theologica is a summary written by Thomas Aquinas of all the theological issues from around 1265. This summa is significant because Aquinas was one of the most respected theologians at the time, so his summary and conclusions on theological issues had a big impact on Christianity that can still be seen today. He used the rationale of Classical philosophy to explain ideas in Christianity. This approach revealed some views of religion that upset conservatives, but overall it worked to unpack the complex subject. The summa was fairly successful in proving that faith and reason are not mutually exclusive.

West Façade, Amiens Cathedral

The West Facade, Amiens Cathedral is the elaborately decorated exterior of the Amiens Cathedral in Amiens, France. It was constructed between 1220 and 1240 and through the 15th century. This cathedral is significant because it is a great example of the shift in architecture during the 13th century. Architects began using things like crockets, which are outward curving leaflike forms; finials, which are knoblike forms that usually cap furniture ends; and sculptures to decorate the exteriors of their cathedrals in a way that had not been done before. It is also significant because the beautiful, complex and new work made the sculptors of the facade famous and brought their work across Europe.

Courtly love in Chretien de Troyes' Lancelot

The courtly love in Chretien de Troyes' Lancelot is an example from around 1170 of the type of love that was often featured in medieval romance, between a knight and his lady. Lancelot, the knight, goes on a dangerous, exciting adventure to save the Queen and win her heart. The courtly love and this story are significant because it was one of the first things written in vernacular, so it could be read and enjoyed by almost anyone. It is also significant because it reveals the connection people at the time made between the love of a woman and the love of the Virgin Mary. People praised the Virgin Mary for her compassion and mediation skills, comparing her in their minds to a Queen. This led to the characterization of courtly love as an almost worshipful, religious affair. Additionally, the story is significant because it mirrors the relationship of Chretien and Marie, who commissioned him to write it. Chretien devotes himself to Marie just as is described in the courtly love that he writes about.

The Council of Trent and the Catholic Counter-Reformation

The pope arranged the Council of Trent to meet to address the threat that the Protestant Reformation posed to their church in 1545. There were three sessions total, with the last one ending 1563. This was significant because they were supposed to create an outline of that would reform the way the church ran and thus the lives of the people who attended these churches. The plan they came up with was to eliminate luxuries and return bishops to life of simplicity, and mostly a zeal toward God. This sense of restraint was extended to Church art and music as well. Italy and Spain both used Inquisitions to enforce these rules. This Council and the Counter-Reformation it served was significant because it changed the way bishops were supposed to live--celibacy, regular preaching, returning to their dioceses, rejecting luxuries-- and it changed the art--focusing on the message it conveyed above all else-- which in effect changed the lives of anyone who was a part of the church.

Norman Conquest and the Bayeux Tapestry

This Tapestry was hung in the Bayeux Cathedral and was embroidered by the women of the School of Embroidery at Canterbury between 1070 and 1080. It depicts the series of events leading up to William's take over of the English throne. This tapestry and the conquest it depicts are significant because they are an example of Norman propaganda and give a somewhat accurate account of history. The scene depicts the Harold in a very negative light, while glorifying William and his military victory that granted him his rightful place in the throne. While the events probably did not play out exactly like this, the tapestry gives a good idea of how the Normans conquered the English throne and shows how this significant conquest impacted the public view of William. The Tapestry is also significant because it was used again by Napoleon as propaganda, proving the effectiveness of the persuasive aspects of this artwork.

Post-Impressionism: Vincent Van Gogh, The Starry Night

Vincent Van Gogh painted his The Starry Night in 1889, just before his death in 1890. This painting shows a view of Saint-Remy, featuring a church steeple and cypress trees connecting the town to the sky, which depicts swirling wind and stars. The lights of the buildings in the town also connect to the sky because the colors mimic those of the stars and moon. This painting is significant because it is the most famous composition of Van Gogh due to the masterful use of his impasto technique. This technique creates a picture using thick dashes of colors that seem disorganized and unconnected up close, but that create an expressive picture from afar. The stark lines of this method allowed Van Gogh to let the viewer see into his mind, as it reveals the thought that went into each individual brushstroke. This use of impasto, along with the coordinating colors and connection of the cypresses and steeple, reveals Van Gogh's belief that we are connected to nature and that it is our feelings for nature that influences us the most.

Virgil's Aeneid

Virgil's Aeneid is a foundation myth for Rome that tells the story of Aeneas as he travels from Troy to Carthage. There, his relationship with the queen, Dido, tragically teaches him to value the state over his personal life, resulting in his departure to found the city of Rome as he was destined to do. This story was written between 29 and 19 BCE. It is significant because it is a foundation myth for the city of Rome. This means the values revealed in it represent the values that Rome was founded on and would be a part of their history forever. Virgil wrote this with the specific goal of outdoing Homer's Iliad, showing the competition to outdo the Greeks extended even to their foundation myth. It is significant because it teaches valuable lessons such as, the great sacrifices that may be necessary to achieve the values of Roman culture, the necessity of placing the state before yourself, and that war is necessary although sad. Additionally, it is significant because it is propaganda for Augustus. Virgil wrote this with the knowledge that Augustus believed he was the descendant of Aeneas. Accordingly, he wrote the character of Aeneas--whom everyone would equate to Augustus--to show Augustus in a favorable light. The people had been disillusioned by all the civil wars, so this story was a way to make them feel better about the Augustinian government again. He also used this to his advantage to subtly shape Augustus's rule by proving that in the end, peace is better than war.

Watteau, Embarkation from Cythera

Watteau painted his Embarkation from Cythera in 1718. This painting depicts a scene on the island of Cythera, which is the mythical birthplace of Venus. Pilgrims are leaving the island to get back on their ship and they appear sad to leave. The island is full of winged cupids and features a statue of Venus that has been decorated with garlands of roses. This painting is significant because it represents the Rococo style of decoration that became popular in Europe during the eighteenth century. Watteau often painted fetes galantes, as he did in this one. Fetes galantes were parties of elite people that were gallant and amorous. Watteau's portrayal of them were ornate and dramatic, which caused aristocrats to desire his paintings.

William Carlos Williams, The Red Wheelbarrow

William Carlos Williams wrote his poem The Red Wheelbarrow in 1923. It is a short poem that provides a description of a red wheelbarrow sitting in the rain by some chickens. This poem is significant because Williams expresses the beauty in simplicity through it. By writing about such a common scene, he is forcing his readers to consider the things that surround them all the time and find the beauty in it. His contemporaries often wrote poems with complex meanings, but Williams wanted to challenge the value of that complexity. It is also significant because Williams challenged the British sound that was usually used in poetry, even American poetry. Williams tried to capture the American vernacular and imagery, which encouraged others to embrace their uniqueness from Europe and created a style of poetry that was specifically American.

Rembrandt, The Jewish Bride

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Édouard Manet, A Bar at the Folies-Bergère,

Édouard Manet painted his A Bar at the Folies-Bergère in 1882. This painting shows a barmaid at the popular Folies-Bergere music hall and cabaret as she looks at the man who is standing before her. This painting is significant because it is a critique of common bourgeois behaviors. The woman--who is a prostitute as implied by the oranges placed before her and the common dual occupation of barmaids like her--is clearly not happy with the prospect of being with this man. The tears in her eyes and the blush on her face make it clear that she is not okay with the way she is treated by these customers. Pointing out the negative aspects of this popular venue made it unsettling to the viewer. Also unsettling was the fact that the reflection of the women in the mirror does not match the actual women, which suggests that not everything in society is an accurate reflection of reality. These elements made the painting unsettling and offered an important critique of the immoral practices that were so common at these bourgeois establishments. It was also Manet's last major work, which now adds to its significance.

Realism: Édouard Manet, Luncheon on the Grass,

Édouard Manet painted his Luncheon on the Grass in 1863. It shows two men sitting in the woods with two female figures, one who has been undressed, at a picnic. This painting is significant because it is an example of how flaneur values influenced Manet's work. Manet was unimpressed by the attitudes of the bourgeoisie, so he created work that he knew would offend them, just to make a statement. This painting is an example of this practice, as he made it for the Salon of 1863, knowing it would be rejected by the jury due to the provocative content of the painting. The painting was displayed at the Salon des Refuses and was not well received by the viewers. This overt rejection of bourgeois opinions clearly reveals the true feelings of Manet and other flaneurs.

Édouard Manet, Olympia

Édouard Manet painted his Olympia in 1863. It shows a working class woman, working as a prostitute, with a slave woman holding flowers and a black cat at her feet. This painting is significant because it is another example of how Manet liked to challenge his fellow Parisians through his paintings. This take on a courtesan offended the viewers because the low class of the working class prostitute girl made the scene disturbing to the upper-class people. The gaze of the girl's eyes are directly at the viewer, which also added to the uncomfortable feeling because it suggests they are the ones who entered into the room. The intentional lack of detail in her hands emphasizes the inability to use her hands, which in turn emphasizes her status as a slave to prostitution. This, combined with her gaze, accuses the viewer of being a part of the economy of slavery. It is also significant because Manet uses light to comment on the culture in Paris. By making the lighting clearly artificial, it says that love and beauty as it was in Paris at the time was also artificial. *a naked women would have traditionally be a nymph or venus >> she's not ashamed of her nakedness and she's looking at us >> probably a prostitute *not completely naked >> necklace>> choker/restraint , shoes>> run away or work uniform *flowers represent the opposite of the of purity (as it normally does)